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Carrots, raw nutrition facts and analysis.

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❤️ Carrots, raw nutrition facts and analysis.

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9.6K views · 267 reactions | Master the Canter Depart for a Balanced, Confident Ride The canter depart sets the tone for a smooth, balanced ride. At the Online Horse Fair, Jack Curtis shares techniques to help you create a confident, rhythmic canter departure that builds trust and harmony from the very first step. ☆ Master timing and feel for a perfect depart
☆ Support your horse’s balance and impulsion
☆ Build a connection that invites forward energy 🎟️ Step into a better canter depart → https://www.becauseofthehorse.net/free-ticket | Art Of The Horseman - Online Horse Fair

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Master the Canter Depart for a Balanced, Confident Ride The canter depart sets the tone for a smooth, balanced ride. At the Online Horse Fair, Jack Curtis shares techniques to help you create a…

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Peppermint, Castor Oil, Cedarwood, Cinnamon https://www.youtube.com/shorts/DFyNUsFu6RI

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Yes, castor oil can be used instead of baby oil (mineral oil) in homemade fly sprays. It acts as an effective, natural carrier oil that helps the repellent stick to the skin or hair, often providing better results due to its natural pest-repelling properties. [1, 2]  

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Yes, castor oil can be used instead of baby oil (mineral oil) in homemade fly sprays. It acts as an effective, natural carrier oil that helps the repellent stick to the skin or hair, often providing better results due to its natural pest-repelling properties. [1, 2]  

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Key Considerations for Using Castor Oil:

• Consistency: Castor oil is thicker and stickier than baby oil, which some users prefer for better adhesion, while others find it too viscous.

• Benefits: It acts as a natural insect repellent and a deep moisturizer, often used with ingredients like witch hazel, citronella, and eucalyptus.

• Application: It is ideal for homemade sprays meant for both humans and horses, particularly to keep bugs off.

• Mixing: When mixing with water, ensure you shake the bottle well before each use, as the oil will rise to the top. [1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]

Sample Recipe Using Castor Oil:

• 1/2 bottle of water

• 1/2 bottle of castor oil

• 20 drops of Citronella oil

• 10 drops each of other desired essential oils (lavender, eucalyptus) [5, 8]

Alternatives to Baby Oil:If you do not want to use baby oil or castor oil, other substitutes include coconut oil, olive oil, or almond oil. [1, 3]

AI responses may include mistakes.

[1] https://www.facebook.com/groups/nzfacamping/posts/1396250595086286/

[2] https://www.chemist-4-u.com/guides/travel/8-natural-insect-repellents-to-try-this-summer/

[3] https://www.facebook.com/61550126917119/posts/homemade-bug-spray-water-witch-hazel-castor-oil-essential-oils-shake-and-spray-b/122321166176004230/

[4] https://www.kindliving.ca/mosquito-and-bug-repellent/

[5] https://musthikemusteat.com/essential-oils-insect-repellent/

[6] https://jindeal.com/castor-oil-for-mosquito-repellent/

[7] https://www.instructables.com/Super-Easy-Insect-Repellent/

[8] https://www.tiktok.com/@barefoot.mimosas/video/7526564281924537614

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2.2K views · 12K reactions | DIY Fly Spray 
• 2 oz Permectrin I| (10% permethrin) 
• 1/2 cup apple cider vinegar 
• 1/2 cup witch hazel 
• 1 tbsp mineral oil or baby oil
• 10 drops citronella
• 10 drops eucalyptus
• 10 drops peppermint
• Fill to 32 oz with water 

Shake well before each use

Ingredients listed in my Amazon
storefront.

Who wants a DIY recipe for Farrier’s Wife Belly Salve? 

#flyspray #horsehack #farmlife #horse | Casey C

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DIY Fly Spray 
• 2 oz Permectrin I| (10% permethrin) 
• 1/2 cup apple cider vinegar 
• 1/2 cup witch hazel 
• 1 tbsp mineral oil or baby oil
• 10 drops citronella
• 10 drops eucalyptus
• 10 drops...

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Be safer on the roads: introduce your horse to traffic with this five-point plan

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Introducing your horse to traffic in a safe, controlled environment is an important part of their education. Find out how to do it

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Ultra Slow Feed Hanging Hay Net for Hourse 56″ | Derby Originals

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The Derby Originals 56″ Ultra Slow Feed Hanging Hay Net is an ideal solution for your horse’s feeding routine. Its durable and spacious design with small openings helps in maintaining.

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6.4K views · 393 reactions | I am an athlete, and I need to respect my body as one 🐎 Our horses get the BEST care, but if I’m not taking care of myself, I won’t MY BEST as a rider for my horse. Nutrition: Food. Water. Electrolytes. Vitamins.
Cross-Training: Strength. Cardio. Stretching.
Recovery: Massage, Chiropractor & Physical Therapy with @renewedpt Mental: Therapy. Church. Journaling. Support System. Reading. Work/Life Balance. We are always looking for ways to get that extra 1% out of our horses without giving 100% to our own health and wellness. What do you do to be a better equestrian between rides? 🐴 #equestrian #athlete #dressage
#horses | Laura Ashley Dressage

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I am an athlete, and I need to respect my body as one 🐎 Our horses get the BEST care, but if I’m not taking care of myself, I won’t MY BEST as a rider for my horse. Nutrition: Food. Water.…

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For Healthy Hips & Lower Back!! #virals #foryourpage | Physical Therapy Session | Facebook

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For Healthy Hips & Lower Back!! #virals #foryourpage.

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13K views · 2.3K reactions | I wish this wasn’t the case.. But unfortunately it is 🤣 Stability, control, strength and mobilization of the hips truly change everything. Not only will you feel a difference in the saddle, your horse will too! 🐴 Ready to finally work on your hips? Our “Hip Strength and Mobility” section in the app has bodyweight, mini band, dumbbell and kettlebell workouts designed for equestrians! Head to the link in my bio now to start your FREE TRIAL ✨ #RIDEFIT | Haybales & Barbells ™ | Fitness for Equestrians

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I wish this wasn’t the case.. But unfortunately it is 🤣 Stability, control, strength and mobilization of the hips truly change everything. Not only will you feel a difference in the saddle, your…

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4.7K views · 262 reactions | Want to move better in just 15 minutes a day?Join my 30-Day Mobility Reset Challenge – starting Labor Day!👉 https://www.solin.stream/alejandromatiasfit/program/4086 | Alejandro Matias

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Want to move better in just 15 minutes a day?Join my 30-Day Mobility Reset Challenge – starting Labor Day!👉 https://www.solin.stream/alejandromatiasfit/program/4086.

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452 reactions · 27 shares | Hip control is everything in riding. 🐎
This drill challenges your glutes + deep hip rotators to work through extension + rotation, while your core keeps you steady. ✅ Better leg independence
✅ Stronger, more stable seat
✅ More control through turns & transitions Try 2–3 sets of 10–12 slow reps/side. Quality > speed.
👉 Save this for your next workout, comment “HIPS” for the full breakdown & tag me when you try it! Coach Nina xxx | Athleteq - Fitness and Health for Equestrian Athletes

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Hip control is everything in riding. 🐎
This drill challenges your glutes + deep hip rotators to work through extension + rotation, while your core keeps you steady. ✅ Better leg independence
✅…

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3.9K views · 267 reactions | Stability is the hidden strength behind every ride 🐴✨ It’s not just about sitting still — it’s about controlling movement under pressure, reacting to your horse’s every stride, and staying balanced no matter what happens underneath you.🤠 Here are two simple but powerful rider drills: 1️⃣ Wall Single-Leg RDL Pendulum Ball Swings
Think of this as training your seat bones, hips, and core to “react, not collapse.” The swinging ball creates unpredictable forces — just like your horse’s jump, spook, or change of rhythm. Your stabilizers fire, your balance sharpens, and your reactions get quicker. 🏇 2️⃣ Standing Single-Leg Band Fire Hydrants
This is your hip armor 🛡️. The glute medius (your hip’s unsung hero) stabilizes your pelvis, giving you:
✔️ A quieter seat
✔️ Better knee tracking & leg position
✔️ More control in turns & transitions The stronger your hips → the steadier your riding → the clearer your communication with your horse.👏 👉 Stability work isn’t “extra.” It’s the foundation for a supple seat, soft hands, and effective riding. Master these and both you and your horse will move with more strength, balance, and confidence. 🐎💪 Which one will you try first? Save these and follow me if you want more training tips for riders! 🙋🏻‍♀️🥰 Coach Nina xxx | Athleteq - Fitness and Health for Equestrian Athletes

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Stability is the hidden strength behind every ride 🐴✨ It’s not just about sitting still — it’s about controlling movement under pressure, reacting to your horse’s every stride, and staying balanced…

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2.4K views · 18 comments | Most riders struggle with alignment and stability – especially diagonally (inside leg to outside rein, anyone?). This exercise challenges you to keep your core rock-solid while moving in a diagonal pattern. Why it works: 💪 Builds shoulder + core stability for steady hands 💪 Trains cross-body coordination – just like riding 💪 Forces you to stay aligned under pressure 👉 Try 2–3 sets of 8–10 controlled reps each side. 🦋 Comment CORE and I’ll send you the full rider-specific breakdown straight to your DMs. Save this! Coach Nina xxx | Athleteq - Fitness and Health for Equestrian Athletes

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Most riders struggle with alignment and stability – especially diagonally (inside leg to outside rein, anyone?). This exercise challenges you to keep your core rock-solid while moving in a diagonal…

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2.2K views · 17 comments | 🔥 Dynamic Plank Flow for Riders 🔥 SAVE THIS ONE! Think planks are just about holding still? Not this one. This flow keeps you up on your toes, hovering your knees, and moving forward–back through strength and control. 👉 Why it matters for riders: Stronger shoulders = steadier hands Dynamic core = better balance in the saddle Hip control = smoother position over your horse 💪 Try 2 x 6-10 reps and feel the difference in your ride. Want the full breakdown + step-by-step coaching tips?
➡️ Comment PLANK below and I’ll send it straight to you! Remember to SAVE and try it! Coach Nina xxx #equestrianfitness | Athleteq - Fitness and Health for Equestrian Athletes

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🔥 Dynamic Plank Flow for Riders 🔥 SAVE THIS ONE! Think planks are just about holding still? Not this one. This flow keeps you up on your toes, hovering your knees, and moving forward–back through…

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14K views · 6 comments | ⏱ Short on time? No problem.
These 3 moves take just minutes but still build rider strength, stability & mobility — right from home. 🐴💪 No fancy gear. No excuses. Just hit play, and get it done.
10-12 reps. One set if that’s the time you have, 2-4 if you have more ⏳💪 Save this for busy days & tell me in the comments which one you’re trying first! 🔥 Coach Nina xxx | Athleteq - Fitness and Health for Equestrian Athletes

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⏱ Short on time? No problem.
These 3 moves take just minutes but still build rider strength, stability & mobility — right from home. 🐴💪 No fancy gear. No excuses. Just hit play, and get it done.…

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6.2M views · 223K reactions | Make a Stealth Fire 🔥 | The Dakota Fire Hole | The Bear Essentials Outdoors Co.

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Make a Stealth Fire 🔥 | The Dakota Fire Hole.

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70K views · 1.3K reactions | Perfect Leads Start with Preparation, Not Luck Getting the perfect lead every time isn’t luck. It comes from clear preparation and timing. At the Online Horse Fair, Jack Curtis explains how setting your horse up before the transition helps make correct leads consistent. When your horse understands balance and you communicate with feel, transitions flow naturally. ☆ Prepare bend, balance, and energy for the lead
☆ Guide with your body without force
☆ Build understanding that leads to smooth transitions 🎟️ Set your horse up for success from the first step → https://www.becauseofthehorse.net/free-ticket | Art Of The Horseman - Online Horse Fair

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Perfect Leads Start with Preparation, Not Luck Getting the perfect lead every time isn’t luck. It comes from clear preparation and timing. At the Online Horse Fair, Jack Curtis explains how setting…

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Backing Up Should Feel Like Sliding a Chair—Smooth and Tension-Free Backing up your horse can feel as smooth as sliding a chair out from the table. No pulling and no tension. At the Online Horse Fair, Jack Curtis explains how guiding your horse backward is about clarity, balance, and lightness from your body, not force from your hands. ☆ Back with feel instead of pressure
☆ Lead the motion using posture and energy
☆ Develop softness, rhythm, and connection in reverse 🎟️ Learn to back up with balance and ease → https://www.becauseofthehorse.net/free-ticket | Art Of The Horseman - Online Horse Fair | Facebook

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Backing Up Should Feel Like Sliding a Chair—Smooth and Tension-Free Backing up your horse can feel as smooth as sliding a chair out from the table. No pulling and no tension. At the Online Horse…

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Horse And Hound Supply - new and used horse tack and supplies

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Traditionally speaking…… Mankind has carried poles on horseback dating way back to the use of spears and lances for hunting and battle. And who can forget the Knights in shining armor, galloping wide open with their jousting poles raised. Through time, civilization demanded more efficient and compact weapons, that were easier to carry on horseback,

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AI tool recognizes serious ocular disease in horses

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Researchers have developed a deep learning tool that is capable of reliably diagnosing moon blindness in horses based on photos.

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14K views · 1.4K reactions | Riding is much harder when your body doesn’t work like it should (We help with that) I hope it serves you! | Jack LaTorre | Facebook

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Riding is much harder when your body doesn’t work like it should (We help with that) I hope it serves you!.

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665 reactions · 27 comments | Wanna give clear leg cues to your horse? Give these a try! Comment “leg cues” to get the full PDF (exercises to help with moving their front end, side passing, and hind end) Cueing a horse to move their hind end can be challenging, especially if you don’t have the leg strength to do so. (And yes, I know many people just use spurs) But freeing them up in the hind end can be so beneficial, especially for speed events such as barrel racing. The more control you have over their body, the better. So practice these OFF your horse to nail your cues ON your horse. #solidinthesaddle #horse #stronginthesaddle #horses #barrelhorse #barrelracer #horsebackrider #horsemanship #reining | Solid in the Saddle

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Wanna give clear leg cues to your horse? Give these a try! Comment “leg cues” to get the full PDF (exercises to help with moving their front end, side passing, and hind end) Cueing a horse to…

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Draft Horse Group | For anyone hauling drafts in the southern heat, a friend of mine suggested this and it absolutely worked beautifully | Facebook

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For anyone hauling drafts in the southern heat, a friend of mine suggested this and it absolutely worked beautifully. Battery powered misting fan with some ice water. 5 gallons lasted me 3 hours and...

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8.3K views · 369 reactions | Internal rotation is something that most riders struggle with (quite a bit) , and this helped me a TON Note: if it hurts your knee, this is too hard of a variation for you right now :) I hope it serves you! | Jack LaTorre

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Internal rotation is something that most riders struggle with (quite a bit) , and this helped me a TON Note: if it hurts your knee, this is too hard of a variation for you right now :) I hope it…

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7.9K views · 187 reactions | In this lesson, Jack Curtis shows us how to use our torso and focus to influence our horse’s movement during turns. He suggests thinking of a headlight on your sternum, and as you turn, shine that light in the direction you want to go. The beauty of this technique is that when you relax your shoulders, your hands naturally follow the movement of your torso. This allows for a smoother, more subtle communication with your horse. Jack demonstrates that when riding two-handed, if you look to the left and shine your headlight, your horse will naturally round off and make the turn. Many riders tend to twist their bodies, overcompensating and causing their horse to fall out of alignment. By avoiding this twist and staying aligned with your body, you’ll keep your horse balanced and in tune with you. As Jack shows, when you ride with calm, flowing movements, you create a rhythm where your horse’s head bobs up and down, side to side, in harmony with your motion. This gentle nodding indicates that the horse is moving freely and fluidly with you. For more training like this, get your Free Ticket to the Online Horse Fair today! 🎟️ → https://www.becauseofthehorse.net/free-ticket ✨ How do you use your torso to guide your horse’s turns? Share your experience below! 🐴 | Art Of The Horseman - Online Horse Fair

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In this lesson, Jack Curtis shows us how to use our torso and focus to influence our horse’s movement during turns. He suggests thinking of a headlight on your sternum, and as you turn, shine that…

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"These “event lines” tell us something.
The writing is on the wall.
Just zoom in.

I’ve been growing “event lines” out of foundered hooves for 20 years, just by consistent corrective trimming.

Once growth/wear equilibrium is restored and maintained, the “event lines” never come back.

This hoof is an example of practitioner caused distortion. This horse was on a regular trim schedule with a farrier under vet supervision. She has a current rehab album in Hoof Builders."

(https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=1372837694848242&set=a.392490246216330)

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Log into Facebook to start sharing and connecting with your friends, family, and people you know.

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Basically: Body awareness = feel Feel is improved by more motor neuron recruitment. Strength training increases motor neuron recruitment. Going slow helps YOU feel it Pressing into the ground/a wall, etc, helps force your body to use the right muscles (if you have any compensations that would make it harder) I hope it serves you! | Jack LaTorre | Facebook

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Basically: Body awareness = feel Feel is improved by more motor neuron recruitment. Strength training increases motor neuron recruitment. Going slow helps YOU feel it Pressing into the…

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Confidence loading🔄 🤠🐴 #horse #horsecamping #camping #wec #florida #equestrianlife #funnyvideos #trailriding #ocala #horsesofflorida #horses #horseoftheday | Black Horse Resort Ranch | Facebook

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Confidence loading🔄 🤠🐴 #horse #horsecamping #camping #wec #florida #equestrianlife #funnyvideos #trailriding #ocala #horsesofflorida #horses #horseoftheday.

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COLUMBUS, Ohio ( WCMH) - Children with speech and language difficulties worked with horses in a first-ever pilot camp using evidence-based equine therapy.

Some may not realize the impact that horses have on those with speech delays and difficulties, but speech language pathologists running the camp said attendees showed a huge boost in confidence and ability in a few days.

The camp is a pilot program with speech language pathologists from local schools, graduate students from Ohio State University's Speech and Hearing Department, and Benson Oaks Farm.

"Some of the kids barely spoke and would not come near the horse on Monday, and now they're all ready to walk the horse and groom it and yell - we have a lot of yelling now and we're playing games and things, so we've seen big improvements," Jackie Soler, a speech pathologist at the camp, said.

The campers range from 5-10 years old and live with a range of difficulties and disabilities. Camp leaders said the children use the horses for comfort, motivation and tactile sensation, which all help with speech.

"If they need to get their tongue back, we can, like, put our hand up towards the tail so they see, like, 'My tongue goes back, my hand goes back' for those, like, 'ach,' 'ick' or 'er' sounds, where your tongue has to be in the back," speech pathologist Christina Mneimne said.

Karen Carver founded the camp and as a speech language pathologist herself, she realized that equine therapy could be helpful to children with speech challenges. She said the camp proved her theory.

"They are really excited about it and those horses are so intuitive and they seem to relate to the children as their own being, and it's quite something," Carver said. "The children are very attached."

Dr. Sarah Leopold is a research scientist at Ohio State's speech department, but she is also a mother to a five-year-old with a motor speech disorder. Her son does not like typical speech therapy, but he loved doing speech therapy with horses at camp.

"I think the biggest thing that I've been seeing is a huge boost in his confidence," Leopold said. "The fact that he's here with a bunch of kids who, you know, are similar to him, and then he's around people who understand him and are patient with him and getting to be outside. You know, it's made a huge difference."

Everyone involved in the camp said it's been a major success for all the children.

While the camp was a pilot program, the goal is to expand it into a full-fledged speech and language clinic at Benson Oaks Farm.

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How horses are helping children overcome speech, language disorders

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COLUMBUS, Ohio (WCMH) - Children with speech and language difficulties worked with horses in a first-ever pilot camp using evidence-based equine therapy. Some may not realize the impact that horses have on those with speech delays and difficulties, but speech language pathologists running the camp said attendees showed a huge boost in confidence and ability [...]

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1.6K reactions · 151 comments | Hoof balance is your top priority for a navicular case. Tape can help with pain relief to help them return to a heel first landing. #sozoequine #equinekinesiologytape #equinekinesiologytaping #kinesiologytape #navicular | Sozo Equine, LLC

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Hoof balance is your top priority for a navicular case. Tape can help with pain relief to help them return to a heel first landing. #sozoequine #equinekinesiologytape #equinekinesiologytaping…

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536K reactions · 49K shares | Maria Josenita Silva on Reels | Facebook

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Great! Let's build a compassionate and practical Care Protocol & Intake Checklist tailored for evaluating and supporting chronic EGS horses in sanctuary settings. This could serve as both a decision-making tool and a daily care guide.

📝 Intake Evaluation Checklist for Chronic EGS

1. Initial Assessment

Factor Criteria Notes Diagnosis Confirmed? Vet-verified chronic EGS (not acute/subacute) Rule out other neuro or GI disorders Eating & Swallowing Able to eat and drink voluntarily without choking Test with small, soft feeds Colic History No recent or recurrent severe episodes Mild colic manageable with meds = OK Demeanor Alert, responsive, interacts with surroundings Look for curiosity or social interest Weight Loss Not cachexic; fair potential for recovery Track weight weekly

2. Eligibility for Recovery Support

✅ If all above are positive
⚠️ If 1–2 concerns (e.g., mild dysphagia, early-stage weight loss)
⛔ If severe colic, total dysphagia, or non-responsive demeanor

❤️ Daily Recovery Protocol

1. Nutrition Plan

Feed type: Soft mashes (e.g., soaked alfalfa pellets, beet pulp) and oil-enriched feeds

Frequency: 6–8 small meals/day

Supplements: Vitamin E, omega-3s (flax or fish oil), GI-supportive probiotics

Monitor: Water intake, nasal reflux, food droppage

2. Medical & Monitoring Routine

Check vital signs (T, P, R) at least twice daily

Palpate for gut movement and check fecal output

Use prokinetics (as prescribed) and monitor response

Document any signs of ptosis, sweating, tremors, behavior shifts

3. Emotional & Environmental Support

Provide gentle companionship (quiet herd mate or therapy buddy)

Enrich the environment with:

Calm music

Natural scents (lavender, chamomile)

Grooming sessions

Access to soft bedding and frequent turnout

4. Weekly Review

Assess:

Body condition score (BCS)

Weight gain/loss

Behavior and appetite consistency

Adjust feeding plan and medication in consultation with your vet

📈 Success Markers & Milestones

Milestone Timeframe Outcome Engaging with feed 1–2 weeks Positive indicator of GI recovery Weight stabilization 2–4 weeks Suggests functional absorption Return of gut sounds Within 10 days Responding to motility support Improved coat & energy 6–8 weeks Visible systemic recovery Back to light activity 3–6 months Possible if strength and gut function improve

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Causes

A recent breakthrough in research has identified a potential neurotoxic enzyme as a possible cause ². This enzyme disrupts the microscopic sites of communication between nerves and muscles which are vital for normal muscle function.

EGS is a very complex disease that affects the digestive system causing paralysis of the gut ³. This causes fluid to build up in the stomach and small intestine, blockages in the large intestine, and dehydration.

There are thought to be several possible contributing factors including heritability ⁴, weather conditions (such as cool, dry weather with irregular frosts), soil disturbance, pathogens and fungi related to soil and plants, age, immune system, nutrition, gut microbes, and stress levels in the horse. This would explain why one horse grazing in a particular field may die from EGS, while their companion can remain completely unaffected. EGS cases can occur at any time of the year but has been found to be most common between April-June ¹. Great Britain has the highest number of EGS cases compared ¹ to other countries in the world, with higher occurrences nearer the east coast compared to the west, particularly in Scotland. EGS can affect any age of horse but is most common in young adult horses between 2-7 years old ¹

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Equine Grass Sickness: Signs & Treatment | The British Horse Society

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Equine Grass Sickness (EGS) is a debilitating and frequently fatal disease, affecting grazing horses, ponies and donkeys. Find out more here.

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5.5K reactions · 172 shares | Your horse could lay down with the first step only or it might take them all. The key is to take your time for every step, be calm, do breathing exercises while practicing all lf this to create a relaxing moment. Add a verbal cue so your horse can associate it with laying down. It can take a lot of time for your horse to do it on demand every time you ask him to. Even now my horse sometimes don’t feel like it and I respect that. Every horse are different so take the pressure of and it’ll end up paying off. Make him trust you🤎 And most important, don’t try to make all the steps in one day. | Felicia Gagnon

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Your horse could lay down with the first step only or it might take them all. The key is to take your time for every step, be calm, do breathing exercises while practicing all lf this to create a…

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8.9K reactions · 71 comments | DIY Posal (Poor Man’s Bosal)
Step 1: Gather Your Supplies • Old rope • Measuring tape • Electrical or duct tape • Paracord • Lighter
Step 2: Measure and Mark the Rope • Mark one end of the rope with tape • Measure 25½ inches from that mark and tape again • This gives you a bosal size of 10½ inches
Step 3: Secure and Trim • Fold the rope so the two taped ends meet evenly • Tape just above the junction to keep it tight • From the taped end, measure 8 inches down and cut off any excess
Step 4: Prepare for the Heel Knot • Unravel the cut ends to create four separate strands • Tie one Turk’s Head knot, then another on top of it for the heel knot • Use a lighter to melt and fuse the ends back into the knot • Burn any frayed edges around the knot or bosal
Step 5: Make the Nose Button and Hanger • Cut a length of paracord • Start in the middle and begin tying overhand knots—top and bottom • Continue until you have 20 knots on the top and 20 on the bottom • Tie a square knot, then finish with a half hitch
Step 6: Final Ties • On the left side, tie a honda knot • On the opposite side, bring it around and tie a simple halter knot #cowboy #cowboys #western #bosal #halter #horse #tack #horses #cowboydiy #diy #cowboylife #westernlifestyle #wyoming | Startup Cowboy

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DIY Posal (Poor Man’s Bosal)
Step 1: Gather Your Supplies • Old rope • Measuring tape • Electrical or duct tape • Paracord • Lighter
Step 2: Measure and Mark the…

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Here’s an easy (and uncommon!) place to massage your horse that they’ll appreciate! Helping your horse feel their best doesn’t have to be hard. If you want to learn more simple equine massage techniques - specifically myofascial release - I’m running a Memorial Day Sale on my bestselling intro level courses that have helped THOUSNDS of horses across the world! From now until midnight on May 26th, you can sign up for Easy Equine Massage and get Back In Balance for FREE! Comment EASY to get all the information! | Freely Forward Bodywork | Facebook

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Here’s an easy (and uncommon!) place to massage your horse that they’ll appreciate! Helping your horse feel their best doesn’t have to be hard. If you want to learn more simple equine massage…

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37K views · 820 reactions | 𝑀𝒪𝒱𝐸 𝒯𝐻𝒪𝒮𝐸 𝐻𝐼𝒫𝒮! Try this exercise on the ground, and then on your horse at walk. (Trot and canter feel a little different, but there is still a... | By Rudy Horsemanship | Facebook

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𝑀𝒪𝒱𝐸 𝒯𝐻𝒪𝒮𝐸 𝐻𝐼𝒫𝒮! Try this exercise on the ground, and then on your horse at walk. (Trot and canter feel a little different, but there is still a...

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Headstall adjustment | By Eddie Landers-Horses | Facebook

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COLLECTION EXPLAINED! How and Why we Collect our Horses

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Escalera para caballos altos. Inventos equinos. | Juan David Jaramillo Experiencias Equinas | Facebook

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Escalera para caballos altos. Inventos equinos…

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764K views · 1.8K comments | Cuts n sores | By Eddie Landers-Horses | Facebook

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Ohioline.osu.edu: Teff for forage production

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Teff Hay for Horses - Benefits and Feeding Tips

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Teff hay for horses has a low NSC value and can hepp horse lose weight and lower the risk of laminitis and other metabolic disorder risks.

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Regulating Horse Sugar Intake on Pasture | Low Sugar Grasses

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While dairy producers look for feed with the highest energy and protein, seek out feed of a lower quality. Intake has to be carefully managed for maintenance.

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Wide Barrel Racer Western Saddle Pad 32″W x 28″L

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Shop Western Tack, Double Diamond Halters, 5 Star Saddle Pads, and Horsemanship Flags available at Bitterroot Saddle Company! Free shipping to Continental US. Click to get started today.

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When it comes to connecting with horses, energy is everything. Unlike humans, horses thrive on subtle, nonverbal communication. I feel one of the most powerful ways to build trust with them is to turn your energy away while approaching, inviting them to make the first move. Here’s why this matters: 🌿 Respects Their Space: Turning away shows them you’re not a threat.
🌾 Encourages Curiosity: By softening your presence, you spark their natural curiosity, giving them the confidence to reach out and touch you.
💫 Fosters Mutual Respect: It’s a way of saying, “I see you, and I respect your boundaries,” which lays the foundation for a deeper bond.
🌙 Strengthens Connection: When a horse chooses to engage with you, it’s genuine, rooted in trust, not fear or pressure. Sonny is still new to us and we are still learning about who he is and what his opinions are. In this video while he was laying down I walked backwards and knelt down next to him while he was laying down (which is a very vulnerable position for a horse). I extended my hand to him while my energy was turned away and he reached out almost immediately to invite me in. I said hello, wiped his hair out of his eyes and cleaned his eye crusty’s and then backed away and just sat with him. Whether it’s day one or years later, allowing them to invite me into their space is a must. This simple act of waiting is a reminder to slow down, be present, and let the horse guide the relationship. Sometimes, the most profound connections happen on their terms, not ours. #horsesarehealers #equineconnection #buildingtrust #respect #livelucky #horsemanship | ʊ 𝗣𝗲𝗿𝗺𝗮𝗻𝗲𝗻𝘁 𝗘𝗾𝘂𝗶𝗻𝗲 𝗦𝗮𝗻𝗰𝘁𝘂𝗮𝗿𝘆 ʊ e⃨s⃨t⃨.⃨ 2⃨0⃨2⃨1⃨ | Facebook

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When it comes to connecting with horses, energy is everything. Unlike humans, horses thrive on subtle, nonverbal communication. I feel one of the most powerful ways to build trust with them is to…

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How to perform the Wither Rock exercise with your horse

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Dietary protein supplying amino acids is a necessary component of the horse's diet. Proteins are required for a multitude of key bodily functions. These include major components of muscle, enzymes, hormonal roles, the immune system, and transport of nutrients across membranes and in blood. Protein assists in tissue repair and growth, hence the amount of protein required in growing, pregnant, lactating or heavy exercising horses is increased. Proteins are made from various combinations of amino acids, and consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and some Sulphur atoms. In horse feeds, protein is expressed as crude protein (CP) because it is an indirect or 'crude' estimation of that feed's protein content. Digestible protein (DP) would be more ideal to describe a particular feed, but there is insufficient research data for DP values for horses. Typically, DP varies from ~40 to 80% of CP.

Amino acids are either dispensable (nonessential) where they can be produced by the horse in its body tissue or indispensable (essential) where the horse can't synthesize them in quantities to meet the horse's requirement. Essential amino acids (EAA) must be provided in the diet. Requirements for all of the EAA have not been established for the horse. High quality protein feedstuffs are those which contain high amounts and proportions of the EAA. The best indicators listed on commercial feed tags are the EAA lysine, methionine and threonine. Only lysine is routinely listed.

The horse consumes a variety of ingredients from roughage to grains that each have varying levels of protein quantity and quality. Table 1 lists the protein, lysine, methionine and threonine content in common feedstuffs for horses. High quality protein includes legumes, young grass pastures, soybean meal, canola meal, and linseed meal. Soybean meal is rated the highest quality due to the amino acid profile being superior to most other plant products. Moderate to low quality protein include cereal grains. Grain by-products often contain moderate or low-quality protein, even though they may be relatively high in crude protein.

Table 1. Crude protein, lysine, threonine and methionine content of common feeds fed to horses1

¹ Percentages are given on a 100% dry matter basis.

In order to provide adequate dietary protein, it is important to understand dietary sources of protein available to the horse and the protein and amino acid requirements for horses. The Nutrient Requirements of the Horse (2007) lists protein requirements as a % of dry matter intake (DM) or on a weight basis as grams of crude protein. The concentration in the feedstuff (% CP) multiplied by the weight of that feedstuff fed will give the absolute weight of CP supplied.

Example, a 1,200-pound pregnant mare (late gestation) may need the total ration to supply 2.0 pounds of protein per day to meet her needs (Table 2). The percentage crude protein is the portion of the total weight of the feed that is crude protein. To determine the amount of crude protein supplied in a given amount of feed, multiply pounds of feed by percent crude protein. For example 15 lbs. of an alfalfa-grass mix that is 18% CP supplies 2.7 lbs. of CP (15 lbs. X 18% CP = 2.7 lbs. of CP).

Most horse's requirements are met by feeding pasture and/or hay. Commercial feeds and/or protein supplements are added when the requirements are higher than what the roughage provides. As shown in Table 2, the mature, idle horse has a low dietary crude protein requirement of 8.5%. Adult working horses require a level of 12% C.P. To meet increased energy requirements for performance horses feed intake is increased resulting in a greater protein intake. This usually satisfies the increased protein needs of the horse. The protein requirements for non-lactating mares during breeding and early gestation are identical to the requirements of a horse at maintenance. Minimum levels of 14-16% are better for growth, reproduction and lactation.

During growth both the amount and quality of protein are very important. Growing horses should receive a diet that is high in good quality protein. In fact, the lysine level is more critical than the protein content for a young, growing horse. The diet for growing horses should provide at least 0.65% lysine and 0.5% threonine on a dry matter basis. As the growing horse matures, the lysine requirement decreases to 0.45 percent for a yearling. Soybean meal, milk protein and alfalfa are feed ingredients high in lysine. Grains and grasses are typically low in lysine.

Table 2. Crude Protein and Lysine Requirements for various classes of horses.

A protein deficiency is rare in equine diets. If a dietary protein deficiency occurs it is usually in horses consuming mature grasses or poorly digestible or heat damaged proteins. Signs would include general non-thriftiness, decreased feed intake, weight loss and poor hoof and hair coat quality. Inadequate muscle mass over the horse's back and rump. visible withers and hip bones might also indicate that better quality protein is required. In growing horses, a deficit of an EAA can lead to lower average daily gain rates. In lactating mares an amino acid deficit can lead to reduced milk production, increased weight loss, and reduced rates of foal growth. Athletic horses also require enough essential amino acids to maintain their increased muscle mass or replace nitrogen losses in sweat.

Excessive protein intake is more often observed when high amounts of protein-rich feedstuffs such as alfalfa or protein supplements are included in the diet. If excess protein is consumed, the nitrogen component must be removed via urea in urine. Excess production of urea causes the horse to drink more water and urinating more to rid the body of the extra urea. This causes more ammonia which can be noticed in poorly ventilated stables. In performance horses where water and electrolyte retention is essential, high protein diets should be avoided. The excess drinking and urinating can lead to elevated water and electrolyte losses from the body.

1. Urshel, K.L. and Lawrence, Laurie M. (2013) Amino Acids and Protein. In: Geor, R., Harris, P., Coenen, M., eds., (2013) Equine Applied and Clinical Nutrition. Saunders Elsevier.

2. Nutrient Requirements of the Horse. 6th Revised Edition. 2007 National Research Council. The National Academies Press. Washington, DC.

By Peggy Auwerda
Equine Extension and Outreach Specialist

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Dietary protein supplying amino acids is a necessary component of the horse's diet. Proteins are required for a multitude of key bodily functions. These include major components of muscle, enzymes, hormonal roles, the immune system, and transport of nutrients across membranes and in blood.

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Basic Horse Anatomy: Part 1 - The Open Sanctuary Project

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Learn the basics of horse anatomy and improve communications with your veterinarian!

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12K views · 40K reactions | If you're looking to improve your flexibility and haven't found the right routine yet, If stiffness is making your yoga practice difficult. You can access my carefully selected stretches tailored for your flexibility routine => Link in my BIO @best_tips_yoga Thanks for sharing @Cameliaoberoi_wellness Nothings feels as good as relieving the tightness and tension in the hips. Do this flow continuously 6-8 times. Your hips will thank you 💕 #yogatutorials #yogagoal #yogahomepractice #yogadailypose #yogahappy #yogaguide #yogamoves #yogateaching #yogaposestoday #yogaeducation #yogabeauty #yogalifestyles #yogaeverday #yogahealth #yogatipsforbeginners #yogamood #yogapratice #yogaworks #yogalovers❤️ #yogatrainer #yogamorning #yogaworkout #yogaroutine #yogadayeveryday #yogalifetips #yogaexercises #yogatip | Best Tips Yoga

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If you're looking to improve your flexibility and haven't found the right routine yet, If stiffness is making your yoga practice difficult. You can access my carefully selected stretches tailored for...

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10K views · 11K reactions | Would you give this hip flow a try? ✨️
@yogiissy Some good flow before Muay Thai session. It has been a while🔥 We got some more flow and exercises that I got the inspiration from ‘Wai Kru’ which is a Muay Thai dance as a warm up and how they pay the respect to the teachers. Coming soon❤️
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#mobilitytraining #hipmobility #mobility #mobilityexercises #muaythai | Mobility For Girls

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Would you give this hip flow a try? ✨️
@yogiissy Some good flow before Muay Thai session. It has been a while🔥 We got some more flow and exercises that I got the inspiration from ‘Wai Kru’ which is…

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129K views · 2.2K reactions | Easy To Remember Rope Coiling ideas. #coilrope #slippedhitch #truckerhitches #stringlinehitch #endropeconnection #woodbundlehitch #ropeladderknot #lashingknot #knotdiy #cowhitch #ropetip | Millie

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Easy To Remember Rope Coiling ideas. #coilrope #slippedhitch #truckerhitches #stringlinehitch #endropeconnection #woodbundlehitch #ropeladderknot #lashingknot #knotdiy #cowhitch #ropetip.

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Don’t forget to follow us on our new page @homequicktips for more unique ideas! 💕
#tips #trick #hometips #diy #LifeHacks #SmartDIY #EasyDIY #HomeHacks | thehacktips | Facebook

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Don’t forget to follow us on our new page @homequicktips for more unique ideas! 💕
#tips #trick #hometips #diy #LifeHacks #SmartDIY #EasyDIY #HomeHacks.

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Prebiotics may not be helpful for horses

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Prebiotics may not be helpful for horses

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"However, the bacterial diversity of the entire digestive tract did increase, which probably also produces the desired protective effect. "Still, the prebiotics are probably more harmful than beneficial when used in their present form," Zeyner surmises. Instead, the substances must be treated so that they arrive in the large intestine in one dose in order to have a positive effect on the intestinal bacteria living there without stimulating overactivity."

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Prebiotics are only able to help stabilise the intestinal flora of horses to a limited degree. Before they can reach the intestines, commercially available supplements partially break down in the animals' stomachs, which can lead to inflammation of the stomach lining. This was discovered by researchers at Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg (MLU) and the University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover (TiHo). The team therefore suggests preparing prebiotic food supplements so that they don't take effect until they reach the large intestine. The study appeared recently in the journal PLOS ONE.

Prebiotics are often added to horse feed in order to stabilise the horse's health. They are indigestible fibres that can stimulate the growth and activity of certain beneficial bacteria in the large intestine. "Horses have a relatively small, non-diverse core microbiome and are therefore very susceptible to digestive disorders," explains Professor Annette Zeyner, head of the animal nutrition group at MLU. However, according to the scientist, insufficient research has been conducted on whether the use of prebiotics actually does produce the desired effects. Her research group explored this question in partnership with Professor Gerhard Breves' lab from TiHo.

For the study, the team investigated the effect of feeding Jerusalem artichoke meal (JAM) on horses. This is a typical prebiotic for horses. In addition to their normal feed, six animals received JAM containing high amounts of certain carbohydrates, so-called fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS) and also inulin. Another group of six horses received a placebo with their normal feed. The researchers then analysed the balance of bacteria in the digestive tract of the animals of both groups. It was discovered that the prebiotics were already being fermented in the stomach by the microorganisms naturally living there -- i.e. they were taking effect much too early. "The fermentation process leads to the formation of organic acids that -- unlike in the large intestine -- can damage the mucous membrane of the horse's stomach," says Maren Glatter, a member of Zeyner's group and lead author of the study.

However, the bacterial diversity of the entire digestive tract did increase, which probably also produces the desired protective effect. "Still, the prebiotics are probably more harmful than beneficial when used in their present form," Zeyner surmises. Instead, the substances must be treated so that they arrive in the large intestine in one dose in order to have a positive effect on the intestinal bacteria living there without stimulating overactivity.

Journal Reference:

M. Glatter, K. Borewicz, B. van den Bogert, M. Wensch-Dorendorf, M. Bochnia, J. M. Greef, M. Bachmann, H. Smidt, G. Breves, A. Zeyner. Modification of the equine gastrointestinal microbiota by Jerusalem artichoke meal supplementation. PLOS ONE, 2019; 14 (8): e0220553 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0220553

Cite This Page:

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horses; veterinary medicine; bacteria; new species; animals; microbiology; food; extreme survival

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Horse nutrition: Prebiotics may do more harm than good

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Prebiotics are only able to help stabilize the intestinal flora of horses to a limited degree. Before they can reach the intestines, commercially available supplements partially break down in the animals' stomachs, which can lead to inflammation of the stomach lining.

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March 1, 2018

The American Horse Council Foundation (AHCF) is pleased to announce the results of its anticipated 2017 Economic Impact Study of the U.S. Horse Industry. The AHCF would like to thank The Innovation Group for their work on this important study.
The equine industry in the U.S. generates approximately $122 billion in total economic impact, an increase from $102 billion in the 2005 Economic Impact Study. The industry also provides a total employment impact of 1.74 million, and generates $79 billion in total salaries, wages, and benefits. The current number of horses in the United States stands at 7.2 million. Texas, California, and Florida continue to be the top three states with the highest population of horses.
"Those involved in the equine industry already know how important it is to the U.S. economy. Having these updated numbers is critical not only to the AHC's efforts up on Capitol Hill, but also for the industry to demonstrate to the general public how much of a role the equine has in American households," said AHC President Julie Broadway. "While the number of horses in the US has decreased, this was not entirely unexpected due to the decline in breed registration trends over the last few years."

Another bright spot for the industry: 38 million, or 30.5%, of U.S. households contain a horse enthusiast, and 38% of participants are under the age of 18. Additionally, approximately 80 million acres of land is reserved for horse-related activities.

"For this update of the study we wanted to get a better picture of the number of youth in the pipeline, which is a number that we have not previously included in our economic impact studies. Additionally, being able to put a number of the amount of land use for equine-related activities is essential to ensuring that we are able to continue to protect and preserve that land for its intended use," said Ms. Broadway.

The National Economic Impact Study is available for purchase through the AHC website here: http://www.horsecouncil.org/horsecouncil-publications/. Additionally, the 15 state breakouts will be available for purchase by the beginning of April. If you have any questions, please contact the AHC at info@horsecouncil.org.

Februry 18, 1028, Written by Kim McCarrel, OET VP Public Lands
Equestrians have always sensed that we have a significant economic impact, but we couldn't prove it. Now, for the first time ever, the US Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) is measuring the economic impact of equestrian activities as part of its analysis of outdoor recreation.

The BEA has just released the preliminary findings from its comprehensive analysis of the outdoor economy. It found that outdoor recreation accounted for $373.7 billion in 2016, growing by 3.8% compared to the 2.8% growth in the overall economy. This means that outdoor recreation accounted for more than 2% of the total economy in 2016-on par with the total economic impact of all restaurants and bars nationwide. The biggest economic driver in the recreation sector, not surprisingly, is motorized vehicles, at $59.4 billion in 2016. RV's accounted for more than half of this value, and motorcycles were $11.3 billion. The boating and fishing category came next, with an economic impact of $38.2 billion.

In 2016, equestrian activities accounted for $12.7 billion. This compares with just $3.3 billion for bicycling, $9.3 billion for hunting, and $7.9 billion for camping/climbing/hiking. Before we get too excited by these numbers, it's important to note that outdoor equestrian activities besides trail riding are included in the statistic above. Nonetheless, this is the first time that the government has measured the economic impact of equestrian activities, and it's nice to see how we compare with other parts of the outdoor industry.

Outdoor recreation has always been included in the U.S. GDP measures, of course, but the numbers didn't allow you to identify the impact of outdoor recreation by itself. For example, in the conventional GDP numbers, RV sales were included in total motor vehicle sales, and RV manufacturing was included in other transportation equipment. The new BEA study slices and dices the general GDP figures so the impact of outdoor recreation can be identified on a stand-alone basis. Unfortunately, BEA's preliminary numbers don't identify what activities besides trail riding are included in the equestrian figures. When the finalized numbers are released in September, hopefully we'll be able to get a more complete picture of what is included in the $12.7 billion equestrian activities statistic.

In the meantime, it's nice to know that, at last, someone is quantifying the impact of equestrian activity on the economy. And it's interesting to see how we stack up relative to other types of outdoor recreation.

You can find more information about the BEA economic analysis at https://www.bea.gov/outdoor-recreation/.

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March 1, 2018 The American Horse Council Foundation (AHCF) is pleased to announce the results of its anticipated 2017 Economic Impact Study of the U.S. Horse Industry. The AHCF would like to thank The Innovation Group for their work on this important study. The equine industry in the U.S.

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"The industry also employs around 1.74 million people, and is responsible for 7.2 million horses, with Texas, Florida and California having the highest horse populations. Furthermore, 38% of those who take part in the industry are under 18."

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Other interesting facts:

* In the Recreation sector, it was shown that 13 million households participated in trail riding, and 87% of them did so on public land.
* In the Racing sector, around $11 billion was waged in 2016 at Thoroughbred and Quarter Horse racetracks, and $1.45 billion at Harness racetracks.
* In the competition sector, 6,313 competitions were licensed in 2016, employing 1,654 managers to run them.
* 30.5% of American households contain a horse enthusiast.
* 80 million acres of land is dedicated to horse-related activities.

Unlike previous years, this latest report included the contributions made by the Working Horse sector, including horses utilized as part of police units, therapy programmes, carriage operations and lessons. Julie Broadway, the president of the American Horse Council, stated that "traditional working horses remain an important part of the industry, and not just on American ranches. In cities like New York and even here in Washington, DC, it's not uncommon to have horses patrolling the streets, allowing individuals access to horses that they may not have otherwise had."

Ms. Broadway also went on to say this about the benefits of the report: "Those involved in the equine industry already know how important it is to the U.S. economy. Having these updated numbers is critical not only to the AHC's efforts up on Capitol Hill, but also for the industry to demonstrate to the general public how much of a role the equine has in American households."

For more information, or if you want to buy a copy of the National Economic Impact Study, go to the AHC website at http://www.horsecouncil.org/horsecouncil-publications/.

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The 2017 Economic Impact Study of the U.S. Horse Industry

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Other interesting facts: * In the Recreation sector, it was shown that 13 million households participated in trail riding, and 87% of them did so on public land. * In the Racing sector, around $11 billion was waged in 2016 at Thoroughbred and Quarter Horse racetracks, and $1.45 billion at Harness racetracks.

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" The study’s results show that the industry directly produces goods and services of $38.8 billion and has a total impact of $101.5 billion on U.S. GDP. "

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By Jochen Schleese, CMS, CSFT, CSE

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The Anatomy of Saddle-Fit By Joanna Robson, DVM, CVSMT, CMP, CVA, SFT

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The Anatomy of Saddle-Fit By Joanna Robson, DVM, CVSMT, CMP, CVA, SFT

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Before and After: Fitting the Shoulder & Wither

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Before and After: Fitting the Shoulder & Wither

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Before and After: Fitting the Shoulder & Wither

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How a saddle fits in the shoulder area of a horse can dramatically change their way of going. Our very last horse of the day in Alabama was a great example of that and we decided to share it here!

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"I have seen barns that are overflowing with boundary violations of all types, and each one hurts and chips away at the foundation of our relationships. Emotional or Relational Boundaries are the limit that defines us as separate
from someone else (Katherine, A. 1991 Boundaries)."

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Relationship issues are universal. As a clinical counsellor who works with people from all walks of life, including equestrians, I frequently see individuals struggling in their connection with others. For equestrians, this could be with a barn mate, a trainer or an owner. Regardless, the one thing that barn drama, toxic workplaces and dysfunctional families all have in common is they are filled with personal boundary violations.

I have seen barns that are overflowing with boundary violations of all types, and each one hurts and chips away at the foundation of our relationships. Emotional or Relational Boundaries are the limit that defines us as separate
from someone else (Katherine, A. 1991 Boundaries). Boundaries can be physical, relational or emotional depending on the context. They are the guidelines that a person creates to interact with others in the world in ways that feel emotionally comfortable for them. Boundaries keep us safe and healthy in our relationships. They are not about trying to change other people. They are our emotional bottom line.

For example, going into someone's tack box without their permission is a physical boundary violation. Making a barn mate feel guilty for not agreeing to ride your horse while you go on vacation is an example of a relational boundary violation. Being yelled at or subtly put down by your coach is an example of an emotional boundary violation. These violations are all intrusive, where one individual breeches another individual's emotional boundary.

There can also be boundary violations that are mainly "distance" violations. For example, you and your trainer have developed a friendship over the years and you frequently socialize outside of your training. One day you have a minor disagreement and afterward, your trainer stops speaking to you (otherwise known as The Silent Treatment). This is a violation of distance because you had the expectation of a certain amount of intimacy based on the previous relationship. The silent treatment is a particularly brutal form of emotional blackmail, and very damaging to relationships.

As adults we all must learn how to navigate complex relationships with other people in every area of our lives.
In order to do this, we need to be able to define our own boundaries and ask others to respect them. It also means recognizing other people's and not pushing or manipulating them into doing things for us or making comments that are unwelcome or hurtful.

In counselling, I teach clients the acronym FENCES to help them remember how to set good boundaries with others:

F - Forget
Forget about trying to control other people. Setting boundaries is about yourself and your mental health. It is setting a limit on what you will tolerate and deciding what you will do if your boundary is crossed. It is not trying to make someone do something.

Example: Letting your barn mate know that she is not welcome to use your tack when you are gone is a way
to state what behaviour you will tolerate and doesn't try to force her to do something. It says what behaviour
you will accept.

E - Expect
Expect discomfort and anger when you first start setting new limits with others. If you haven't practiced it before, it will feel foreign to you. If others get angry, remember that their anger says more about them than it does you. We all have the right to state how we wish to be treated. Not everyone is going to respect that though. Some people, who have poor boundaries of their own, will get angry when they cannot get what they want from us.

Example: You and your trainer are horse shopping together and you have told her that you have a budget. She continues to push you to try horses that are way out of your price range. You set a boundary by saying "I'm sorry, I just can't afford that. There's no point in trying that one." If your trainer continues to push you, and gets angry, this lets you know she is probably only thinking of her needs at the time. In other words, your trainer has some issues of her own that have nothing to do with you. I frequently tell my clients: Reasonable people accept reasonable boundaries.

N - No
Use the word no and accept the word no. It's simple and straightforward. If someone doesn't accept it, then, typically, they have a hidden agenda and want to control you in some way. Whenever people ignore the word no, they are telling us that our feelings don't matter to them. No should suffice for most reasonable people. Practice listening to other people's nos. Most people find it hard to say no, so if they do, we really need to respect that.

Barn Mate: "You should use a curb bit
on him."

You: "No, he goes just fine in this."

Barn Mate: "Can you ride Fluffy for me this weekend?"

You: "No, sorry. Hope you find someone else."

C - Clear
Be clear and concise when you set a boundary. Use simple language and don't feel like you need to justify or explain your reasons.

Example: "I'm sorry. I am not able to drive you to the tack store." That's all you have to say. No explanation needed.

E - Escape
Escape from relationships with people who continually violate your boundaries. These types of people will not accept
no and will keep pushing for their own agenda. Limit your contact with these types. There are some types of people
in the world who do not understand or respect boundaries. You probably know a few.

Example: You know you have someone in your life like this when you continually feel fear, obligation or guilt (FOG) when you interact with them. Perhaps you've got a barn mate who always pushes you to do things you're not comfortable with - like raising the jumps in the arena while you ride together in a relentless game of one-upmanship, or entering a show you're not ready for.

S - Smile
Be polite and civil at all times. You can tell someone no while remaining calm and pleasant. Being rude or angry isn't going to get your boundaries respected. It will only create nasty barn drama. So be nice. However, if the other person won't take no for an answer, then you'll have to get tougher (not meaner).

Example: No matter how insistent a person may be, all you have to say is "No, thanks. I don't want to attend that show this summer" or "Sorry, I am short on time today and need to get this ride in. Let's chat another time." Smile, shrug and get on your horse!

If you didn't grow up with healthy relationships and you need to learn about setting appropriate relational or emotional boundaries, a qualified therapist can help. Together you can uncover the gaps in your learning and practice better boundary setting with your barn family. You want the barn to be a safe space for you and your horse

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Stable Relationships: How to Set Healthy Boundaries

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Relationship issues are universal. As a clinical counsellor who works with people from all walks of life, including equestrians, I frequently see individuals struggling in their connection with others. For equestrians, this could be with a barn mate, a trainer or an owner.

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Horses can read human facial expressions and remember a person's mood, a study has shown.

The animals respond more positively to people they have previously seen smiling and are wary of those they recall frowning, scientists found.

The findings build on previous research which suggested horses could recognise emotions from reading human faces.

Now, scientists say they have found the animals can not only pick up on a person's mood but have a "memory for emotion" that guides their future interactions with an individual.

"What we've found is that horses can not only read human facial expressions but they can also remember a person's previous emotional state when they meet them later that day - and, crucially, that they adapt their behaviour accordingly," said Karen McComb, a lead author of the study and a professor of animal behaviour at the University of Sussex.

"Essentially horses have a memory for emotion," she added.

The researchers showed 21 domestic horses a photograph of a human model, displaying either an angry or happy face. Several hours later, they were presented with the same person in the flesh sporting an "emotionally neutral" expression.

The earlier short-term exposure to the photograph was enough to generate clear differences in their responses.

Horses which had been presented with a picture of an angry model spent longer viewing them in the flesh with their left eye, which sends information to the right brain hemisphere, where potential threats are processed. Those which had been shown a happy model gazed for longer with their right eye, which is linked to the part of the brain specialised for more positive reactions.

" We know that horses are socially intelligent animals, but this is the first time any mammal has been shown to have this particular ability," said Leanne Proops, co-lead author and a senior lecturer in animal behaviour at the University of Portsmouth.

"What's very striking is that this happened after just briefly viewing a photograph of the person with a particular emotional expression - they did not have a strongly positive or negative experience with the person."

Crucially, the human participants in the study did not know which of their pictures the horses had been shown, avoiding the risk of them giving off subconscious signals.

The researchers said their findings, published in the journal Current Biology, could help people bond with horses and avoid aggressive behaviours.

In 2015, Sussex researchers compiled a "dictionary" of horse facial expressions. They said the animals had a "rich repertoire of complex facial movements", many of which were similar to those of humans.

Last year further research suggested horses could read human body language, even when they did not know the person.

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Horses can read human emotions, study finds

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Horses can read human facial expressions and remember a person's mood, a study has shown. The animals respond more positively to people they have previously seen smiling and are wary of those they recall frowning, scientists found. The findings build on previous research which suggested horses could recognise emotions from reading human faces.

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Technology and College Student Mental Health: Challenges and Opportunities

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Technology and College Student Mental Health: Challenges and Opportunities

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Technology and College Student Mental Health: Challenges and Opportunities

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In recent years, there has been an increase in symptoms of depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and other mental illnesses in college student populations. Simultaneously, there has been a steady rise in the demand for counseling services. These trends…

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College students’ mental health is a growing concern, survey finds

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College students’ mental health is a growing concern, survey finds

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American Psychological Association. (2013, June). College students' mental health is a growing concern, survey finds. Monitor on Psychology, 44(6). http://www.apa.org/monitor/2013/06/college-students

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College students' mental health is a growing concern, survey finds

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American Psychological Association. (2013, June). College students' mental health is a growing concern, survey finds. Monitor on Psychology, 44(6). http://www.apa.org/monitor/2013/06/college-students

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Story at-a-glance -

While many equate horses' flightiness as a sign that they're not very bright, it's important to understand that flight equals life for horses, who must outrun their natural predators of cougars, wolves and bears in order to survive

Horses are the most perceptive of all domestic animals, with an ability to sense slight changes in position in a rider on its back (even a slight turn of the head) and see with virtually 360-degree vision

Horses are faster learners than dogs, cattle, swine and sheep, as being able to decode what's a threat (and what's not) is essential for a prey animal like a horse

Horses are herd animals and easily dominated; the leader of the herd is typically an older mare (female horse), which some believe gains its alpha role not by strength or power, per se, but rather by experience and attitude

By Dr. Karen Shaw Becker

The fact that horses have no visible "weapon," like the horn on a rhino or the claws on a tiger, gives a major clue as to how their minds work. Their primary form of defense is "flight," (verses the "fight" some animals may engage in) and as prey animals they are experts at knowing when to flee and executing this action with lightning quick reflexes.

But it's a mistake to assume that horses are simply a product of their instincts, relying on reflex alone. The fact is, horses are often compared to dogs and cats in terms of intelligence, but it's much like comparing apples to oranges.

Dogs and cats are predators, and as such have developed very different skills and behaviors compared to horses. Understanding the latter, therefore, won't come from expecting a horse to behave or think like a dog, or attempting to draw such comparisons, but from striving to understand why a horse's mind works the way it does.

Equine intelligence researcher Evelyn Hanggi, Ph.D., co-founder of the nonprofit Equine Research Foundation, explained to Horse Talk that horses are more intelligent than many people believe:

"Common beliefs maintain that horses have a brain the size of a walnut; horses do not think; horses are merely conditioned-response animals; horses cannot generalize; horses have no sense of concept; horses are color blind, have poor acuity and depth perception, and cannot transfer information from one eye to another.

In reality, horses manage not only ordinary daily cognitive tasks but mental challenges as well. In the wild, they must cope with food and water of inconsistent quality or unpredictable distribution, predators that change locations and habits, and a social system in which identities and roles of individuals must be discovered and remembered."

How Do Horses Think? Nine Key Insights

Dr. Robert M. Miller is an equine veterinarian and behaviorist who has summed up the way horses think in nine concise points. All of them relate back to the fact that horses are flight animals, and this is key to understanding why they do what they do. As summed up by DVM 360, once you understand Miller's nine points, you'll begin to understand the complex underpinnings behind horse intelligence.

Flightiness Does Not Equal Lack of Intelligence

While many equate horses' (and many prey species') flightiness as a sign that they're not very bright, it's important to understand that flight equals life for horses, who must outrun their natural predators of cougars, wolves and bears in order to survive. Miller told the news outlet:

"I now realize that the horse in its natural environment, the grassy plains, is a highly intelligent animal. As we go through this list, you will see that the horse rates extremely high on some scales, and in several places, it rates higher than any other domestic animal. I am still learning to respect the intelligence of the horse."

Horses' Senses Are Incredible

Because quick response time is a life-or-death matter for horses, they have developed incredibly sensitive senses, from their vision to their nose and tactile awareness. In fact, Miller says they're the most perceptive of all domestic animals, with an ability to sense slight changes in position in a rider on its back (even a slight turn of the head) and see with virtually 360-degree vision.

Because a horse's eyes are set on the sides of its head, it's able to see what's on both sides, but their depth perception suffers as a result. This is why horses hesitate before crossing a stream - until they've learned the route or come to trust their rider.

Horses Learn and Are Desensitized Quickly

Miller believes that horses are faster learners than dogs, cattle, swine and sheep. This is because being able to decode what's a threat and what's not is essential for a prey animal like a horse. They also become desensitized to potential threats quickly once they realize they're not harmful.

Why? Miller told DVM 360, "Because if you're a flight animal and an unfamiliar stimulus - a thing you've never seen before or sound you've never heard before - precipitates flight, if that stimulus was harmless and you didn't quickly desensitize to it, you'd never stop running. There'd be no time to eat, drink, rest or reproduce."

Horses Have the Fastest Response Times of All Domestic Animals

This again helps them to survive in the wild, but is an important point to remember if you spend any time around these majestic animals. "[I]f the horse wants to kick you and you're in an exposed position, you're going to get hurt. We just can't move that fast," Miller says.

This is especially important if you're standing in one of horses' two "blind spots" - directly in front of or in back of them. You should always talk to a horse when approaching these areas so the horse knows you're there and doesn't become frightened.

Horses Have Excellent Memories

Miller says horses never forget, and this includes both good and bad experiences. Their memory skills were likely helpful in one experiment, in which horses were taught to use a touch-screen computer to discriminate between different shapes and sizes.

The 42-inch touch-screen monitors showed horses different sizes or shapes. If the horse chose correctly by touching the appropriate choice with his nose, he was rewarded with a carrot, which was automatically distributed beneath the screen.

The horses learned to use the screen quickly, and were presented with different letter combinations (in which X was always the wrong choice) and shapes of varying sizes. The horses were able to identify shape differences similar to chimpanzees and humans, although the horses had more difficulty with closed shapes like squares, triangles and the letters O and D.

We recently visited a horse, Cimba, my daughter had a close relationship with over seven years ago. We didn't know if he would remember her when we entered the barn, but his response was unmistakable and heartwarming; he was as glad to see her as she was to see him.

Horses Are Easily Dominated

Horses are herd animals and there are leaders and followers within the group. Horses are the most easily dominated among domestic animals, readily accepting leadership from other horses or humans, provided the leader uses the appropriate behaviors. Because horses are herd animals, they shouldn't be pastured alone.

Interestingly, in the wild, the leader of the herd is typically an older mare (female horse), which some believe gains its alpha role not by strength or power, per se, but rather by experience and attitude, according to Carey A. Williams, Ph.D., extension specialist in equine management at Rutgers University. Williams reported:

"The older mare has had more experiences, more close encounters, and survived more threats than any other horse in the herd. The requirement of the lead horse is not strength or size; if this were so, then humans could never dominate a horse. Dominance is established not only through aggression but also through attitudes that let the other horses know she expects to be obeyed."

Horses Have Their Own Body Language

Miller believes it's important to learn horses' bodily signals. A horse with its head down, as it is during grazing, signals submission and trust whereas a horse with its head up suggests it's alert and considering flight. He also advises using non-predatory body positions when approaching a horse, such as avoiding staring at the horse and keeping a relaxed posture.

Controlling a Horse's Feet Leads to Control of Their Mind

If you control a horse's movement, you're in essence controlling the horse, because a horse depends on its feet and ability to flee to survive. Miller explained to DVM 360, "When you are on a call and they bring the horse out, while talking to the owner, first move the horse around in a quiet little circle ... The horse will be thinking, 'This person is controlling where my feet are positioned.' And submission is the response to that."

Horses Hit the Ground Running

As a precocial species, horses are able to stand and run very soon after birth and have full use of their senses. It's during this time, in the first few days after birth, that imprinting is greatest and foals quickly learn to identify what are threats and what aren't.

Understanding Horse Intelligence Can Further the Human-Equine Bond

Compared to intelligence research in other animals, relatively little work has been done on the potentially advanced intelligence of horses and much remains to be discovered. It's recently been revealed, for instance, that horses use subtle signals to ask humans for help when faced with a difficult problem. They're also capable of reading your, and other horses', facial expressions.

According to Hanggi, deciphering equine intelligence is a crucial area of study, as only by fully understanding how horses' minds work can we be sure we're treating these creatures with the humanity they deserve. As she told Horse Talk:

"If the cognitive abilities of horses are misunderstood, underrated, or overrated, their treatment may also be inappropriate. Equine welfare is dependent on not only physical comfort but mental comfort as well.

Confining a thinking animal in a dark, dusty stable with little or no social interaction and no mental stimulation is as harmful as providing inadequate nutrition or using abusive training methods. Therefore, it is in the interest of both horses and humans to understand more fully the scope of equine thinking."

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Equine Intelligence: Nine Insights Into the Way Horses Think

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While many equate horses' flightiness as a sign that they're not very bright, it's important to understand that flight equals life for horses, who must outrun their natural predators of cougars, wolves and bears in order to survive Horses are the most perceptive of all domestic animals, with an ability

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The Principles of Training Season 1 Episode 1: "Make the Wrong Thing Hard and the Right Thing Easy"

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A Study of Traveller Horse Owners’ Attitudes to Horse Care and Welfare Using an Equine Body Condition Scoring System

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A Study of Traveller Horse Owners’ Attitudes to Horse Care and Welfare Using an Equine Body Condition Scoring System

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Abstract

Simple Summary

Irish Travellers are an indigenous ethnic minority group. Horses are an important part of Travellers' lives, with horse ownership considered one of the last links to their nomadic way of life. Travellers keep, breed, and sell horses. Trotting and sulky racing are popular recreational activities. Traveller horses are often viewed as having poor health and welfare by the equine industry and the media although there is little data to support these views. This study aimed to investigate Traveller horse owners' attitudes to horse care and welfare by using in-depth interviews and body condition scoring, a well-known tool used to detect welfare related conditions, to investigate Travellers' understanding of horse welfare. The ease of use and accuracy of the body condition scoring tool as applied by Traveller horse owners was assessed. Results indicate that they had a good understanding of a horse's natural behaviour, which is reflected in their management practices. A major barrier to improved horse welfare cited was land availability. Travellers were found to be able to use the scoring tool easily although further training is recommended. This study provides us with an understanding of how Travellers' manage their horses. Further research is recommended with a larger sample group.

Abstract

Traveller horses are often perceived to be exposed to poor welfare due to Travellers' traditional way of horsemanship. However, few studies have investigated Traveller horse welfare. Hence, the present study aims to explore Traveller horse owners' attitudes to horse care and welfare. Semi-structured interviews and discussion groups examined 14 Irish Traveller horse owners' attitudes and approach to horse ownership. Additionally, a body condition scoring (BCS) instrument was assessed for its accuracy and ease of use when applied by Traveller horse owners. Additionally, the BCS system was used to assess 18 horses. Results show that Travellers have a good understanding of horses' natural behaviours and environment, which is reflected in their management practices. However, barriers to improved welfare are land availability, since landowners are often reluctant to lease to Travellers, and the impoundment of horses as a consequence of fly grazing, under the Control of Horses Act 1996 (Ireland). Furthermore, Travellers regarded the BCS as a useful tool, but would require training to apply the scoring successfully. The results suggest that attitudes and management practices are favourable, but Travellers have limited means to overcome barriers. Therefore, it is necessary to increase capacity building and assist with the acquisition of land.

Keywords: horses, horse welfare, attitudes, Travellers, body condition scoring

1. Introduction

The estimated horse ( Equus caballus) population in Ireland is 160,000 [ 1] with horses fulfilling many functions, from work to recreation. The economic recession in 2008 resulted in a significant increase in the number of unwanted horses [ 2]. Consequently, equine welfare has become a greater concern for both scientists and society, alike [ 3]. Welfare concerns exist in all sectors of the horse industry in Ireland. Collins et al. [ 4] explored the perceptions of equine welfare issues using vignettes with representatives of the Traveller community involved in the Policy Delphi process. Respondents and interviewees identified Traveller horse owners as specific contributors to compromised equine welfare during the Policy Delphi process. In a follow up study, Traveller men were included in two focus group discussions with the aim of gaining a better understanding of the role of the horse in Traveller culture [ 5]. While recognising that there may be some horse welfare concerns within the Traveller community, the authors concluded that welfare concerns are evident within a subsection of all horse owning communities [ 5]. A review of the literature found no recorded information on the population of Traveller/Gypsy horses in Ireland and the extent of Traveller horse welfare issues, if any, has yet to be established.

Travellers are defined 'as people with a shared history, culture and traditions, including, historically, a nomadic way of life on the island of Ireland' [ 6] and account for at least 0.5% of the population of Ireland [ 7]. Travellers are still seen as outsiders in Irish society [ 8] and like other Gypsy communities, Irish Travellers have endured discrimination and hostility with their experiences described as one of social and cultural exclusion [ 9]. Today, Travellers are still labelled as 'criminals', 'asocial', and 'deviants' [ 10]. Remarkably, Irish Travellers were only recognised as an ethnic group in Ireland in March 2017 [ 11].

Travellers have always regarded horses as central to their lives [ 12]. The original Traveller horses were coloured cobs and the vanners, used to pull their wagons. As Travellers' lifestyle became more mechanised, the key roles of horses have changed as dependence on horses for movement has declined. Today, Travellers consider horse ownership as one of the last links to the Traveller nomadic way of life. They keep, breed, and sell horses and participate in traditional horse fairs (e.g., Ballinasloe in Ireland and Appleby in England). Furthermore, trotting, harness racing, and sulky riding are popular recreational activities, which have been traditions for generations [ 12]. The limited literature indicates that common practices, such as fly-grazing, straying and abandoned animals, and indiscriminate breeding, compromise Traveller horse welfare [ 13]. The Control of Horses Act [ 14] was introduced in Ireland following public concerns about wandering horses, property damage, and neglect of horses. Proposals on the implementation of the act in Ireland from a governmental advisory group did not include representatives from the Traveller community or Traveller organisations, thus from the outset, the needs and challenges of Traveller horse ownership were not considered. The Control of Horses Act prevents horses from straying onto public or private property without the permission of the land owner, with the prohibited horse owner liable for any damage caused. Local authorities are responsible for enforcement of the act, often resulting in the impoundment of horses. This act makes it extremely difficult for Travellers to support their tradition of horse ownership given the shortage of land ownership, poor accommodation status, and discrimination [ 12]. Difficulty in leasing land was cited in a feasibility study into the establishment of a horse care project [ 15] as landowners are often hesitant to lease to Travellers [ 16], perhaps because of preconceptions often based on negative stereotyping as previously discussed [ 10]. The Irish Traveller Movement (ITM) argues that Traveller culture and heritage is being depleted as a consequence of this act [ 12]

It has been suggested that in order to improve equine welfare, it is necessary to educate owners on horse care and welfare [ 17], with Collins stating the need for education and training across all horse ownership sectors [ 5]. While there are various educational and materials focusing on general horse ownership [ 18], novel initiatives are required to address the needs of those often considered hard to reach, such as Traveller horse owners [ 5]. Human public health studies have shown that culturally sensitive health education had a positive impact on health in ethnic minority groups [ 19]. In the last decade, the Irish Horse Welfare Trust has delivered various education programmes to young disadvantaged youths, including Travellers, while at the same time promoting horse welfare [ 20]. An introduction to farrier skills was completed by Traveller horse owners at Shannon Horse Project (2014) and a programme on Animal Welfare Education was delivered by Travellers of North Cork to over 20 Traveller men (2018). A number of welfare agencies operate an education stand at the annual Appleby Horse Fair, England, which is one of the largest gatherings of Travellers and Gypsies in Europe. The ITM recommends horse projects designed in consultation with Traveller horse owners to help address the specific issues encountered by this group [ 12]. Horse projects offer resource and animal based support to Traveller horse owners and Fettercairn's Youth Horse Project and the Cherry Orchard Equine Project, both in Dublin, are cited as good models since participants of these projects develop both personal and practical skills [ 21]. Collins et al. (2011) claims that in general, social horse projects, while commendable in their attempts to both engage with urban horse owners and improve local horse culture, do not result in tangible nor long term improved human wellbeing or horse welfare [ 22]. Nevertheless, he refers to one project in his study as having had a positive impact on local horse culture. The Cherry Orchard Equine Project acquired grazing land, indoor and outdoor riding facilities, and stables and now owns its own teaching horses. They provide training in both riding and general horse care to local people and in 2010, around 600 people attended weekly courses intended to improve knowledge and skills and also provide a pathway to careers in the equine industry. Unfortunately, it appears that this programme is in the minority so it is clear that the continuing evaluation of these interventions is necessary to determine whether these programmes are efficient and effective and to inform the planning and content of further courses and interventions.

1.1. Welfare Assessment

Traditionally, the prevention of animal suffering was at the centre of welfare assessment with assessment protocols based upon the five freedoms [ 23] and comprising of a number of resource-based measures [ 24, 25]. However, rather than assess one facet of an animal's state, such as its physical state alone, welfare assessments now adopt a more holistic approach [ 26]. Thus, an effective assessment protocol should incorporate a holistic approach to animal 'welfare' as well as the aims and objectives of the welfare assessment. Currently, there are various tools and indicators available to measure equine welfare with both animal and resource-based measures [ 27] and human attitudes and behaviour [ 28] used in the measurement process. Most importantly, measures need to be valid, reliable, and applicable to diverse situations and assessors [ 29].

Evaluation of Equine Welfare

Body condition scoring (BCS), an animal based measure, is used to assess body condition in many species. Using a numerical scoring system, the BCS tool estimates the amount of fat on a horse's body through visual appraisal and palpable assessment [ 30]. In the application of BCS, key body regions are identified; the neck, back, ribs, and rump of a horse and used to measure adiposity with different scales available to calculate an overall score [ 31, 32]. All scales follow the same principle in that a high score indicates an obese horse and a lower score refers to an emaciated horse. These scales are simple and easy to learn, but are very subjective as ratings may differ between scorers using the same scale [ 33]. Wyse et al. [ 34] found that there was only 50% agreement between respondents' and researchers' BCS in their study on the prevalence of obesity in riding horses in Scotland. Factors found to affect the ability to BCS accurately include breed and age of horse [ 32], horse type [ 35], hair thickness [ 36], and owner/carer experience [ 37].

In evaluating equine welfare, human attitudes to animals also need to be included in the welfare assessment system as human attitudes are found to influence animal welfare [ 38]. In fact, Hemsworth et al. [ 39] found that negative attitudes towards animals correlated with poorer care and management practices. While few studies exist on the attitudes of responsible or neglectful horse owners [ 3], there are a number of studies regarding people's attitudes towards other types of animals. Studies on farm animals found that a stockperson's attitude and behaviour towards an animal can either have a positive or negative effect on that animal's health and welfare [ 40, 41]. Horse owner attributes too can have an influence an animal's health and welfare status. Attributes, such as lack of horse management knowledge and lack of commitment to horse ownership, are also perceived to influence welfare [ 42, 43].

1.2. Rationale for Present Study

This research is important because at a time when equine welfare is high profile and with the welfare of Traveller's horses perceived as being a major area of concern, to the best of our knowledge, Traveller horse owners' attitudes to horse care and welfare have not been examined in scientific research. Qualitative research methods were used in order to gain information on experience, meaning, and perspective from the standpoint of the Travellers themselves. It allowed the investigation of knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and concepts of normative behaviour, thus providing a greater understanding of Irish Traveller horse ownership and management.

2. Materials and Methods

A multi-method approach of qualitative interviewing and quantitative body condition scoring was used to examine the knowledge and attitudes to horse welfare of Traveller horse owners. Semi-structured interviews and group discussions were used with these formats and allowed participants to express their views and beliefs in their own words. Participation in either the interview or focus groups depended on the participant's personal preference. Body condition was assessed, based upon Carroll and Huntington's scoring tool [ 32], and was used as a medium to introduce the study to the group since it has been reported to be easy to use and it is also the most commonly used tool in the UK and Ireland.

2.1. Recruitment and Participants

In total, 14 Traveller men who were either past or current horse owners with an age range of 18 to 54 years were recruited for both parts of this study. They were recruited through the means of direct conversation and all participants were members of a horse project, which was set up in 2010 in the West of Ireland (due to data protection and anonymity the name of the project cannot be disclosed). Following negotiations on the leasing of land between Travellers and the local authority, the project resulted is a 33-acre site, including a sand arena and a number of stables. The lead author was the sole interviewer involved in the development of this project and therefore all participants were already familiar with her and willing to accept a female interviewer for what is seen as a male dominated activity in Traveller culture. The horses that were used for BCS assessment were owned by participants and were housed at the Traveller Horse Project and at land nearby. Recruitment and data collection occurred between September 2013 and December 2013.

2.2. Interview/Discussion Questions Design

Semi-structured interviews were based on a series of open-ended questions and the questions that were used are presented in . Since semi-structured interviews and discussion groups were used, questions were only asked when participants did not talk about the topic by themselves.

Table 1

Body Condition Scoring (BCS)

Are you familiar with body condition scoring?

What is your view on the looking/feeling of body fat on a horse to assess its condition?

Do you think BCS works and can you use it on all horses?

How do you tell whether what you are feeling is fat or muscle?

What are the benefits of using BCS?

Why does it matter to know the body condition of your horse?

Would you include any further parts of the horse's body in BCS?

How often should BCS be used?

Who should use BCS and would you use BCS in the management of your horses?

Is body condition a good guide of how suitable a horse's diet is?

Do you believe that horses should have constant access to grazing?

What is the difference between a horse having a 'grass belly' and being very fat/obese?

By understanding your horse's body condition, do you think it will help prevent health problems?

Can you tell if a horse is healthy by looking at it?

What does a healthy horse look like?

Can you tell if a horse is sick? If so, how?

Do you think horses need rugs in the winter?

How important is it to worm horses?

Do you think a healthy horse is a sign of good welfare?

How important is exercise for a horse?

What sort of exercise do you use?

At what age do you consider it suitable to begin exercising a horse?

Do you believe that horses have feelings?

How do you think horses prefer to live (groups, individually)? Why?

Do you think that horses develop bonds with other horses and their owners?

In the current economic climate, what is your view on the breeding of horses?

Do you believe that there are horse welfare problems throughout the horse sector?

What are some of the difficulties of horse ownership for Travellers?

What are your thoughts on how things could be improved for Traveller horse owners?

Is there anything else that you would like to say that you feel is important?

Furthermore, the wording of the questions presented in could vary to accommodate participants' level of understanding and to act when needed to repeat and/or re-phrase questions. Probing questions were used where appropriate to explore responses more thoroughly and provide a deeper understanding of the subject. In this study, probing questions were used to evaluate the relevance of statements, to check for understanding and clarification of situations, to provide more detail and information, to seek examples when participants were vague with their responses and to understand a participant's feelings. Probing questions were open-ended and most often began with 'what', 'when', 'where', 'why', and 'how'. The interview was pre-tested with Traveller horse owners and based on feedback, the wording was changed on four of the interview questions so that they would be more clearly understood. All interviews and group discussions were transcribed.

2.3. Procedure

Participants were given a verbal summary of the study aims and activities and an explanation of Carrol and Huntington's BCS system [ 32] was presented. Data was collected from three semi-structured interviews and four group discussions consisting of between two and four participants. Interviews and group discussions were conducted face-to-face and lasted 45 to 60 minutes. Brief notes were taken in a discrete way, ensuring that the flow of conversation was not interrupted, and when consent was given interviews/group discussions were voice recorded on a Lenovo tablet. In appreciation of participants' participation, the Horse Project was presented with equine first aid kits at the end of the study.

2.4. Body Condition Scoring Assessment

The practical application of BCS followed immediately after the interviews/discussions. The BCS chart [ 32] was revised for this study (), taking into account the literacy levels of Travellers, which is reported to be lower than that of the general population in Ireland [ 44]. An averaging system, allowing for half-point responses, was applied to the BCS system [ 45]. This system entails separately scoring the neck, middle, and quarters of the horse and then calculating the mean of the three scores for an overall body condition score. As horses accumulate their weight in different areas, this system is considered a more accurate assessment [ 46]. Two different scoring sheets to record body condition scores were devised, one for the researcher and the other for participants. For each horse, age, sex, and breed was recorded.

Table 2

On the morning prior to the task commencing, horses were numbered and body conditions scored by the researcher. Participants were given a copy of the revised BCS chart and a demonstration of BCS by the researcher. Horses selected for BCS were randomly allocated to participants to be assessed. Horses were assessed independently by each participant and scores recorded. Participants were not given any guidance during the BCS assessment and were unaware of the scores of the other participants' assessments. All participants scored a minimum of two horses, with a maximum of 14 horses scored by one individual. Twelve participants scored at least one of their own horses with two participants not owning horses at the time of assessment. The variation in the number of horses assessed was due to certain participants' time constraints and other commitments on the day.

2.5. Ethical Approval

This study was approved by the Student Survey Overview Group, University of Edinburgh (Ref no. SSOG/15/99).

2.6. Data Analysis

2.6.1. Interview Analysis

To obtain key information and define themes present in the transcripts, coding and thematic analysis was conducted using NVIVO 10 (QSR International, Melbourne, Australia) a software programme designed for qualitative data analysis. Transcripts were coded using a defined coding scheme for attitudes, values, meanings, beliefs, experiences, and knowledge characteristics. The primary coding terms were determined by the topics covered in the interview questions. In-depth readings of the transcripts and further analysis revealed key concepts that consistently arose and were relevant to the project's aims. Participants' responses were examined and areas of agreement and difference on issues were identified. Responses from the total number of participants ( n = 14) were analysed together. As not all participants discussed each question, the proportion of the sample who contributed to specific questions is presented in the results. The final stage of the analysis was to formulate themes with the final section of themes grounded in the study aims and in the views and experiences of the participants.

2.6.2. BCS Analysis

For the purposes of analysis, the original half point scores were converted to whole numbers and the overall score was calculated as the median of the neck, middle, and hindquarters before being converted to a whole number. The statistical package, Minitab 17, was used to conduct descriptive statistics and Cohen's kappa. Cohen's kappa was used to determine the level of agreement between the researcher's scores and participants' scores when assessing horses' body condition. Level of agreement was assessed using Viera and Garrett's classification system as follows: Kappa agreement <0 less than chance agreement, 0.01-0.20 slight agreement, 0.21-0.40 fair agreement, 0.41-0.60 moderate agreement, 0.61-0.80 substantial agreement, and 0.81-0.99 almost perfect agreement [ 47] Analysis included the level of agreement on overall scores using the median and each section scored, i.e., neck, middle, and hindquarters.

3. Results

3.1. Demographics

All participants ( n = 14) were Irish Travellers and lived in the West of Ireland. Participants' age ranged from 18 to 54 years, with a mean age of 29.5 years (SD = 10.84). Body condition was assessed in 18 horses and ponies with an age range of 1.5 to 28 years and a mean of 8.25 years (SD = 5.97). Most animals ( n = 16, 88.8%) were female (mares) with the remaining two horses being uncastrated males (stallions). Most of the horses were full or part-bred Standardbred ( n = 10, 55.5%) with the remaining animals of Thoroughbred ( n = 3 (16.6%), mixed breeding ( n = 2, 11.1%), or described as miniature ponies ( n = 3, 16.6%).

3.2. Results of the Interviews/Group Discussions

In total, seven themes were identified. Results are presented according to finalised themes. Participants' quotes are in italics.

3.2.1. Theme 1: Perception of Body Condition Scoring

From the outset, all participants indicated that they were unfamiliar with the BCS tool. References to BCS procedure were predominantly positive with participants stating that 'looking' at the horse was important while a single participant claimed that the palpation of fat was a necessary feature of assessment because 'you wouldn't know fat by looking at it'. There were many references to the benefits of using BCS. Participants referred to these as benefits for health and wellbeing and reported that it is especially important to assess mares in foal. Further participants believed BCS could help identify feeding patterns, obesity, or may expose bullying. Participants claimed that they would use the BCS tool, with some of the participants agreeing with the anatomical descriptors of BCS. However, it was suggested that other areas of the body should also be included, such as the chest and hips, as they believed that fat accumulates in these areas. When asked for the difference between fat and muscle, participants were able to explain the difference, 'Well, you would know by the tone of it. You would know, there's a difference' and 'Muscle would be solid, fat isn't, there is a difference'. It was generally agreed that the BCS tool was applicable to all horses with references made to the need to understand how to use it. As a common view, participants agreed that all horse owners should use BCS, but differed in their responses to the frequency of use, 'Every couple of weeks really, to keep on top of things' as opposed to 'At the beginning of the winter'. Body condition was also believed to be a good guide of the suitability of diet, 'Yeah, if they are fed, their condition will be good'.

3.2.2. Theme 2: Horse 'Health'

When asked 'Can you tell if a horse is healthy by looking at it?', participants reported that they could with one participant disagreeing. References to a healthy horse included body condition, form, energy, weight, and coat and teeth condition. When asked 'how can you tell if a horse is sick', participants cited behaviours, such as 'head down', 'standing in the corner of the field', 'rolling', 'not feeding', and 'not doing things that you would normally see the horse doing'. When asked what these 'things' are, the participant stated that horse would 'not be eating, grazing or happy in himself'.

De-worming was considered crucial for health by over half of the participants with varying references to frequency, 'Vital, isn't it. Their health depends on it'. A minority of respondents suggested three to four times a year with one adding that it depends on the horse and another advocating for dosing of all horses for prevention. De-worming of all horses to prevent transmission was considered important for group health. Participants demonstrated that they understood the difference between a grass belly and obesity; 'A grass belly, any horse that is out grazing four or five months will come in with a grass belly as being obese is constantly'. One respondent was of the opinion that a grass belly would recede when taken off grass. All of those who responded agreed that an understanding of body condition would help prevent future health problems. Health problems, such as over/underweight, laminitis, worms, and parasites, were cited, 'Condition is crucial for her health'.

3.2.3. Theme 3: Views on 'Exercise'

It was commonly perceived by participants that exercise is important for horses and that exercise is natural to outdoor horses. Participants expressed the view that structured exercise is necessary for both physical and mental health for stabled horses, ' But if you have him confined in a stable, he needs, it's crucially important. His bones, his legs would go wrong and he would go demented. He needs a workout, yeah'. Ringing, commonly known as lunging and sulky/cart trotting, were identified as key forms of exercise. 'A bit of ringing, have it at the end of a rope & ring it around, maybe a half hour outside'. A discussion further revealed that some participants take their horses swimming. Participants also considered music and ball playing beneficial to a horse's mental wellbeing, 'Or a radio, horses love a radio. A lot of people play a tape recorder or radio for the horse, it's good for the mind'.

There was a degree of variety in participants' responses to the appropriate age to commence exercise with the majority stating at two years although one participant claimed that it may not be right at this age. The reason cited that age differs for Traveller horses was that their horses need to be introduced to the road and traffic at an early age as the horses are used for trotting and sulky racing. Behaviour management was another reason proposed for handling at a young age with younger horses easier to handle, ' For Travellers, horses see the road from a year or so, so that they get used to the traffic and that'.

3.2.4. Theme 4: Perception of 'Social Interaction'

Participants expressed the view that horses form bonds with their owners with two claiming that they can identify their owner's voices. Participants believe that bonds exist within herd mates, with one stating that these bonds have a protective element, especially for mares with foals, 'And to protect their young, they would die to help their own'. A consistent viewpoint was that horses develop friendships within the herd, 'If you had horses in a field, you could have 20 but you would get three that would be best friends'. There was a strong consensus that bullying exists, with some horses more vulnerable than others. Inadequate land size and introduction into herds were reasons quoted, 'Yeah, if there wasn't enough ground, they would get bullied'. The link between bullying and health was reported with claims that it needs to be monitored and action taken if necessary expressed.

3.2.5. Theme 5: 'Existence of Sentience' in Horses

Participants overwhelmingly stated that horses have feelings, with the belief that horses are intelligent also reported, 'By God, they do, no question and very, very intelligent, believe it or not'. Feelings cited included fear, pain, and loneliness. The view that horse ownership has a positive effect on participants' own mental health was expressed by various participants, 'I trot for my own mind' and 'They are nice to have and they are good for the mind'.

3.2.6. Theme 6: The Horse's 'Natural Environment'

There was unanimity across respondents that it is natural for horses to live in groups. Company, to prevent loneliness and for warmth, were reasons given for this preference, 'Our horses have company all year round' and 'Like any animal they don't want to be alone'. One sentiment expressed frequently was the importance of keeping horses outdoors, believing it is natural, 'I prefer if they are outside, horses are hardy they like company'. Constant access to grazing with additional feed when necessary was the principal view of participants, 'Yes, they need to be able to go out and graze. It's natural to them'. Further participants were of the opinion that continuous grazing could lead to weight gain so should be monitored. Some participants described how their feeding patterns are seasonal with horses fattened up before the winter months when less fodder is available, 'We feed up the horses for the winter and then they will reduce some of that fat'. There were a number of coded references on the use of rugs. Participants varied on their responses with several participants suggesting that rugs are only necessary in very harsh weather or for sick and vulnerable horses, 'It doesn't do the horse any favours', ' If the weather is ok and there is shelter, they don't need them'. The view that horses require rugs was expressed by a minority of participants. Benefits of rug-use cited were 'no water scabs' and ' to keep his body'. One participant was adamant that horses only need rugs in exceptional cases and continued to describe the public's expectation of horses needing rugs. Frequent references were made to the practice of ' looking' at the horse and how this was considered a natural activity in horse management, ' But visually you would know if she is looking poorly or not herself'.

3.2.7. Theme 7: The Horse's 'Welfare'

Good health was almost universally regarded as an indicator for good welfare with over half of those who responded specifying that good health indicates that horses are being 'looked after'. All participants agreed that neglect exists within all sectors, including within their own culture, 'In fairness, Travellers do cause a bit themselves'. One participant believed that neglect does not exist in the racing sector, but then said that ' they can use the whip a bit too much at times' and agreed that this was a welfare issue. He also stated that there was a relationship between welfare and economics. Another view was that the ' bigger guys' are less likely to be investigated about their practices. One participant offered an alternative view, claiming that people are inherently good with their horses. Participants differed in their opinions over whether horse breeding should continue in the current climate; some participants disagreed while others agreed, if resources are available. Some participants said it should be controlled while one participant agreed with breeding, 'If you can look after them, it's ok but if you can't you should not'. Participants consistently made the same points in relation to difficulties experienced and their implications. The majority of participants who responded cited leasing of land as the greatest difficulty faced by Travellers, 'What is the biggest problem for Travellers is land'. The value of the Horse Project was highlighted in helping combat this issue. 'It's good to have the land down below'.

3.3. Results of Body Condition Scoring

The second aim of this study was to assess the BCS tool for accuracy and ease of use. Results are shown in . For the overall BCS score, 66.67% of participants scored their horses in accordance to the researcher, indicating a moderate level of agreement. The highest level of agreement was for BCS 3.5, which indicates good condition (Kappa 0.750, substantial agreement) with the least accurate overall score being BCS 5, indicating obesity (Kappa 0.400, fair agreement).

Table 3

Section Scored

Agreement Percentage

95% Confidence Level

Cohen's Kappa Statistic

Level of Agreement

4. Discussion

This study examined Traveller horse owners' attitudes to horse welfare by focusing on BCS, a tool that is used to assess and monitor horse body condition. While the BCS tool was previously unknown to participants, the overall findings reflect a positive attitude to it, with participants prepared to use BCS as part of their routine management. The belief that all horse owning communities should use BCS is in agreement with the early work of Carroll and Huntington [ 32] and this is encouraging as it suggests that this Traveller group are receptive to new ideas that may improve the welfare of their horses. Of equal importance were the benefits of BCS highlighted by participants, with the horse's health and welfare at the core of these views. These benefits included the identification of obesity and appropriate feeding management to help reduce the potentially adverse effects of obesity and are in agreement with previous studies citing body condition as a crucial factor in the development of appropriate dietary needs [ 48, 49]. The evaluation and understanding of a horse's body condition was considered a key factor in preventing future health problems.

While agreeing that Carroll and Huntington's anatomical descriptors were valid [ 32], the inclusion of two further areas, the chest and the hips, were suggested with claims that fat accumulates in these regions. While there are various instruments that use between five and eight distinct body regions to evaluate BCS in dairy herds [ 50, 51, 52], there are no known horse BCS tools that incorporate the additional areas suggested by participants. However, chest girth is measured when calculating body weight by the equation calculation [ 53]. In the current study, the hips were included within the assessment of the horse quarters. Nevertheless, this observation suggests that Traveller horse owners are aware of the anatomy of the horse and by recommending the inclusion of further areas in the BCS scale, the instrument's accuracy may be improved.

Visual appraisal was acknowledged as the on-going method of assessing horses' body condition although visual appraisal alone is considered ineffective in determining BCS [ 31]. A likely explanation for participants' viewpoints is that visual assessment has been the natural practice of this cultural group. With over 28% of Travellers having difficulty with literacy skills [ 44] and 55% of Travellers leaving school by age 15 years [ 54], it would seem fair to suggest that visual assessment is adopted to compensate for low literacy skills. The winter BCS of Assateague Island feral ponies ( n = 36) was assessed by visual examination and found to be useful [ 55]. Given that Traveller horses live in herds, visual assessment could be used as a stand-alone method and is possibly more welfare compliant as horses can be assessed without the need for gathering or handling.

Following the BCS practical assessment, a moderate level of agreement (kappa 0.45) was found for overall BCS scores between participants and the researcher, with these findings broadly similar to previous studies within the horse industry. Wyse et al. [ 34] reported a fair level of agreement, (kappa 0.40). Thus, the inclusion of the averaging system may have reduced the likelihood of scoring variation, allowing for more accurate assessment [ 46]. Participants also achieved a fair level of agreement when scoring the neck. As a "cresty" neck is associated with an increased risk of metabolic disorders [ 56], further training is recommended to improve score accuracy and reduce the risk of disease. BCS 5, indicating an obese horse, was the least accurate score for all body sections as well as for the overall assessment. Underestimating high BCS scores may lead to obesity and increased risk of laminitis [ 57] and infertility [ 58] in horses. Wyse et al. [ 34] also found less agreement at higher BCS scores and suggest that it is possibly due to participants' reluctance to score their own horses as obese. Similarly, parents have been found to score their overweight child inaccurately [ 59]. It must be noted that in the current study, all horse owning participants scored at least one of their own horses.

While Traveller horse owners appear to have a moderate understanding of the application of BCS, inaccuracies were recorded. A possible reason for these inaccuracies is that horse owners had only a brief introduction to BCS and were not guided by the researcher during the scoring process. Further, locating the anatomical areas correctly and the presence of a winter coat may have reduced scoring accuracy. Pregnant mares may have been scored lower because of taut skin pulled over the ribs, although the middle body region (BCS 3) was where the most accuracy was found. These findings are in contrast to Goodwin [ 60], who found the least agreement for this body region, however, her sample size was much larger. A reason for the better performance of participants for the middle section may be revealed in the findings of the qualitative analysis. Participants showed a high level of awareness of how poor body condition may indicate other health related issues rather than lack of feed. Risk factors, such as grass-belly, parasites, and pregnancy, were identified and understood by participants. While there were inaccuracies in scoring, definitive conclusions cannot be derived from such a small sample. Therefore, the findings of BCS application should be considered with caution. By taking into account factors, such as breed, season, sample size, and experience [ 35, 36, 37], BCS could be improved as an educational tool to evaluate horse welfare. A limitation of the kappa statistics is that for high values of agreement, low values of kappa can be accepted and therefore interpretation may be considered too lenient.

It became apparent that good health was almost universally regarded as an indicator for good welfare, a view reflecting Visser and Van Wijk-Jansens' [ 3] study, where 99.6% of the participants also stated that good health relates to good welfare. In that study, respondents deemed a shiny coat, lively ears, and good performance as symbolic of good welfare while in this current study, references to a healthy horse included body condition, form, energy, weight, and coat and teeth condition. While good health is necessary for good welfare, other factors, as indicated by the five freedoms [ 23], need to be present in order to ensure good welfare. Generally, participants maintained that they were able to identify whether a horse was sick or healthy and identified appropriate behaviours associated with reduced horse well- being, although Lesimple and Hausberger [ 61] suggest that overexposure to certain behaviours may result in an underestimation of likely problems by owners/carers. They found a large discrepancy in responses between horse owners and caretakers in a study on horses' stereotypic behaviours, with only 5% reporting any type of abnormal repetitive behaviours in horses compared to 37% of ethological observations.

De-worming was considered to be crucial with the presence of parasites considered detrimental to a horse's health, leading to weight loss, colic, and death [ 62]. This view is consistent with the findings of a survey conducted on worm control practices in equine establishments in Ireland whereby a high level of awareness was found on the need for worm control [ 63]. However, there was variation expressed on the required frequency of worm dosing in both the present study and O'Meara and Mulcahys' study [ 63]. An explanation for this finding may be that as de-worming strategies have ranged in age from 18 to 54 years, it is likely that successive generations have been advised differently, thus leading to this lack of agreement. Further, with Travellers now leading a less nomadic life than in the past, it is likely that consultations with vets are more commonplace in Traveller culture. Therefore, de-worming approaches may also differ due to the increased opportunity for veterinary advice, which is supported by the fact that in this study, the younger age group were more likely to worm their horses according to veterinary advice. The belief that all horses should be de-wormed for prevention was mentioned, although Nielsen [ 64] proposes that this treat-all at regular intervals approach should be abandoned in favour of a more sustainable parasite control method. The Traveller tradition of keeping horses in herds may explain the view that group de-worming improves group welfare. Also noteworthy was that the practice of faecal egg count (FEC), which is cheap, easy to use, and an effective way of identifying the need for de-worming treatment, was not raised by participants in the present study. While the present sample is too small to draw conclusions that will be applicable to all Traveller horse owners, the need for a more sustainable equine parasite control programme is essential to help combat resistance to current de-worming practices.

Exercise was considered important to the horse's physical and mental well-being and was accepted as standard for outdoor horses with structured exercise recommended for stabled horses. Management practices which result in lack of exercise are likely to result in the development of stereotypic behaviour, such as weaving or box walking [ 65, 66, 67, 68].

The age cited to start exercise was approximately two years with handling beginning earlier. Exercising of two year olds horses is often considered inappropriate, with equine stakeholders in the study by Horseman et al. [ 69] study associating breaking horses in too young with Traveller horse culture. While the findings in this study may be an area of concern in terms of horse welfare, the youthfulness of the horse was also found to be a concern in the racing industry [ 70]. However, Standardbred harness racehorses and Thoroughbred flat racehorses that commenced training as 2-year olds were found to have a lengthier and more successful racing career than those who started training at a more advanced age [ 71, 72]. Further, in the feral environment, foals are known to travel large distances with their dams with some foals as young as one week old travelling 7.3 km in a day [ 73]. Participants maintained that this age was appropriate for Traveller horses with habituation to traffic and behaviour management stated as reasons for starting the handling of horses at a young age. However, this belief is contrary to findings from a study by Mal et al. [ 74], which found that pre-weaning handling was found to have no influence on either foal manageability or learning performance.

The subject of sulky racing arose during discussions over the exercise of horses. This activity is often criticised by the media and general public for being unregulated, unsafe, and detrimental to the horse's welfare. Issues, such as road collisions involving sulkies and subsequent horse injuries and deaths, are cited in the media as animal welfare concerns although there is no empirical data to corroborate these reports. These views are often based on the negative stereotyping of Travellers, with these views extending to that of Traveller/Gypsy horse owners [ 75]. Consequently, there is a need for future research into this cultural activity from a Traveller's perspective, thus allowing Travellers the opportunity to discuss sulky racing in the context of these criticisms rather than having to conform to the values and expectations of the settled community [ 21].

The need for social contact was recognised by participants and implemented in their management practices. This view is perhaps contradictory to many modern horse husbandry systems, where horses may be kept confined for up to 23 h/day to ensure optimal physical health with their need for social contact often neglected [ 76]. Further, participants maintained that horses form relationships and even have preferred companions within the herd, a view supported by Kimura [ 77], who found that mutual grooming relations were associated with bonds between individual horses. While horses are often kept in homogeneous groups to reduce the possibility of injury and to assist with management [ 78], the principal of keeping horses in herds was the accepted practice with horse owners in this study. Horses are social animals by nature [ 79] with isolation resulting in stress and stereotypical behaviours [ 80]. Management practices cited and adopted by the group demonstrate respect for the need for social interaction. The potential risk of bullying behaviour within the herd was recognised and considered as a possible welfare concern that may require addressing.

The overwhelming perception among participants is that horses have feelings, a view supported by the recent increase in the scientific study of an animal's subjective experience [ 81]. However, the subjective nature of feelings and emotions is also the reason for the dismissal of animal sentience [ 82]. Proctor states that to achieve a positive change in attitudes and actions towards animals, it is essential to recognise animals as sentient [ 81]. The assertion by participants that fear is often the result of human interaction is strengthened by a study by Smith et al. [ 83], which found that horses' reactions to negative human expressions were particularly strong This view is shared by Lansade et al. [ 84], who found that the quality of the human-animal interaction has a direct impact on the horse's welfare. With attitudes found to be linked to the rate and nature of horse-human interactions [ 85], positive relationships can lead to mutual welfare benefits. The human-horse relationship was considered to be reciprocal, with benefits to participants' own mental health cited and their connection to horses considered to be a positive outlet for their mental well-being. These benefits were possibly informed by participants' own experiences. Both the physical and mental health benefits of animal-assisted therapies have been well documented [ 86, 87, 88]. Mental health issues can be a taboo subject within Traveller culture, with Traveller men in particular reluctant to discuss these issues [ 44], therefore, the subject of mental health and horse ownership within this group requires further investigation. Further, horses are often regarded as friends by Travellers rather than as possessions [ 89].

There was a high degree of consensus on the importance of the expression of natural behaviour. The Traveller horse owners' perspective supports the view that horses should spend most of their time outdoors, which corresponds with the findings of a study by Jørgensen et al. [ 90], who found that most horses had a preference to remain outdoors irrespective of the weather. This approach differs to a minority of leisure horses in the UK who were reported to have had no access to pasture in the week previous to the completion of a survey by their carers [ 91].

By limiting the expression of natural behaviours, stereotypies may be observed [ 92]. Therefore, allowing horses to remain outdoors is the most effective way of preventing stereotypical behaviours [ 93], consequently improving welfare [ 94]. In their natural environment, feral horses graze approximately 18 hours a day [ 95] and will roam up to 80 km a day [ 96]. In the same way, constant access to grazing with additional feed when necessary was the view expressed by participants. The practice of seasonal feeding patterns is supported by the body condition scores of horses assessed in this study, with the scores obtained indicative of fat storage as a buffer against feed shortage in the winter.

The dominant view of participants is that rugs are only required in exceptional circumstances. This differs from Goodwin's finding, where more than 86% of participants from livery yards in Scotland were found to consistently rug their horses during winter [ 60]. Further, participants stated that the settled community often questions Traveller horse owners' rug practices, believing that un-rugged horses are neglected. This may explain why some participants have adopted the practice of rugging. However, according to Jørgensen et al. [ 90], horses are able to sustain a suitable internal body temperature in temperatures varying from −30 °C to 30 °C. Shelter along with sufficient food was found to be adequate to keep horses warm during the winter [ibid], a finding echoing the views of the majority of participants.

Opinions were divided on the issue of horse breeding with participants recommending either an absolute ban or breeding control with most stressing the importance of resource availability and provision to ensure optimal welfare. There was an overall agreement amongst equine stakeholders in the study by Collins et al. [ 5] that the production of horses had exceeded demand in Ireland. With horses no longer in great demand, indiscriminate breeding is considered to compromise their welfare status [ 97]. Indiscriminate breeding is often associated with Traveller horse owners, a viewpoint reported as recently as December 2018 by a senior scientific equine advisor at the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in The Sunday Telegraph. However, Horseman et al. [ 69], in their study on welfare issues facing horses in Great Britain, found that equine stakeholders assigned the problem of overbreeding to the racing sector. In this study, participants' perception that welfare issues exist throughout the industry, including within their own community, is consistent with the findings from Collins et al. [ 5], which demonstrated that welfare concerns are not confined to any one group.

One of the major barriers to good horse welfare that was identified, and which is unique to Travellers, is the lack of availability of land on which to keep their horses. This view is supported by Fritzsche's [ 16] findings on landowners' reluctance to lease land to Travellers. Current policy simply addresses the symptoms of this issue through the Control of Horses act [ 14] rather than looking at the root causes. However, one possible solution is the provision of land and support through horse projects. Although this was a very small sample from one horse project, participants commented positively on the impact that it had had on their lives. Horse projects may help to create a supportive and sustainable solution to Traveller equine issues [ 12], while also facilitating Travellers' tradition of horse ownership. Further research is required in order to fully evaluate the impact of horse projects on both horse welfare and human well-being.

5. Conclusions

The findings in this study provide us with a unique snapshot of Traveller horse owners' attitudes to BCS and perceptions of horse welfare as well as an assessment of the application of the BCS tool for accuracy and ease of use by this group. Themes were found to be particularly rich in relation to participants' understanding of the natural behaviour and natural environment of the horse and its application in their management practices, an approach currently gaining recognition both within equine science and the general horse owning community. Further investigation of these findings with larger sample groups is recommended as this would be advantageous to both the research process and the Traveller community To conclude, participants in this study expressed a good knowledge and understanding of horse management, and perhaps more importantly, positive attitudes to horse welfare. These findings indicate that, given the appropriate support and access to resources, there is the potential for a good level of welfare in horses owned and managed by this cultural group.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the Traveller horse owners who participated in this study. We thank Cathy Dwyer for providing useful comments on the manuscript.

Author Contributions

M.R., T.C. and M.C. designed the study and methodology. M.R. conducted investigation, statistical analysis of the data and writing of the original draft manuscript. T.C. provided supervision, project administration and reviewed, commented and edited the manuscript. M.C. provided supervision and reviewed, commented and edited the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A Study of Traveller Horse Owners' Attitudes to Horse Care and Welfare Using an Equine Body Condition Scoring System

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Irish Travellers are an indigenous ethnic minority group. Horses are an important part of Travellers' lives, with horse ownership considered one of the last links to their nomadic way of life. Travellers keep, breed, and sell horses. Trotting and sulky racing are popular recreational activities.

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Great Recession Impacts on the Equine Industry in the UK

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Great Recession Impacts on the Equine Industry in the UK

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Equestrians are the best of people. Equestrians are the worst of people.

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Equestrians are the best of people. Equestrians are the worst of people.

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"But when we shut down our friends, mocking their shortcomings instead of appreciating their willingness to ask questions and grow as equestrians, we stop the cycle of education within our community and we put the very horses we love so much at risk."

There has not been a shortage of experience with equestrians that lack emotional intelligence and awareness of how their attitudes impact the view that equine desirables will have on the horse community.

There has been a lot of egos, pride, condescension, and snobbiness experienced in the community. In contrast, there have been some very wonderful people that we met as well.

From the sentiment of my veteran, the tone that has been experienced is enough for him to question whether he wants anything to do with the community which is a disservice to my effort to utilize equine-assisted therapy. It is also not going to be a favorable review with other veterans who are considering the same.

"I don't care what people think. I can't help it if they're stupid." These types of comments are not conducive to people that are trying to learn. Fortunately, we did find a couple of very helpful, experienced, and somewhat emotionally intelligent equestrians willing to help us learn.

For those who are just starting--choose who you surround yourself with carefully. If someone's ego and pride are more important than your learning process--find someone else. If you are afraid, worried about being judged, or addressed in an unprofessional and unbecoming manner that does not help you and your horse grow together--get a different mentor that will treat you better. They can be hard to find but they are out there.

You and your horse deserve the most ideal environment to encourage an upward trend in your training. What's the point of staying with someone that you cannot trust to be emotionally aware?

Horses, after all, are emotional creatures and if you are on the path of emotional rehabilitation--this journey is too important for you to not find a mentor that will help you with what you need.

How we say what we say makes a difference and a condescending trainer or mentor could put your safety at risk regardless of how they may justify treating you rudely as being concerned about your safety.

Gaslighting and emotional blackmail is not a mentally safe place for emotional rehabilitation. It is not okay and it's best to avoid people like that for now.

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Horsemanship

The cycle of education

Growing up, most little girls dream of owning a pony. Braiding pink ribbons in their hair, kissing their soft noses, feeling the freedom that comes with having four legs take you wherever you want to go. Only a small percentage of us were actually able to live that dream. And it's glorious. Barn friends that become your best friends. Soft nickers and stomping feet become music to your ears and the smell of a dusty barn and old leather becomes home.

It's a fairytale...

Until one day, it isn't.
Here's why: There is a general lack of compassion, education and humility between horse owners.
Like waking up next to Prince Charming 25 years down the road, beer belly and gray hair hitting you like a ton of bricks. What was once friendly, comforting and easy is no longer. It's a sad day when you realize the equine community is broken.

It's no secret that the equestrian community is riddled with divides...

Barefoot vs. Shod
Natural Horsemanship vs. Classical Training
Blanketing vs. Not Blanketing

The list goes on. You name it and you'll find horse lovers willing to argue both sides relentlessly. However, what could easily be an educational conversation about our differences in opinion quickly turns into a heated argument full of judgment and ridicule.

The fact of the matter is that nearly every single one of us wants what's best for our four-legged best friends. We have strong feelings and opinions about their care for all the right reasons-the love of the horse. But why does the love of the horse have to trump the love of your fellow horseman?
"How dare you sit on your 3 year old! Don't you know they're not done growing until 6?!" "What do you mean you haven't had your horse scoped for ulcers? That's borderline neglect!" "You obviously don't know what you're doing, seek professional help!"
I see it happen all too often; a well-meaning individual reaches out to their fellow equestrians for guidance, advice and assistance. But rather than embracing the opportunity to educate our friends, lifting them up and appreciating their willingness to learn, they are torn down in an instant.

Maybe it's the passion we have for these animals. Maybe it's the amount of time and money we pour into this hobby, this lifestyle. Maybe it makes us heated, closed-minded, condescending and a little angry.

But when we shut down our friends, mocking their shortcomings instead of appreciating their willingness to ask questions and grow as equestrians, we stop the cycle of education within our community and we put the very horses we love so much at risk. When people fear asking for help, worried about the judgment that will ensue, they stay quiet, safe in their uneducated state, making uninformed and potentially harmful decisions for their horses.

Education should not come with arrogance, it should come with a sense of humility. Humility from the realization that there is still so much unknown, humility from understanding how easily one's knowledge can be shared with others and how much growth we can achieve as a community if we just change our way of thinking. If we simply welcomed educational conversation and encouraged our friends to ask questions instead of ridiculing them when they do, we would see increased educational development in our community. If opinions and ideas could be spread freely and without hindrance, horse owners would be better able to make informed decisions and provide superior care for their horses.

So, next time you jump to passing judgment on your fellow equestrians, think of it as an opportunity to share your knowledge and to create a better, more informed community for horses and their people everywhere.

About the Author
Lindsay Gilbert is the owner of Transitions Sport Horses, based in Lexington, KY. She specializes in repurposing OTTBs for careers in eventing, jumping and dressage. She also publishes a blog chronicling her road to the Retired Racehorse Project's Thoroughbred Makeover.

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Equestrians are the best of people. Equestrians are the worst of people.

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Growing up, most little girls dream of owning a pony. Braiding pink ribbons in their hair, kissing their soft noses, feeling the freedom that comes with having four legs take you wherever you want to go. Only a small percentage of us were actually able to live that dream.

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Roan is a horse coat color pattern characterized by an even mixture of colored and white hairs on the body, while the head and " points"-lower legs, mane and tail-are mostly solid-colored. Horses with roan coats have white hairs evenly intermingled throughout any other color. The head, legs, mane and tail have fewer scattered white hairs or none at all. The roan pattern is dominantly-inherited, and is found in many horse breeds. While the specific mutation responsible for roan has not been exactly identified, a DNA test can determine zygosity for roan in several breeds. True roan is always present at birth, though it may be hard to see until after the foal coat sheds out. The coat may lighten or darken from winter to summer, but unlike the gray coat color, which also begins with intermixed white and colored hairs, roans do not become progressively lighter in color as they age. The silvering effect of mixed white and colored hairs can create coats that look bluish or pinkish.

Horses with the roan pattern have an even mixture of white and colored hairs in the coat. These interspersed white hairs are more scattered or absent on the horse's head, mane, tail, and lower legs. The unaffected color on the legs often forms a sharp, inverted "V" above the knee and hock, not seen in other roan-like coat patterns. The non-white background coat may be any color, as determined by unrelated genetic factors.

Often, the background coat color is used in combination with the word "roan" to describe the shade of a roan horse's coat, such as bay roan or gold champagne roan. However, there are also colloquial terms used for some colors. The most common terms for various roan colors are the following:

Blue roan, is loosely applied to any roan with a dark underlying coat that gives it a bluish cast. But in the strictest sense, "blue roan" is a common synonym for a roan with a black background coat.

Red roan used to include both chestnut and bay roans. In 1999, the American Paint Horse Association changed its coat color descriptions: roans with a chestnut background coat are registered "red roan", while "bay roan" is its own category. The American Quarter Horse Association followed suit in 2003. Previously, the term Strawberry roan described the pinkish color of a light chestnut or sorrel roan. While less common, the term lilac roan may be applied to a dark chestnut roan, and honey roan to palominos or the lightest sorrels.

Bay roan replaced red roan as the term for a roan with a bay background coat.

Some roan horses have more white hair than others, and even individual horses may look lighter or darker based on the season and their coats may vary from year to year. While roan is always present at birth, the soft first coat of newborn foals may not show the white hairs well. Some roan horses get darker with age. Generally, roans appear to have more white hair when they have their short summer coats and darker when they have their winter coats. These peculiar tendencies of roans led to the Icelandic word for roan, which translates as "always changing color."

Roans have other unusual characteristics. If the skin is damaged by even a very minor scrape, cut or brand, the coat grows back in solid-colored without any white hairs. These regions of solid-colored coat are called "corn spots" or "corn marks" and can appear even without the horse having had a visible injury. Another trait is reverse dappling; many horses develop rings of hair that appear slightly different-colored, called dapples, which often indicate good health. Usually dapples are darker than the surrounding coat, but on a roan, the dapples are lighter.

In the most general sense, the word "roan" refers to any animal with a mixture of white and colored hairs in the coat. Recent research into equine coat color genetics indicates that "true roan" or "classic roan" is distinct from several similar patterns which are collectively called "roaning." In studies of the white patterning genotypes of laboratory mice, no fewer than four produced roaning or flecking. Therefore, the existence of other types of roaning conditions not covered by those mentioned here is possible and likely. The patterns identified as "roaning" have particular qualities that can be used to tell them apart from true roan.

Roans are sometimes mistaken for grays. However, grays lighten with age, while roans do not. Gray is one of the most common coat colors found in horses, and is found in almost all breeds. The defining characteristic of the gray coat is that it becomes progressively lighter over time. Gray foals may be born any color, and there may be no indication of the future gray coat at birth. Mature grays may retain none of their original coat color, and have a " white" coat, while the color of the skin and eyes is unchanged. The first white hairs are usually seen around the muzzle and eyes. As a gray may go from entirely colored to entirely white over the course of its life, the process of "graying out" can, at times, closely resemble roan. Thoroughbred and Arabian horses registered as "roan" are often gray, especially chestnuts turning gray. Unlike grays, roans do not develop more white hair with age, and without white markings, roans retain colored heads.

Blue dun or grullo (also grulla, mouse dun) coloring is created by the dun gene acting on a black base coat, is a coat color with a bluish cast and darker points. Unlike blue roans, grullos are solid color and appear bluish due to low amounts of pigment in each hair, not interspersed white hairs. Like other dun coat colors, grullos have dark or black primitive markings, always including a stripe down the back.

One pattern of roaning is rabicano, also called white ticking. While true roans have an even intermixture of white hairs throughout the body, except the extremities, the white hairs of a rabicano are densest around the base of the tail and the flank. Rabicano roaning frequently forms rings of white hair around the base of the tail, and in extensively roaned rabicanos, the white hairs may converge to form vertical stripes over the ribcage. Rabicano is found in many breeds, and may account for some "roan" Arabians.

Roaning is also associated with some of the sabino white spotting patterns. There are many patterns in many breeds called "sabino," and these patterns usually feature irregular, rough-edged patches of white that originate from the lower legs, face, and ventral midline. The borders of these white patches can be heavily roaned, and some sabinos can be mistaken for roans. The roaning of sabinos will originate in a white patch, and the roaning is uneven.

The leopard complex colors, characteristic of the Appaloosa breed, have several manifestations that feature mixtures of white and colored hairs. A varnish roan, one type of leopard complex coat color also called "marble", is an all-over blend of white and colored hairs. Patches of skin that lie close to the bone, such as on the face and legs, and the point of shoulder and point of hip, do not grow as much white hair. These darker patches are called "varnish marks" and are not found in true roans. Varnish roans can also be distinguished from true roans by the presence of leopard complex characteristics, such as the white sclera, finely striped hooves, and mottled skin around the eyes, muzzle, and genitals.

True or classic roan is common in European draft breeds such as the Brabant, Ardennes, Trait Du Nord, Italian Heavy Draft, and Rhenish-German Cold-Blood. It is also found regularly in North American breeds like the Quarter Horse, Paint Horse, Peruvian Paso, Paso Fino, Standardbred, Spanish Mustang, and Tennessee Walking Horse.

British ponies such as Dales Ponies, Welsh Ponies, Gypsy Cobs, Shetland Ponies, Connemara ponies, and New Forest ponies may be roan. Icelandic horses and Miniature horses may also be roan. Some roan Trakehners and American Saddlebreds are known. The Hokkaido Pony of Japan may also be roan.

True roan has not been satisfactorily identified in Arabians or Thoroughbreds. Despite this, Thoroughbreds and Arabians with roan-like coats are sometimes registered as "roan." Thoroughbred "roans" are described by the Jockey Club as a mixture of white with red or brown hairs, but which researchers identify as chestnuts turning gray. The Arabian Horse Association defines "roan" as an even mixture of white and colored, usually chestnut, hairs, but researchers suggest this may actually be a unique type of white pattern, probably rabicano, or, occasionally, minimally expressed sabino.

Roan is a simple dominant trait symbolized by the Rn allele. Traits that are dominantly-inherited cannot skip generations, meaning that two non-roan parents cannot produce a roan offspring. In cases where roan has appeared to skip generations, one of the parents is usually discovered to be slightly roaned. A roan can also be born from two seemingly non-roan parents if the roan coat is "masked" by extensive white markings or gray. In some cases, the supposedly roan offspring is not true roan at all, but rabicano, sabino, or influenced by some other genetic factor.

The University of California, Davis School of Veterinary Medicine's genetics services have developed a DNA test that uses genetic markers to indirectly determine the number of Rn or rn alleles a horse has. The mutation responsible for true roan has not yet been identified exactly, but been assigned to equine chromosome 3 (ECA3) in the KIT sequence. A roan zygosity test is reliable for American Quarter Horse, American Paint Horse, Welsh Pony, and Gypsy Cob. Until a direct test is developed, the roan zygosity test may enable breeders to produce roans more reliably.

A 1979 study of American-bred Belgian draft horses found fewer roan offspring from roan-to-roan matings than expected for a simple dominant trait. Finding neither stillborn nor sickly, short-lived foals from these roan parents, the researchers concluded that in the homozygous condition the roan gene was lethal to the embryo or fetus. Other studies at the time were using progeny ratios to identify potential lethality related to other coat colors, such as " dominant white" and " lethal white," and so roan was believed to follow a similar pattern. Genetic science in the 1970s could not provide a clear answer, as methods of molecular analysis had not yet been developed.

The belief in "lethal roan" persisted until recently, when homozygous roan stallions with large numbers of offspring - all roan - were satisfactorily identified. Homozygous roan stallions were identified in both European populations of Belgian horses in 1977, and in North American, in Quarter Horse stallions.

In some breeds, homozygous roans can be identified by an indirect DNA marker test. Such horses, with the genotype Rn/Rn, produce 100% roan offspring. Homozygous roans and heterozygous roans ( Rn/rn) are identical in appearance.

During the production of sex cells, DNA is "reshuffled" to ensure that the next generation does not inherit, for example, grandpa's chromosome 8, but a mixture of DNA from each parent. Instead, paired chromosomes exchange parallel pieces of DNA, a process called chromosomal crossover, prior to being passed on to the next generation. When particular genes are located physically close together on a chromosome, they tend to be passed on together. The rate at which two genes are passed on together can be used to calculate their distance from each other on the chromosome. Genes which tend to be passed on as a group form what is called a " linkage group."

Equine linkage group II includes a number of genes. The first linkage was found between a blood type marker and tobiano white spotting in 1978. The same blood type marker, albumin, was linked to another blood protein called vitamin D-binding protein. In 1982, a linkage grouping was proposed, including three genes for serum proteins, and three for coat color: tobiano spotting, chestnut, and roan. Research since equine linkage group II was defined has identified the exact location of the tobiano allele and the chestnut allele. The region of the chromosome that harbors the roan gene is homologous to parts of chromosomes in other species that also control coat color, even some similar to roan. Presently, the gene is the primary candidate gene for roan. While a chromosomal inversion of KIT causes tobiano white spotting, KIT also harbors one or more alleles responsible for sabino spotting, no fewer than eleven alleles responsible for dominant white spotting, and is thought to be a major contributor to many other forms of less distinctive white markings.

The effect of linkage between roan and chestnut is readily observed. If a horse possesses one chromosome with the wildtype non-chestnut allele and the dominant roan allele ( E and Rn), while the other chromosome contains the recessive chestnut allele and the recessive non-roan allele ( e and rn), he will outwardly appear blue roan, barring the influence of other genes. Normally, the chestnut and roan alleles would be separated during chromosomal crossover, but these two linked genes will usually remain together. Such a horse will produce sex cells that are either E/Rn or e/rn. Mated to chestnut non-roan partners ( e/rn), the horse would produce primarily blue roans, or chestnut non-roans, but few chestnut roans and few black non-roans. If, on the other hand, the recessive e and dominant Rn were on the same chromosome, the horse would be expected to produce primarily chestnut roans and non-chestnut non-roans with chestnut, non-roan partners.

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Roan is a horse coat color pattern characterized by an even mixture of colored and white hairs on the body, while the head and " points"-lower legs, mane and tail-are mostly solid-colored. Horses with roan coats have white hairs evenly intermingled throughout any other color.

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Certified Equestrian Canada Coaches & Canadian Therapeutic Riding Association Instructors.

It is a known fact that Students attending any School, College or University, must learn the theory prior to practical knowledge.

Learning to Ride a Horse is No Different!

Our Online Equestrian Courses offer Students a Step by Step Framework, that is easy to follow and understand.

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free online equine courses with certificates

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Certified Equestrian Canada Coaches & Canadian Therapeutic Riding Association Instructors. It is a known fact that Students attending any School, College or University, must learn the theory prior to practical knowledge. Learning to Ride a Horse is No Different! Our Online Equestrian Courses offer Students a Step by Step Framework, that is easy to follow and understand.

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We had to draw a muscle and skeletal system for my animal anatomy class, so I decided to turn it into a flash interactive. This would be really handy if you needed to study and memorize horse anatomy...

So have fun learning!

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We had to draw a muscle and skeletal system for my animal anatomy class, so I decided to turn it into a flash interactive. This would be really handy if you needed to study and memorize horse anatomy... So have fun learning!

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​This course features guest instructor Angelo Telatin, competitive show jumping rider, dressage coach, professor, and equine behavior expert. Angelo presents an advanced training in horse behavior and training for any discipline using learning psychology. In this course, Angelo also teaches the "next level" of riding skills, preparing both horse and rider with a foundation of classical training presented in a way that is consistent with what science has proven regarding learning patterns of horses and humans.

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CRK Training Online Horse Riding + Training Courses - Free + Premium

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​This course features guest instructor Angelo Telatin, competitive show jumping rider, dressage coach, professor, and equine behavior expert. Angelo presents an advanced training in horse behavior and training for any discipline using learning psychology.

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horse training courses endurance competitive trail

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What We Learned About Boarding Our Horse

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What We Learned About Boarding Our Horse

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It has been a lesson learned that choosing a barn to board our horses can be frustrating and, sometimes, morally injurious to our identities.

I recently posed the question to my veteran, "In business, the code of ethics addresses the subject of our individual identities. How many boarding facilities had a code of ethics published that addressed more than the interest of the horse? There have been several issues that arose that could be interpreted as discrimination, regardless of the identities of the owners."

There were "barn rules" posted. However, I have never noticed the equine best practice code of ethics posted at a facility. It was when differences of opinions and crowd sentiments escalated where new rules would be implemented.

Isn't a boarding facility a business? This is what I've learned.

♦ Notice if there is a propensity to use boarders in exchange for boarding fees. Is there a clear process in place for this exchange to be tracked on the books for tax purposes?
♦ How frequently does the facility go through hired help?
♦ How many horses died from colic around the time hired hands were changed?
♦ Is the facility in the process of being foreclosed on? If so, what are the contract agreements and what risks are involved?
♦ If your horse is declared as a problem horse, will there be a plan provided to help you determine whether you can meet their requirements and demands of herd integration for pasture time?
♦ Who gets pasture time? Is it only full care boarders that get pasture time and how large of a pasture is it? How many horses will be in the pasture and is there quality forage for the horse?
♦ If your horse has PSSM--will your needs for a dry lot be met? How will your horse be able to stretch their legs so their bones can have the optimal environment for their physical and emotional health?
♦ If only full-care boarders get pasture time, what provisions does the facility have to accommodate self-care or partial care customers?
♦ If cultural challenges arise (and they will because everyone has an opinion), how will the facility guarantee that they will address the differences in opinions in a fair and just manner and without prejudice?

These are all frustrating questions for a facility. Conversely, it is the cost of doing business. Business is messy because business involves people. Without a code of ethics, it can make the messiness chaotic.

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It has been a lesson learned that choosing a barn to board our horses can be frustrating and, sometimes, morally injurious to our identities.

I recently posed the question to my veteran, "In...

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Tips for Choosing the Right Boarding Facility

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Tips for Choosing the Right Boarding Facility

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The Challenges of Using Horses for Practical Teaching Purposes in Veterinary Programmes

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The Challenges of Using Horses for Practical Teaching Purposes in Veterinary Programmes

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"Horses have been considered to be the most dangerous of all the animals that students have to learn how to handle appropriately [20], possibly because of their size and innate flight response."

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Clive J. C. Phillips, Academic Editor

Abstract

Keywords: horse, equine handling, equine welfare, human-equine interaction

1. Introduction

Since the Classical Greek period, equitation has often been considered an art [ 1]. This romantic cultural perception of horse riding can, however, conflict with the practical considerations of risk [ 2]. Horseback riding is reported to be more dangerous than rugby, football, skiing and motorcycle riding [ 3, 4, 5] and the risks associated with equine-related activities are commonly accepted and well documented [ 2, 6, 7]. Many of the accidents and injuries to riders or handlers are often due to breakdowns in human-equine communication [ 6].

Horses are generally considered to be unpredictable, fearful and flight-wired and these are the traits linked to accidents involving people [ 8]. It has been proposed that the risk of injuries may be higher amongst people with low levels of knowledge of horse behaviour, as they may not be able to anticipate unwanted, but natural, equine behaviours [ 2]. As up to half of all equine related injuries take place during activities other than riding [ 9], it is likely that veterinary and animal science students may be a high risk group. Often these students handle horses with little previous experience and understanding of horse behaviour. This paper will focus on the use of horses for practical veterinary and animal science teaching purposes. The paper will also discuss the importance of students to be able to interpret equine behaviour and arousal levels and the potential consequences to student and equine welfare when this ability is lacking.

2. Equine Handling Classes

The majority of veterinary students come from an urban background with little, or no, previous animal handling experience [ 10, 11, 12]. In one survey, 60% of veterinary science and veterinary nursing students were from cities, 12% from large towns 10% from towns or villages and only 18% were from rural areas [ 11]. Due to a lack of previous exposure to animals, particularly large farm animals, veterinary science degrees have to focus on teaching basic animal behaviour and handling in combination with clinical examinations and procedures.

There is consensus across veterinary schools that the teaching of animal handling skills is a vital part of a veterinary degree [ 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. Horses have been considered to be the most dangerous of all the animals that students have to learn how to handle appropriately [ 20], possibly because of their size and innate flight response. Across veterinary schools in Australasia, it appears that basic equine and other animal handling skills are mostly taught within the first year of the degree programme, with some universities reinforcing these skills throughout the programme [ 15, 19]. The objectives of practical equine handling classes varies between universities, but many aim to teach students basic handling skills such as how to approach and restrain a horse with a halter and/or anti-rearing bit, lift fore and hind legs, groom the horse, apply and remove rugs and apply physical restraints, such as a nose twitch [ 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. The practical equine handling classes are often delivered or taught within the first 2 years of a veterinary degree but the total duration of time allocated varies widely between universities, with reports ranging from 2 h to month-long full-time placements [ 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. Good animal handling skills have been defined as general knowledge of the animal's needs, practical experience in the care of the animal and the ability to quickly identify changes in behaviour, health or performance and to address those appropriately [ 21]. Based on this definition, it can be assumed that good equine handling skills require a considerable amount of time to master and are not taught in merely a few hours.

Providing learning opportunities in animal handling can be difficult and the time allocated has been reported to suffer due to pressure from other elements of the curriculum and due to financial constraints [ 13, 21]. To combat this, a number of universities provide the opportunity for students to spend a few weeks, in the first two years of their degree, gaining practical equine experience extramurally [ 13, 15, 16, 17]. Nevertheless, it is questionable whether, in some cases, only a few hours of practical teaching before partaking in extramural work experience is sufficient to prepare students to handle horses in a safe and effective manner. Austin et al. [ 17] reported that even after two 1.5 h practical equine handling sessions 38% of students failed their first attempt at a (basic) practical equine handling exam. Furthermore, the supervision and experience gained extramurally is likely to be inconsistent between placements and whether the students learn adequate safe and ethical horse handling skills is unknown. It is hence possible that competency between students may vary significantly, and be lacking, even after extramural work experience has been completed. Students at one university questioned the efficiency of the basic animal-handling skills being taught in the veterinary science programme and suggested a more structured approach be implemented [ 12].

The learning objectives for many equine handling classes appear strongly focused on physical handling and restraint [ 17, 18, 20], with lesser focus on observing the arousal state of the horse. Yet, appropriate restraint of all animals during veterinary and husbandry procedures depend on the ability to accurately assess the animals' affective state. Cawdell-Smith et al. [ 13] suggest that students need to obtain more basic instruction in animal behaviour and handling, rather than an emphasis on manipulation and restraint, which is most likely only suitable for experienced students. Students need to develop their skills of observation and, as stated by McGreevy [ 21], "they need to develop a better understanding of animal behaviour and handling before they can become safe". The welfare of all animals used in animal handling classes is also of critical importance and students need the skills to assess both the physical wellbeing and the arousal state of the animals they work with.

In many universities students are assessed on their animal-handling skills at various time points. The assessments often occur during the practical handling classes [ 13, 20] and for many students this coincides with the first time they handle a particular species or perform a procedure. It would perhaps be useful to re-assess students throughout the veterinary program to ensure that their handling skills are improving. Some veterinary schools have already taken this approach, with students having to pass a barrier exam in animal handling at the end of their third year of study, prior to the start of the clinical teaching phase of the degree [ 13]. This not only achieves a threshold of minimum competency but provides an opportunity to reinforce the skills learnt earlier in the programme. Data on the efficacy of the different approaches, and level of repetition required to achieve desired minimum competencies are urgently required to help optimise equine handling experiences.

3. Is a Naive Handler at a Higher Risk of Injury?

A study investigating veterinary and equine students' ability to assess the affective state and arousal of horses reported that less than half of the students correctly described the affective state of the horses [ 22]. Many students, especially those with less previous horse experience, failed to identify negative affective states and heightened arousal. This is perhaps not surprising as studies show that horse owners struggle to correctly identify certain behaviours and affective states [ 23]. An inability of veterinary students to accurately assess horse behaviour such as anxiety could create breakdowns in human-horse communication and subsequently pose a safety risk for the students [ 6]. Although protocols are in place in many universities with equine educational programs to ensure the safety of students and staff, accidents are still common. The most common injuries sustained by veterinary and animal science students during handling classes were inflicted by hind limb kicks, bites or by horses stepping on feet or ankles [ 22]. Many injuries occurred while standing near a horse (26.1%), performing a handling or husbandry procedure (21.7%) or performing a non-invasive physical examination procedure (17.4%). These data indicate a lack of awareness of the horse's state of arousal and safe positioning around the horse by students. Injuries caused by the horse kicking or biting suggest an inability of the students to assess the affective state of the horse and subsequently respond appropriately when the horse is displaying anxious and reactive behaviours. Riley et al. [ 24] reports that 52% of students believed their injury was caused as a result of resistance by the horse to handling. However, inexperience and inattention was cited by students as being responsible for 39% and 30% of accidents, respectively [ 24]. These results further suggest a lack of experience or ability to observe and rapidly respond to behavioural cues displayed by the horse. Of injured students, 30% believed that the incident occurred because the horse was fearful or distressed. Perhaps some of these injuries could have been prevented if the students were better able to identify subtle cues from the horse, including changes in its arousal levels, and consequently moderate their behaviour and handling to attenuate this increased arousal level. The subtle, complex and rapidly changing nature of many equine behavioural cues may be difficult for a naive handler to process and correctly act upon. Gronqvist et al. [ 22] reports an association between previous horse experience and ability to assess the affective state of horses. These results imply that the ability to identify the subtle cues of equine behaviour improve over time and can hence be learnt.

4. The Welfare of Animals Used in Teaching

Live animals are a key aspect of animal handling. The sole use of virtual reality, simulators or models is not practical for teaching good animal handling skills [ 25, 26]. With the use of live animals, however, comes the responsibility of treating them ethically and in accordance to the law. The Cruelty to Animals Act passed in Britain in 1876 was the first national law to regulate animals in research, testing and teaching. This bill was the first of its kind passed by any legislature in the world and provided a central governing body to review and approve the use of animals in research. Similar bills were quickly adopted in other countries and numerous enhancements have taken place since. Perhaps the most significant enhancement has been the principles universally acknowledged as the "3Rs". The 3Rs stand for replacement, reduction and refinement [ 27] and form the foundation of modern research and teaching practices involving animals. Many veterinary schools strive to promote the 3R's principle [ 28], however the complexity of equine behavior often restricts the efficacy of replacement of horses with simulations and veterinary schools thus reduce welfare cost by attempting to optimize the teaching experience and therefore focus on the reduction and refinement aspect of the 3R's.

Today, most countries have laws governing the use of animals in teaching. Although there is some variation in the statutory requirements, the laws largely focus on the physical health and behavioural needs of the animals and to alleviate any pain and distress. Furthermore, in many countries, organisations using animals must follow an approved code of ethical conduct, which sets out the guidelines and procedures to be followed by the organisation and its animal ethics committee. Good animal welfare is the core of veterinary medicine, yet no universal definition or measure of welfare currently exists. Broom (1986) described animal welfare as the state of an animal in regards to its attempts to cope with its environment [ 29]. The health of the animal is the foundation of good welfare [ 30], although animal welfare does not just refer to the animals' physical state [ 31]. The animals' psychological state and ability to express natural behaviours are also vital to good welfare [ 32]. Animal welfare has been described as complex and multifactorial, therefore proving challenging to define and assess [ 33]. Animal welfare assessments thus need to be holistic, rather than focus solely on one aspect, such as the animal's physical state alone [ 31]. The welfare of an animal is a reflection of its affective state, according to The Five Domains [ 34]. The Five Domains model was initially developed to evaluate welfare compromise in animals used in research, teaching and testing [ 35]. This model is used to recognise compromise in the four physical domains (nutrition, environment, health and behaviour) and in one mental domain, which is the animal's affective experiences and reflects the animal's overall welfare state [ 34]. In order to maximise welfare, it is thus important for veterinary students to learn how to assess the horse's affective state, in addition to the physical state [ 34, 36]. It is therefore proposed that the framework of such a model should be more methodically incorporated in the theoretical and practical veterinary teaching curriculum.

5. Does an Inability of a Naive Handler to Read Behaviour Have Implications for Equine Welfare?

It has been strongly emphasised that daily human-equine interaction greatly influences the way horses perceive humans and the consequential relationship [ 37, 38]. Many common husbandry procedures and circumstances in which veterinary students handle horses may be perceived as an aversive stimuli by the horse, e.g., restraint, diagnostic examinations and practising clinical procedures. Many aversive stimuli paired with little positive reinforcement increase the risk of horses entering negative affective states, which could have an impact on the horses' overall welfare [ 39, 40]. There is significant opportunity for the amplification of the aversive stimuli in the hands of many students that may be naive, or have limited ability to interpret horse behaviour and competently handle horses in any but the most favourable of situations. Overmier and Wielkiewicz [ 41] reported that if human signals become inconsistent, animals may exhibit behaviours indicative of extreme arousal and reactivity. Incorrectly applying aversive stimuli in horse training has been proposed to compromise horse welfare [ 42]. Horses used for veterinary teaching are frequently handled by a large number of students with varying skill levels. It is thus presumable that there are inconsistencies in the way horses are handled by veterinary students, which could lead to increased arousal levels and anxiety and compromised welfare in these horses. It is, therefore, likely that the unavoidable use of aversive stimuli, coupled with a lack of consistent human signals during human-equine interactions in teaching, induces equine anxiety. In addition to reduced welfare for the horse, repetitive exposure to negative human-equine interactions puts the handlers at risk of serious accidents [ 43]. To minimise the potential negative effects that handling classes may have on horse welfare, it is suggested that horses are frequently rotated between classes to minimise their exposure to aversive stimuli. Teaching learning theory to students could be combined with horse handling classes in an attempt to introduce the use of positive reinforcement and minimise the use of aversive stimuli.

6. The Balance between Workload and Experience

The psychology and business management literature describe the concepts of flow and optimal stress, when the appropriate balance between workload and experience is achieved [ 44]. Using this concept individuals achieve optimal flow when the frequency and complexity of the tasks are appropriate for the level of skill and competency of the individual. Excessive stress occurs when, the frequency, the complexity, or the interaction of the two, exceed the individuals capability. Optimal or acceptable stress is when the individual is operating within the zone of flow; sufficient workload to maintain interest, without providing excessive stress. This concept could be applied to the use of horses in practical teaching of veterinary and animal science students.

To reduce the welfare cost to the horse, horse anxiety and the associated risk of handler injury, the optimal balance between the averseness of the stimuli, frequency of stimuli and predictability of the stimuli needs to be achieved for each horse (). The welfare equilibrium is achieved at the intersection of the frequency of use and noxiousness of the stimuli. Within the model we have portrayed frequency and noxiousness as curvilinear relationships, rather than a simple linear slope, to reflect the biology of the system. For each horse and situation there will be a threshold in which the adversity of the frequency and noxiousness of stimuli no longer has a simple additive effect. The initial set point (the respective intercepts of frequency and noxiousness on their respective Y axis) will be horse specific or even situation (handler and/or environment) specific, and thus also moderates the slope and respective intersection point for welfare equilibrium for a specific horse. The slopes of the respective lines are also in turn moderated by the predictability of the stimuli.

For horses used in teaching facilities, student interaction would be considered the stimuli. The veterinary procedure (e.g., venipunctures or rectal palpations) the students practice would determine the averseness of the stimuli. Within veterinary teaching programmes there are limited opportunities to modify the procedures horses are used for, and class size restrictions limit our ability to modify the severity and frequency of horse and student interaction. The greatest ability to reduce welfare cost, anxiety and exposure (risk) to injury is to moderate the slope of the lines through greater consistency and decreased averseness of the human-horse interaction.

7. Optimising Welfare in a Teaching Environment

The model proposed in could be further refined with the concept of exposure to teaching and class specific moderators that either dampen or accentuate the averseness of the stimuli (in essence modifiers of the slope). One such moderator is the previous learning experience of individual horses. The previous history of punishment or reinforcement associated with a specific stimulus will affect operant and emotional responses to similar cues in the future and the horse will form a negative association or fear response [ 44, 45]. Because of the mechanisms of learning, once a fear response has been formed it is difficult to erase [ 46]. The fear response can be modified but spontaneous reoccurrence is likely [ 47, 48, 49]. Steps should thus be taken to reduce exposure to negative environments and effective states to reduce the risk of formation of negative associations. Particular care should be focused on optimising student-horse experience through providing positive experiences which will provide longevity and a reduction in welfare cost. Moderators, such as previous learning history and predictability of the stimulus, will act directly on the point of intersection and on the level of arousal (the perceived noxiousness of the stimuli). Anecdotal observations by the authors have indicated that, even with large class sizes, mild changes in the predictability of the student-horse interaction (i.e., slower and more obvious interactions) have reduced overt signs of anxiety in teaching horses, even though the averseness of the stimuli (rectal palpation) remained consistent.

7.1. Preventing Horse Isolation

Horses are social creatures and social isolation can therefore generate an anxiety state [ 50, 51]. As such, social isolation may contribute to the noxiousness of the interaction. It is hence plausible to suggest that modification of the environment to meet the social needs of the horse would reduce the threshold for anxiety. Preliminary data by our group indicate that social isolation may over-ride perception of even moderate (noxious stimuli) pain (Reid et al in prep). Thus given the horse's strong drive for social interaction the role of social isolation on moderating the horses experience during practical teaching classes should not be underestimated as a source of anxiety and potential risk. Establishing a teaching environment that meets horses' social needs (e.g., the sight of other horses) could potentially reduce the risk of student injury and should be an integral part of any teaching environment.

7.2. Inherent Characteristics of Horses and Humans

Another moderating factor on the slope and the intersection of the lines for frequency and averseness of the stimuli are the inherent characteristics of teaching horses. Horses used for teaching purposes are often chosen based on their sedate characteristics and ease of handling [ 17, 19, 20]. While individual differences exist [ 52, 53, 54], it has been shown that horses' behavioural responses to challenges can be modified by both external (e.g., type of work) and internal (e.g., breed) factors [ 38, 55]. Older horses are often selected for teaching purposes [ 12], but research suggests that more attention may need to be placed on breed and management strategies of these horses. When exposed to a number of temperament testing procedures, breed and housing conditions of horses have been shown to have a greater influence on behaviour, while sex and age of the horse have lesser influence [ 56]. Riding school horses managed in individual boxes reacted more strongly when released in an arena, especially if a novel object was present, than horses managed as a herd on pasture [ 53]. These riding horses were more prone to express "high locomotory components". While release into an arena is a different model to the common use of horses in veterinary practical teaching, the greater predisposition to high locomotor components does suggests a reduction in the individual horse's threshold for the flight response. The hardwired flight behaviour in the horse is a consistent theme in the risk associated with horse handling and thus reduction in the flight response threshold will increase risk. These horses may then require physical or chemical restraint to attenuate this risk, which may not have been necessary with modification of the management system. For safety reasons, naive students may benefit from initially only interacting with horses of a more sedate character. Graded exposure techniques would allow nervous students to gradually habituate to handling horses with different levels of reactivity and previous handling experiences [ 57, 58]. As the students progress with their handling skills they may benefit from experience with horses of a more reactive nature to prevent complacency and prepare them for the wide range of horses they are likely to encounter in their career. The ability of students to interpret the behavioural and arousal state of horses increases with experience [ 22], however, increased exposure may lead to less vigilance as inattention was cited by veterinary students as being responsible for 30% of horse-handling accidents [ 24].

The inherent characteristics of the student handler are another moderating factor on the slope and the intersection of the lines for frequency and averseness of the stimuli. Human emotional states and attitudes towards animals influence human-animal communication [ 59, 60]. Within the context of commercial livestock industries there is a significant body of evidence demonstrating the advantage of training programmes improving stock person handling skills and the subsequent reduction in fear and stress responses in livestock [ 21]. Thus an active training programme for students based around ethology and learning theory should significantly reduce the welfare cost to the teaching horses. Within the literature a number of studies provide support for such an approach that not only provides a greater opportunity for positive human-horse interactions, but has an indirect effect on increasing handler confidence and a positive attitude towards the horse. Confidence, irrespective of handling experience, has been reported to alter the human-horse interaction [ 61, 62]. Horses were reported to exhibit less ear movement, and more frequently had a forward ear position (suggesting confidence, relaxation, and interested in surroundings [ 45]), when led by veterinary students with a positive attitude towards horses [ 62].

A nervous handler may also provide an environment with a heightened state of arousal, which primes the horse to respond to potential danger as the startle response threshold is reduced [ 61, 63]. Students who are both inexperienced and nervous around horses may thus have the greatest negative effect on horse welfare as, in addition to an increased heart rate [ 61], the students are also more likely to send inconsistent signals. These individual human characteristics should be considered in the model, and should be a focus of training during animal handling practicals, as they act directly on the point of intersection and the welfare equilibrium.

7.3. Actions Points and Empirical Validation of the Model

At present the model proposed is purely a conceptual model. Further refinement of this model requires the application of metrics to transform this from a conceptual framework to an empirical model. However, despite the current lack of metrics there are a number of practical steps that can be implemented within the practical teaching environment, until such data can be collected and the model has been verified and tested. These practical steps include

1. Predictability: Ensuring student awareness of equine ethology and the horse's ecological niche prior to the start of practical session, as this information should directly translate to a greater predictability of human-horse interactions. A basic ethogram of equine arousal levels is needed to ensure a simple, practical and easy to use method to teach students predictable, responsive interactions with horses and subsequently reduce the risk of injury to themselves while improving horse welfare.

2. Horse specific characteristics and adverseness of stimuli: Exposure of students to learning theory early in the curriculum prior to horse handling. This should provide awareness that each human-horse interaction has a modifying effect (good or bad). Punishment and unclear or inconsistent signals may heighten the horse's arousal and negative affective state and lead to confusion, conflict or fear behaviors which may become a safety issue for the handlers [ 49]. Teaching would instead emphasize the ability to use positive reinforcement techniques (addition of an attractive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a desired response) as a means to shape and increase desired behaviours and reduce the chance of negative (fear related) associations forming.

3. Consider the inherent characteristics of individual horses, such as age, temperament and previous learning history.

4. Prevent additional anxiety caused by social isolation by allowing conspecifics within view of the subject horse.

To provide empirical validation of the model data need to be collected in the teaching classes across different teaching environments. For a number of criteria such as noxiousness and predictability there is a need for the development of a simple and practical system to quantify these with sufficient precision.

8. Conclusions

The challenge for veterinary programmes is to help students develop appropriate handling skills by identifying the optimal model to teach students to assess horse behaviour and its application to animal handling skills. Teaching stockmanship skills has already been shown to improve attitude of cattle handlers and enhance the welfare and productivity of cattle [ 48]. It is thus probable that similar benefits could be gained from improved equine handling skills. An enhanced quantification of "skill" is needed, as currently there does not appear to be a consensus in the literature on what are good, acceptable or poor equine handling skills. In most veterinary schools teaching horses provide the ideal mechanism to develop horse handling skills. However, consistent exposure to naive or poor handling provides an opportunity for compromised welfare of the teaching horses.

The conceptual model proposed provides the first step towards identifying the variables that contribute to compromised welfare and mechanisms to mitigate these. Collection of empirical data during teaching practicals will allow validation of the model and quantification of the benefit of changes in management.

Author Contributions

Gabriella Gronqvist, Erica Gee, Charlotte Bolwell, and Chris Rogers were responsible for the design and conception of the manuscript. All authors were responsible for preparation of the manuscript, additional editing and reviewing of the final manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

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The Challenges of Using Horses for Practical Teaching Purposes in Veterinary Programmes

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Clive J. C. Phillips, Academic Editor Keywords: horse, equine handling, equine welfare, human-equine interaction Since the Classical Greek period, equitation has often been considered an art [ 1]. This romantic cultural perception of horse riding can, however, conflict with the practical considerations of risk [ 2].

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This is a basic glossary of equestrian terms that includes both technical terminology and jargon developed over the centuries for horses and other equidae, as well as various horse-related concepts. Where noted, some terms are used only in American English (US), only in British English (UK), or are regional to a particular part of the world, such as Australia (AU).

For additional terminology, see also:

ace or ACP

Slang for the drug acepromazine or acetyl promazine (trade names Atravet or Acezine), which is a sedative commonly used on horses during veterinary treatment, but also illegal in the show ring.

action

The way a horse elevates its legs, knees, hocks, and feet. Also includes how the horse uses its shoulder, humerus, elbow, and stifle; most often used to describe motion at the trot, but sometimes applied to the canter or gallop. High action is a breed characteristic of Saddlebreds and other breeds used in Saddle seat or certain harness disciplines.

aged horse

An older horse. Originally referred to a horse with a "smooth mouth," generally eight years old or older, but modern use varies. Term may refer to an animal seven years old or older, eight or older, nine or older, or ten or older. In horse racing and in some horse shows, an aged horse is one over 4 years. In some contexts, an aged horse is older than 16 to 20 years of age.

Agister (UK), an official of the New Forest Verderers who controls grazing on the Forest by New Forest Ponies and other livestock.

Signals from the rider or driver to the horse that tell the animal what the handler wants it to do. Generally broken down into two varieties, natural and artificial. Other divisions are possible.

Natural aids include the hands, seat, weight, legs and voice

Artificial aids, which extend, reinforce, or substitute the natural aids; include items such as bits, whips, spurs, and martingales.

airs above the ground, airs

Movements in haute ecolé or "high school" classical dressage, where the horse leaves the ground with two or four feet in response to the rider's commands. Made famous by the Lipizzan horses at the Spanish Riding School, the airs include the levade, capriole, croupade, courbette, and ballotade. Sometimes called "school jumps".

1. A general term for a range of four beat intermediate speed horse gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace but far smoother to ride. Various terms for lateral ambling gaits, based on style, speed or rhythm of gait and breed of horse, include the slow gait, single foot, running walk, stepping pace, sobreandando, paso corto, paso llano, rack, tölt, and paso largo. The term usually refers to lateral gaits, but may be applied to all four beat intermediate speed gaits, including the diagonal four-beat gait referred to be terms such as fox trot, pasitrote, and trocha

2. The stepping pace. A specific intermediate speed horse gait, a slowed down pace. It is a four beat lateral gait, where the legs on one side of the horse move one immediately following the other, then the legs on the other side. It is a very smooth gait, and is natural to some breeds.

ankle

Incorrect term for the fetlock joint. The hock most closely corresponds to the human ankle.

An anticor, also known as anticoeur or avant-cœur, is an old term for a dangerous swelling or inflammation in a horse's breast.

Arabian or Arab

One of the oldest breeds of horse, noted for small size, dished face, erect carriage, high intelligence and lively disposition, from the Arabian Peninsula. Many other breeds contain Arabian bloodlines.

arena

An enclosed area for training or riding horses.

bearing rein, overcheck or checkrein

A strap running from a horse's back, over the head, to a bit, to prevent the horse from lowering its head beyond a fixed point. Used with harnessed horses.

billet (US), girth strap, girth point (UK)

A leather strap with punched holes, permanently attached in sets of two or three on each side of the tree of a saddle, used to hold and adjust the girth that holds on most types of saddle. See also latigo.

A term of art in equine conformation to describe the quality of certain skeletal structures.

The characteristics of the lower leg as a whole, including the cannon bone as well as associated tendons and ligaments. "Flat" bone describes a positive feature where the tendons of the leg stand well away from the cannon bone, "tied-in" bone describes the negative characteristic of the tendon placed too close to the bone.

A parasitic fly that lays its eggs on the legs, muzzle, and jaw of horses. The eggs are licked off by the horse and once ingested, hatch into maggots, called bots, which infest the animal by attaching to the stomach lining. The eggs may be scraped off with a bot knife or similar tool.

Marking a horse (or other animal) by burning the skin with a hot iron, or alternatively with a frozen implement (freeze branding). The skin may be balded, or the hair may grow back in a depigmented color.

1. The pedigree of an animal

2. A type of horse show competition where horses are led, not ridden. See in-hand.

Headgear placed around the head of a horse that holds the bit in place in a horse's mouth, including reins, used to direct and guide the animal. Sometimes used to refer to the entire piece of equipment, including headstall, bit and reins. Headstalls that do not have a bit are called either a bitless bridle or a hackamore.

A behavior where the horse lowers its head and rapidly kicks its hind feet into the air. At liberty, seen as an expression of excess energy or high spirit, under saddle is generally considered a disobedience, except in sports such as the rodeo sports of Saddle bronc and bareback riding, where the horse is deliberately encouraged to attempt to dislodge its rider.

bumper pull

A horse trailer style that is pulled by a hitch attached to the frame of the towing vehicle near the bumper. Contrast with gooseneck below.

bute

Common term for Phenylbutazone, a non-steroid anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to control pain and swelling in horses. Some racing commissions and showing authorities restrict its use prior to competition in order to reduce the risk of injury to horses. It is banned in most endurance riding competition.

by

Describes the relationship of a horse to its sire, in the context of its pedigree. A foal is by its sire and out of its dam.

cannon or cannon bone

The third metacarpal or metatarsal bone of the lower leg. Sometimes called the shin bone, but actually analogous to the bones in the human palm or foot. In equines, is a very large bone and provides the major support of the body weight of the horse. The term cannon may also encompass the soft tissues as well as the second and fourth metacarpal or metatarsal bones, called splint bones which may form ossified bridges of bone, called splints which often form after trauma to the area.

1. A horse of poor quality, referencing animals destined for slaughter.

2. Canner price: see meat money.

A three-beat horse gait, with both front and rear legs on one side landing further forward than those on the other side - see below. In Western riding, the canter is known as a . The order in which the feet hit the ground varies depending on which legs are leading, but the gait begins with the outside hind, followed by the simultaneous landing of the outside front and inside hind, finished by the inside front. There is a moment during a canter when all four hooves of the horse are off the ground, known as the moment of suspension. A similar gait is the gallop (see below) which is performed at a higher speed, when the second beat is broken into two footfalls, making it a four-beat gait.

1. A two-wheeled vehicle pulled by one or more horses (or other animals).

2. (Informal, US) A small, light four-wheeled vehicle, usually with bicycle-style tires, used primarily for show ring fine harness competition, and upper levels of pleasure driving.

casting, cast

1. Casting (UK), throwing (US): forcing a horse (or other large animal) to lie down, allowing safe veterinary or other treatment. Usually done by an arrangement of ropes or straps.

2. Cast, the state of an animal laying down that is unable to get up. May be due to illness or injury. Also occurs when a horse in a box stall (loose box) rolls over against a wall, trapping its legs against the wall.

Chestnut (horse anatomy) :A callousity on the inside of each leg, thought to possibly be a vestigial remnant of the pad of a toe Not present on the hind legs of donkeys and zebras. See also ergot.

chrome

Slang for eye-catching white markings on a horse, usually stockings or socks. Also used to refer to particularly flashy pinto or Appaloosa markings.

Clipping the hair short on all or part of a horse. Different patterns have different names, such as harness clip, hunter clip etc.

cluster mare (see also star mare)

coach house (UK/Ir), carriage house (NAm)

A building used to keep a private carriage and horses, usually with accommodation for a groom, coachman or other servants above. Essentially a cottage or small house with stabling below.

1. A stocky, rather small horse, or a large pony. Often a general description, but also applied to certain breeds such as the Welsh Cob.

2. A bridle size designed for horses with small or short heads. Usually keeps a long browband and throatlatch to accommodate the wide forehead and jowls of cobs and other horses with somewhat wedge-shaped heads, such as the Arabian or the Morgan.

cold-blood

Any of a group of equine types including draught horses and many ponies, characterized by a steady temperament, strength and stamina, but no great turn of speed. Refers to temperament, not literally to body temperature. See also hot-blood and warmblood.

A young male horse that has not been gelded (neutered). For Thoroughbreds, a colt is under four years of age, in most other breeds and contexts, a colt is under three years of age. Sometimes used incorrectly to refer to any young horse.

counter canter

A form of the canter where the horse is deliberately asked to canter on a curve with the outside leg leading, which is opposite of usual. Also known as galop faux, false canter, or counter lead. It is used to help build muscle and suppleness in a horse. See also lead.

covering

Mating in horses: a stallion is said to cover a mare. See also "natural cover" and "artificial insemination."

1. Crop (implement): A stiff, short-handled whip seen most often in English riding.

2. All the foals sired in one year. Often used to refer to one particular stallions' foals born in the year, but can also refer to a particular owner, an entire breed, or a region or worldwide crop.

The topline and immediate underlying musculature of the hindquarters. Runs from the tail to the loin, and from the point of the hip to the point of the buttock.

crownpiece (US), headpiece (UK)

The portion of a headstall that goes behind the horse's ears.

C/S/F or c,s,f (AU)

Abbreviation for catch, shoe and float (transport), used in horse for sale advertisements to describe a horse with good ground manners. Usually expressed as good (or easy) to C/F/S.

1. Curb bit: A type of bit that has bit shanks. It applies leverage pressure to a horse's mouth when the reins are tightened. The degree of leverage depends on the length of the shank and the positioning of the bit mouthpiece on the shanks. Is used in conjunction with a curb chain or curb strap so that when the reins are tightened, pressure is also applied to the chin groove and the headstall applies pressure on the poll of the animal. generally characterized by a solid bit mouthpiece of varying designs, but may have a jointed mouthpiece, sometimes mistakenly called a "snaffle". (Compare to snaffle bit, below)

2. Curb (horse): Several possible types of lameness for which clinical signs include a swelling on the back of the lower leg. Any of a collection of soft tissue injuries of the distal plantar hock region.

damsire

The sire of the dam of a horse, analogous to the maternal grandfather in humans. Often known as the broodmare sire or maternal grandsire.

3. In dressage tests, a line crossing the center of the competition ring running from one end corner to the opposite end corner. The diagonal is also used in some driving competition as the route for competitors to safely change direction in a ring or arena when there are a large number of entries.

distaff

In racing, refers to female horses. Named for the distaff, a spindle used in weaving and traditionally associated with women. In pedigree charts, refers to the entire dam's side of the pedigree.

The muscular portion of a horse's tail, where the hair is rooted. Sometimes refers only to the upper portion of this area, where the tail attaches to the hindquarters.

dogger (AU)

An animal to be used for pet meat, or a buyer of cattle or horses to be used for this purpose.

see also Canner

Domestic Horse

Equus ferus caballus, the subspecies of the Wild Horse (Equus ferus) that has gone through the process of domestication.

drift

A New Forest term for the gathering of semi-feral ponies for marking, veterinary treatment or sale. See also , and roundup.

Guiding and controlling one or more horses from behind, such as from a horse-drawn vehicle, behind a plow or other implement, when pulling logs, boats or other loads, or when long-reining (q.v.). Guidance is by long reins and voice, often using traditional commands characteristic of particular areas or cultures.

easy keeper (US) or good doer (UK)

English riding (US), riding (UK)

The style of riding ubiquitous in the British Isles and other parts of northern Europe, and widely practised in other parts of the world, especially for disciplines such as dressage, show-jumping, cross-country etc. Characterised by use of a relatively flat saddle; the bridle usually has a cavesson-style noseband, with reins carried in both hands and generally used with steady contact with the horse's mouth.

equestrian

1. An individual familiar with horses and horse handling. It can also refer to someone riding a horse. The feminine form is Equestrienne.

2. referring to the management and use of horses.

3. The Equestrian order, an upper-class social rank of Ancient Rome, akin to the later knight.

equestrianism

Also called horsemanship, the art of handling horses, particularly the art of riding, but also applicable to driving and other disciplines.

1. A small callosity on the back of the fetlocks of equines, often concealed by feathering (hair). Thought to be a vestigial remnant of the pad of the toe. See also chestnut.

2. A fungus of the genus growing parasitically on the seed-heads of grasses, and so sometimes occurring in fodder eaten by horses. Contains large amounts of alkaloids, including ergotamine. These can cause ergotism, a serious condition affecting the nervous and circulatory systems, sometimes leading to permanent injury or death.

eventing or combined training

A sport horse discipline with competition that goes as high as the Olympic level. Includes three types of riding; dressage, cross-country and stadium jumping.

family

The direct line of female descent, also known as the distaff line or tail female. Thoroughbred families are numbered according to their taproot mares. See tail-female.

1. A professional hoof care specialist who does hoof trimming and who also uses blacksmithing skills to do horse shoeing.

2. Someone who treats all aspects of horse health.

feathering or feather

Long hair on the fetlocks of horses. Most horses have some feather, at least in their winter coats, but in some types (especially certain heavy draft breeds) it may cover the feet and even extend up the rear of the legs. The feather is centered on the ergot (q.v.) on the rear of the fetlock.

Fédération Équestre Internationale, International Federation for Equestrian Sports, or FEI

The governing body for most international-level equestrian competitions, including the FEI World Equestrian Games and the Olympics. It recognizes and governs ten disciplines: dressage, combined driving, endurance riding, eventing, horseball, para-equestrian, reining, show jumping, tent pegging, and equestrian vaulting. The FEI does not govern horse racing or polo.

feral horse

Free-roaming horses that live in wild conditions, but are descended from domesticated ancestors - often erroneously called "wild" horses. The best-known examples are the American Mustang and the Australian Brumby, but there are many other populations worldwide. See also semi-feral horse (to which the term "feral" is often misapplied).

A young female horse. Normally a horse under four years of age, but can also be used of a horse under three years of age. Any female horse that has had a foal is referred to as a mare, regardless of her age.

flank

The side of a horse

(Australasia) A horse trailer.

A young horse of either sex under the age of one year. Derives from the Anglo-Saxon word fola. May be qualified by sex: colt foal, filly foal.

foaling box (UK), foaling stall (US)

A large loose box providing space and privacy for a mare about to foal. Minimum size is usually 14 feet (4.3 m) square. Often provided with a small window or peep-hole (or in modern times a closed-circuit camera or webcam) for the owner or groom to watch the progress of the foaling.

1. In racing, the overall fitness of a horse to race. It includes factors such as how well it is currently working, what its breeding is, and how it has performed in the past.

2. In jumping, the style that a horse uses going over fences.

3. In equine conformation, the overall phenotype of the animal and its suitability for a given function.

The most severe form of laminitis, an inflammatory condition affecting the laminae of the hoof. The third phalanx, or coffin bone rotates, often becoming deformed, and in severe cases, may puncture the bottom surface of the hoof. Severe cases may require euthanasia of the affected animal. A leading cause of death among domesticated horses, especially in breeds which are easy keepers (good doers).

foundation sire

A sire, or stallion, to which all members of a breed trace. Examples include the Byerly Turk, Godolphin Arabian, and Darley Arabian for the Thoroughbred breed; and Justin Morgan, aka Figure for the Morgan breed.

full board (US), full livery (UK)

When a horse is kept at a stable other than that owned by the horse's owner, when the owner pays for complete care of the horse. Usually includes all feed, the rent of the stall and pasture, and cleaning of the stall. Often includes access to a riding arena and in some places may even include daily turnout or exercise. Contrast with part-board, below.

1. A stakes race for two-year-olds where the owners nominate the horse before birth and then pay additional fees as the horse grows up to continue the ability to enter the horse in the race.

2. A horse show competition for horses of a specified age, where the owners nominate the horse either before birth or as a young foal and then pay additional fees as the horse grows up to continue the eligibility to enter the horse in the class at the proper time. Futurities exist for many different horse breeds and equestrian disciplines.

The way a horse moves its legs is a gait. They are divided into natural gaits, which are those performed by most horses, and those that are either trained by humans or that are specific to a few breeds. The natural gaits are walk, trot, canter/lope, and gallop. Other gaits include the pace and ambling gaits such as the rack and single-foot.

gaited horse

A horse that performs intermediate-speed ambling gaits other than the trot, or in addition to the trot. Several horse breeds are considered gaited, including the Peruvian Paso, Paso Fino, Saddlebred, Missouri Fox Trotter, and Tennessee Walking Horse.

Wide, flat strap made of leather, canvas, cord, or similar synthetic materials, used in conjunction with billets at each end to secure most types of English and Australian saddles to a horse's back. See also cinch.

grade

A horse that has only a small amount of recognizable breeding, or none at all. Generally an unregistered and unregisterable animal. Not to be confused with crossbred, above.

Grand Prix

In equestrianism, the highest levels of either show jumping or dressage, generally governed by the rules of the FEI. The title is also given to some horse races.

groundwork

1. A mediocre but useful horse.

2. An informal ride, usually for leisure or exercise (alsohacking or hacking out).

3. Show hack, a type of horse show competition, usually emphasizing obedience and excellent movement.

half-brother, half-sister

Two horses with the same dam. Two horses with the same sire are simply said to be by the same sire.

2. A halter class in a horse show is a competition where the horses are led, not ridden, and judged on their conformation. Also called in-hand or breeding classes.

hard keeper (US), poor doer (UK)

haute école, high school

The most advanced form of dressage, wherein the horse performs the most difficult movements such as pirouette, passage, piaffe and one-tempi lead changes. In classical dressage, includes the airs above the ground as the final step in training.

harness racing, trotting races

The sport of racing horses in harness, pulling a very light single-person cart called a . The horses usually trot or pace.

head-collar (Australasia and UK)

A device placed on the head of an equine for the primary purpose of leading or tying the animal; See also halter and headstall.

headstall, head stall

An alternate name for a head collar (UK).

1. A rider who uses too much rein pressure is said to have "heavy" hands.

2. In racing, a track that is between muddy and good, in other words one that is drying out.

3. A draft horse is sometimes called a "heavy" horse.

heavy hunter

A heavily built hunter, typically bred by crossing a Thoroughbred with an Irish Draught (in UK) or any other suitable draft horse breed (in US). Also see clumper.

A sterile hybrid that is the offspring of a male horse and a female donkey. Generally considered less desirable than a mule, though has a similar appearance and characteristics. Bred less often than mules because the offspring are smaller than mules and female donkeys are less fertile with stallions than mares are with male donkeys. Also occasionally known as bardot or jennet.

1. The object attached to a vehicle to allow a trailer to be attached and pulled.

2. To fasten a harnessed horse to a carriage or other horse-drawn vehicle. (BI: Put to).

3. To tie or tether a horse to a stationary object such as a post to keep it from wandering.

hitch and hop

A carriage driving term when one horse of a pair momentarily breaks its trotting stride to realign its gait to trot in synchronisation with the other horse creating a harmonised pair, in a 'hitch and hop' movement.

1. Wild Horse: Equus ferus.

a. Tarpan or Eurasian Wild Horse: Equus ferus ferus.

b. Domestic Horse: Equus ferus caballus.

c. Przewalski's Horse: Equus ferus przewalskii.

2. In some circumstances, may refer to members of that species that are taller than 14.2 hands high.

3. A male horse, particularly an uncastrated male horse.

The meat of equines, eaten in many cultures, but taboo in others.

horse passport

A document required in European Union countries for every equine animal, including a detailed description of the animal and a record of whether it is intended for human consumption. May be linked to a microchip implant.

horse power (hp)

A unit of power, originally used to compare the power of mechanical devices to that of a draft horse. Roughly equivalent to the normal sustained power output of one horse - however the maximum power of a horse is much more than one horsepower. A metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts, and an imperial horsepower (or imperial horsepower) equals approximately 745.7 watts.

hot-blood, hot-blooded

Horses descended from oriental horse or "eastern" blood, such as the Arabian horse, Barb, Turkoman horse, and related breeds. Usually includes the Thoroughbred.

hunter

Field hunter (US), hunter (US, UKI): a horse used for fox hunting. Subdivided by weight: heavy hunter, light hunter etc.

Show hunter (British): a competition for horses that are shown on the flat, not to jump.

1. An in-hand class is a type of horse show competition, where the horse is led, rather than ridden, and judged on its conformation and movement. See also halter, breeding.

2. Leading, as opposed to riding, a horse

3. In racing, a horse that is not running at top speed.

Intermediare I, II; Intermediate I, II

The second and third of the four levels of international dressage competition governed by the FEI, falling between Prix St. Georges and Grand Prix.

irons, stirrup irons

jading (UK)

Deliberately causing a horse to balk (stop) by means of an unpleasant-smelling substance.

A small, gaited horse of the Middle Ages, developed originally in Spain, used as a riding animal. Also called a Spanish jennet.

jib (AU)

To refuse to go forwards, backwards or sideways as required by the driver or rider.

1. Applied to horses, may refer to a horse jumping over an obstacle, or may refer to action where the horse simply leaps into the air, such as bucking, crowhopping, or pronking. Less often, applied to certain airs above the ground.

2. An obstacle, particularly one used in competition.

1. A horse that jumps, particularly in competition.

2. Show jumping or stadium jumping, a competition that goes as high as the Olympic level, where the horse is judged on the number of obstacles it clears on the course in a given round and the speed at which it completes the course. When a course is not timed, or in the event of a tie, the height of obstacles is raised in each successive round, most notably in puissance competition, until there is a winner.

Inflammation of the sensitive laminae of the hoof. Possibly linked to metabolic disturbances, often associated with obesity or ingestion of excess starches or sugars. Causes lameness and severe pain. Treatable if caught early, but in its most severe form, known as "Founder," may require euthanasia of the affected animal.

latigo

Soft, flexible strap made of leather, attached to a heavy ring on a saddle tree, used to attach a cinch to a western saddle. Modern latigo usually has holes punched for a cinch buckle. On older saddles the latigo had no holes and the cinch was secured to the saddle with the latigo tied in a latigo hitch or girth hitch, a variation of the cow hitch. See also billets.

Lead (leg): the leading legs of the horse at the canter and gallop. The front and hind legs on one side of the horse appear to land in front of the other set of front and hind legs when the horse travels. On a curve, a horse is generally asked to lead with the inside legs, though there are exceptions to the general rule, such as the counter canter. See also lead change.

lead change, change of leg

The act of a horse changing from one lead to the other. When performed at a canter or gallop, it is a "flying change". When the horse is dropped to a slower gait and then asked to canter again but on the opposite lead, it is a "simple change". Performing a flying change with every stride is an advanced dressage movement known as a one-tempi change, tempi changes, or informally, "onesies".

livery stable, livery yard

An establishment providing livery (UK) or boarding (US) for horse-owners - care, stabling or pasture, depending on type.

longeing (US) , lungeing (UK, Australasia, US)

A maker of metal parts for harnesses, bridles, spurs, and other horse apparel.

meat-money (UK), canner price (US)

The lowest price likely to be paid for an equine, equivalent to the value of an animal to be sold by the pound and slaughtered for horse meat.

The hybrid offspring of a male donkey and a horse mare. Almost always sterile. The hybrid with the reverse parentage (and somewhat different appearance and characteristics) is a hinny. Mules are noted for their sure-footedness.

napping (UK)

When a horse is disobedient and refuses to go forwards, sometimes also bucking or kicking. A horse which does this habitually is said to be nappy. See balk, jib.

Turning a horse by touching the reins to the side of the horse's neck. The horse turns away from the rein pressure. Particularly useful when riding one-handed. Compare bearing rein.

out of

Describes the relationship of a horse to its dam, in the context of its pedigree. A foal is by its sire and out of or from its dam.

1. A two-beat, lateral gait where the front and hind legs on the same side move forward at the same time. Difficult to ride, but the fastest of the intermediate gaits, particularly seen in harness racing and the "flying pace" of the Icelandic horse.

2. The speed of a horse or, as a verb, to regulate the speed of a horse, particularly over distance.

3. A group of asses, also known as a passe.

Two draft animals side-by-side. Often the same animals will always be worked the same way around. See team and tandem.

parrot mouth

A congenital malformation of the upper jaw where the incisor teeth protrude beyond the lower jaw. Sometimes known as overshot.

1. The known and documented lineage of an animal.

2. The written pedigree chart outlining the lineage of an animal.

performance class

A category of horse show classes where horses are exhibited in harness or under saddle and judging is based on how they perform the tasks asked of them. May also refer to equitation classes, where the skill of the rider is judged. Contrast to a halter class which is judged solely on the horse's conformation. Compare Halter," "in hand"

In horse racing, a placed horse is one that finishes second in a race (NAm), or in the first three places (AU/NZ/UK), A place bet is a bet that a horse will place.[193] In the (UK/Ir) place bets may be pay up to fourth place if there are 16 or more runners in a race.

points of a horse

Collective term in horse anatomy for the external parts of a horse, such as crest, withers, shoulder, cannon, etc.

1. A single rigid bar extending from the front of a vehicle, being held between a pair of horses (or other draft animals). Allows the animals to steer and slow the vehicle. See also shafts.

2. Poling, the practice (usually illegal on horse show grounds) of deliberately hitting the legs of a show jumper while it is in the air over a fence, said to make it fold up its legs and jump higher.

1. In common use, a member of the species Equus ferus caballus of a horse breed that typically matures shorter than 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm). Individual animals of breeds that typically mature over this height may still be called "horses" even if under the cutoff height. In some parts of the world, the cutoff is at 14 hands instead of 14.2.

2. Biologically, may be used to define small horses that retain a pony phenotype of relatively short height heavy coat, thick mane and tail, proportionally short legs, and heavy build regardless of actual mature height.

3. For competition purposes, depending on organizational rules and local tradition, may also be used for an adult horse of any breed of 14.2, 14.1, or 14 hands or less at the time of competition. The International Federation for Equestrian Sports, which uses metric measurement, defines the official cutoff point at 148 centimetres (58.27 in) (just over 14.2 h) without shoes and 149 centimetres (58.66 in) (just over 14.2½ h) with shoes.

4. Leading one horse while riding another.

Prix St. Georges

The first of the international competitive dressage levels in FEI competition. It is followed by Intermediare I, Intermediare II and Grand Prix. Levels below Prix St. Georges, though common in local and national-level competition, are not recognized by the FEI. The terms used for these lower levels and number of levels available vary from nation to nation.

An animal with documented parentage recognized by a breed registry as being descended in all lines from recognized foundation bloodstock and free of admixture of breeding from lines outside those of the breed in question. Not to be confused with Thoroughbred, which is a specific breed of horse with very strict standards for purebred status.

putting to (BI), hitching (NA)

Attaching a harnessed horse to a vehicle.

Short-handled, flexible, weighted whip, of braided leather or rawhide. Used by some Western-style riders.

registration papers, registration certificate, papers, pedigree papers

Documentation provided by a breed registry that verifies the breeding and ownership of an animal. Usually includes a pedigree chart and an outline illustration indicating horse markings. Some organizations may include a photograph of the animal.

ridgling, rig

A male horse with one or more undescended testicles (a cryptorchid), or one which is incompletely castrated (deliberately or accidentally). If both testicles are not descended, the horse may appear to be a gelding, but will still behave like a stallion. See also stallion, gelding.

The gathering of horses or other livestock in the American West. See also muster, drift.

1. Padding placed under the saddle, shaped fully or partially to complement the outline of the saddle. See numnah

2. Rectangular padding, usually at least an inch thick, placed under a western saddle to provide more protection and support than a saddle blanket.

1. A form of English riding popularized in the United States for riding gaited horses and other breeds where high, flashy, action is encouraged, notably the American Saddlebred, Morgan horse, and Arabian horse.

2. The style of saddle used for this discipline, also known as a park saddle, lane fox, or cutback. Is designed to set the rider farther back on the horse, not intended for jumping.

semi-feral horse

Domesticated horses or ponies allowed to roam freely, but owned by individuals and rounded up from time to time. Examples include New Forest, Dartmoor and Exmoor ponies in their native locations, stock horses on many ranches in the American west, and some modern Iberian horses in Spain and Portugal. Herds often consist only of mares (with or without suckling foals), but stallions may be turned out in the mating season, with weanlings (especially colts) removed for sale in the autumn. The term may also refer to "bachelor herds" of young colts or geldings that are not old enough to be placed under saddle, or retired geldings too old to ride. See feral horse.

shafts

A pair of rigid bars extending from the front of a horse-draw vehicle, attached to the sides of the horse (or other draft animal). Allows the animal to steer the vehicle, to slow it, and in the case of a two-wheeled vehicle, to hold it level. Used for a single animal, for the rearmost of several animals in tandem, or sometimes to act as poles between three horses abreast (a troika). See pole.

showjumping: A course of jumps of which a horse has to jump round, found in three-day events and horse shows all around the world

shying

When a horse jumps in fright, usually at a sudden movement or an unfamiliar object.

side saddle, sidesaddle

1. A form of riding where a (normally female) rider sits with both legs to the near side of the horse, rather than with legs astride.

2. A saddle designed for the above style of riding

silhouette, outline diagram

snaffle bit

A type of bit that applies direct pressure to the horse's mouth, i.e. a bit without leverage. Generally considered the mildest type of pressure, though severity can vary depending on the type of bit mouthpiece used. The most common style of snaffle bit has a jointed mouthpiece, but the term refers to a direct pressure bit with any type of mouthpiece, solid or jointed. Term sometimes is incorrectly used to refer to a curb bit with a jointed mouthpiece. (Compare to )

Ossification of the second and fourth metacarpal or metatarsal bones, which often form after trauma to the area. Often an unsoundness when newly injured, may ossify into blemishes with no effect on soundness, depending on location.

1. A building in which horses are kept (also sometimes other livestock). In UK usage, also the space for one horse within a larger building.

2. A group of horses owned by one individual or group.

stable hand (US), stable lad/lass (UK)

stable vices

Any of a number of repetitive or nervous behaviors seen most often in horses kept in confinement. Usually attributed to boredom and insufficient exercise, though temperament may also play a role. Stable vices include cribbing, weaving, wood chewing, wall-kicking and similar behaviors.

stall (US), stable (UK)

An enclosure within a stable building in which an individual horse is kept. Two types, box stall (US) or loose box (UK) and tie stall (US) or stall (UK).

A mature, uncastrated male horse, usually four years old and older, although sometimes refers to a horse three years of age or older. Other terms include entire, stud, stud horse, full, full horse, stone horse, stock horse, or bull.

Paired small light frames or rings for receiving the foot of a rider, attached to the saddle by a strap, called a stirrup leather. Used to aid in mounting and as a support while riding. In UK usage and for English riding in some US regions, the term "stirrup" includes both the metal frame, or iron, and the stirrup leather, the strap used to suspend the iron from the saddle. In western riding, the term "stirrup" refers only to the frame, which on a western saddle is often made of wood covered with leather. See also iron.

1. A horse used to herd and manage livestock on a ranch or station.

2. Generic term encompassing the horse breeds found in the American west that were developed for handling cattle.

3. The Australian Stock Horse, a specific horse breed.

4. Any horse used for various competitions that are based and judged on cattle handling or agility skills such as reining, cutting, campdrafting or similar events.

An Australian stock saddle seen more often in the Southern Hemisphere.

string

The race horses being trained by an individual horse trainer. Sometimes used to refer to any group of horses trained or used by a single entity for a particular purpose, such as a string of polo ponies, a "show string" of horse show entries, or a pack string.

stringhalt

A nervous disorder in horses, causing a jerking movement, a higher-than-natural gait, of one or both hind legs, as if stepping over an invisible object.

1. An establishment where pedigreed horses are bred.

2. (US) Informal and technically incorrect term for a stallion.

1. (Also breed registry) a list of horses of a particular breed whose parents are known. An open stud book allows parents of different breeds, as long as the horse conforms to the breed standard or meets other criteria, and is often used when establishing new breeds. A closed stud book requires both parents to be in the book, with lineage traceable to the foundation bloodstock. The thoroughbred breed is an example of a closed stud book. Many warmblood breeds such as the Oldenburger have an open stud book with animals approved for registry via a studbook selection process.

2. A list of stallions of a particular breed "standing at stud", that is, actively being bred.

3. (UK) Another term for the General Stud Book, the stud book for Thoroughbreds in the United Kingdom and Ireland.

1. Surcingle (NAm, UK/Ir), roller (UK/Ir, Au/NZ). A piece of training equipment which goes around the barrel of the horse. Usually padded at the top, and buckles around the horse. Often has rings placed at various locations for attachment of reins, a crupper and/or an overcheck. Specialized designs also used in equestrian vaulting.

2. A long unpadded strap that passes around the barrel of a horse. One design is placed over a saddle and is fastened with a buckle, used on racing, polo and Australian stock saddles. Other designs are used to hold on certain styles of horse blankets.

A draft animal arrangement with two or more animals in single file, the rearmost (the wheeler) in shafts.

Several animals pulling a vehicle. Arranged in various configurations, most commonly as a pair (two side by side), in tandem (two or more in single file), a four (two pairs) or a six. More rarely other arrangements such as three or more abreast, a troika (three abreast with shafts between), a "pickax" (three abreast with a pair of wheelers behind) or a "unicorn" (a single animal in front of a pair of wheelers).

three-quarter brother/sister

Horses out of the same dam, by stallions that are (maternal) half brothers, or a father and son.

three-quarter brother-in-blood/sister-in-blood

Horses by the same sire, and out of half-sisters, or out of a mother and daughter.

tie stall (US), stall (UK)

On a pedigree chart, the paternal side of the ancestry, which is given on the top of the chart.

trap, pony trap

Vanner

A powerfully built type of horse used for light draught work, such as pulling a commercial van. May be applied to particular breeds, such as the Gypsy Vanner horse (US)/Coloured Cob (UK).

veterinarian (US), veterinary surgeon (UK), vet

Doctor of veterinary medicine, an individual who is trained to provide medical care to horses and other animals. Specialists who work with horses are known as equine veterinarians. Professional acronyms: DVM, VMD, MRCVS.

vice

A habit making the horse difficult to work or keep, such as biting, kicking or bucking. Includes (but is not limited to) stable vices.

A four-wheeled vehicle pulled by one or more horses or other draft animals. Usually used for carrying loads.

A descriptive word for many middle-weight sport horse types and breeds, most originally developed in Europe by the crossbreeding of draft or heavy harness horses on light horse breeds such as Thoroughbreds or Arabians. "Warm" refers to its origin as a cross of a cold-blood, and a hot-blood - it does not relate to body temperature.

1. A style of riding characterized by use of a western saddle and a bridle without a noseband. Riders generally have a fairly long stirrup, sit rather than post the trot (hence a slower trot, called a "jog" is generally desired in the western horse) and, on a finished western horse, reins are usually carried one-handed by the non-dominant (usually left) hand and, with minimal or no contact with the horse's mouth. The finished animal is usually ridden in a curb bit and turned by use of the neck reining technique. Inexperienced or "green" animals are usually ridden two-handed in either a snaffle bit or a bosal-style hackamore.

2. Western riding (horse show): A competition seen as some horse shows where a horse in western equipment is required to perform a pattern that incorporates elements of reining, trail and western pleasure.

Horses that have no domesticated ancestors. Currently the only wild horse in the world is the Przewalski's horse. The only other true wild horse to survive into historical times was the tarpan. All other free-roaming horses today are feral horses, descended from domesticated ancestors. The Domestic Horse, Equus ferus caballus, is a subspecies of the Wild Horse.

Xenophon

Ancient Greek cavalry officer, historian and political philosopher who wrote a manual, On Horsemanship (Ἱππαρχικὸς ἢ περὶ ἱππικῆς) describing humane methods for the training of horses, circa 350 BC. Sometimes called the "father of classical horsemanship".

yellow horse (Western US)

Slang for a palomino.

zebroid or zebra mule

Hybrid offspring of a zebra crossed on another equine, term includes the zorse, zony and zedonk.

"Breeds that Gait". Equus (359): 52-54. August 2007.

Lieberman, Bobbie (August 2007). "Easy-Gaited Horses". Equus (359): 47-51.

"Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary". 2009.

Miller, William C (1959). Practical Animal Husbandry. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.

Napier, Miles (1977). Blood Will Tell. London: J.A. Allen & Co.

Summerhayes, RS (1966). Encyclopaedia for Horsemen. London & New York: Warne & Co.

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This is a basic glossary of equestrian terms that includes both technical terminology and jargon developed over the centuries for horses and other equidae, as well as various horse-related concepts. Where noted, some terms are used only in American English (US), only in British English (UK), or are regional to a particular part of the world, such as Australia (AU).

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Have you ever wondered what the equine code of ethics is? How many of the equine facilities and organizations have a written code of ethics that their community members are held to?

Are the ethics ambiguous and only held to people that do not match their version of socio-economic status and popularity or are all participants held equally responsible to those standards?

If excuses are unacceptable, then all members should be held to the same standard regardless of socio-economic standing.

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Did you know that horse riding "continues to be found more dangerous than motorcycling, skiing, football, and rugby? Also, were you aware that the head of an equestrian riding a horse can be around 3 meters from the ground and that horses can travel up to 50 kilometers per hour?

We believe that, as beginning equestrians, it is important to understand the equine best practice code of ethics in order for equestrians to hold ourselves accountable to a set of standards for the care and handling of horses. Most professional and ethical organizations will publish a set of guidelines that they hold their community members to for accountability and integrity. We believe that, as stewards of horses, it is our responsibility to encourage people into the equestrian community by making basic theoretical information available for equestrians that are seeking to educate themselves.

We believe that knowledge is power and we have experienced a myriad of misleading and/or misinformation through well-intended folks that have been eager to share what they believe they know. We also believe that all information should be researched and validated to ensure that students of all ages are getting information that is as accurate as scholastically and professionally possible.

This Equine Code of Ethics is from the American Horse Council's National Welfare Code of Practice and we are in alignment with their creed to always "Put the Horse First."
Our Commitment to all Horses and the Horse Industry
WE ARE COMMITTED to the dignity, humane care, health, safety and welfare of horses in all our activities and care. These are our highest priorities. We are the stewards of our horses and must be firm in the standards and practices that guide us. Our first principle is: The welfare, safety and stewardship of the horse is the guiding principle in the decision making process for all segments for the horse industry.

WE ARE COMMITTED to promoting responsible breeding practices and to produce better horses, not just more horses.

WE ARE COMMITTED to responsible training techniques. All training should be done with the maturation and ability of the horse considered. Horses should be prepared for competition with proper training and conditioning methods. Excessive disciplining methods, whether in stables, training areas, or during competition, will not be tolerated.

WE ARE COMMITTED to educating owners, trainers, veterinarians, competitors, exhibitors and recreational riders to ensure that they know and respect their horse's abilities and limits, and their own, so as to not push the horse or themselves beyond their ability level.

WE ARE COMMITTED to making all competitions fair and ensuring all competitors an equal opportunity to succeed. Performance-enhancing drugs, practices or equipment have no place in competitions or exhibitions. Effective drug testing by accredited laboratories is essential to the safety and welfare of our horses and the public support of competitions, with appropriate penalties levied for violations. The welfare of the horse must take precedence over the demands or expectations of owners, breeders, trainers, sellers, buyers, organizers, sponsors, officials, or spectators.

WE ARE COMMITTED to the welfare of the horse as paramount during competition. The horse industry should invest in the infrastructure, environment and facilities to provide a safe environment for all horses in all activities, whether breeding, competing, or simply riding. Any facilities that house horses should be committed to the appropriate care and treatment of all horses while in their facility, and should be designed with the environment and the intended use of the horse in mind.

WE ARE COMMITTED to minimizing injuries to horses during training, competition, use, or work. Whenever possible injury data should be collected, documented and reported to the governing body of the competition or any other injury database for analysis in order to ensure a safer environment.

WE ARE COMMITTED to the continual review, evaluation and improvement of all rules, regulations, policies and practices in all equine activities, based on science (where indicated). When warranted, they should be refined or changed. This includes existing practices to ensure they are not being perceived as acceptable, particularly if new research has called them into question.

WE ARE COMMITTED to providing continuing education on all activities involving horses and eliminate inhumane practices as well as strengthening sanctions for non-compliance.

WE ARE COMMITTED to educating all people who own or work with horses to ensure they are knowledgeable in the proper husbandry, care, and handling of horses. Each horse should be observed frequently to ensure that they are healthy. In consultation with a veterinarian, all such individuals should develop a sound health care program, appropriate to the facilities, environment and needs of the horses.

WE ARE COMMITTED to providing an environment in which anyone aware of equine cruelty or neglect is willing to report it to the proper local, state or federal authorities. Should an incident occur at an event it should be reported to judges, stewards, responsible authorities or the sanctioning organization.

WE ARE COMMITTED to improving the health and welfare of horses through scientific research, collaboration, advocacy and the development of appropriate rules. The industry should continue to support and work with the many individuals, universities, veterinarians and foundations doing and funding equine health and welfare research in order to reduce injuries and improve health.

WE ARE COMMITTED to horse owners and caretakers ensuring horses in their care are current on vaccinations and following best practices to minimize infection and disease. When a disease outbreak occurs horse owners and events must act quickly and responsibly, monitor the horses, report the outbreak to, and cooperate with, veterinarians, authorities, facility management and all stakeholders to bring a rapid resolution to the outbreak.

WE ARE COMMITTED to ensuring that our horses will have an opportunity to transition to additional careers, uses or activities as the need arises. When necessary, owners and veterinarians may have to consider end-of-life decisions. The welfare, safety and dignity of the horse must continue to be the guiding principle in deciding how and when to provide a humane death.

WE ARE COMMITTED to being transparent about our activities in order to ensure the public, the media, federal, state and local officials and the various segments of the horse community understand what we do, why we do it, and support it.

Additionally, we believe in educating ourselves with our neighboring country's National Codes of Practice for the Care and Handling of Equines in order to best meet their standards and expectations for future possible event engagements. We believe that emergent events are unpredictable and we never know who we may have to partner with in order to manage a crisis. It is with risk and crisis management in mind that we believe in committing, to our best ability and knowledge, to the standards that are considered best practice for stewardship of horses.

Equine stewardship is should not and is not about what we want and our personal agendas. We strongly believe that equine stewardship is about what the horses need.

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Did you know that horse riding "continues to be found more dangerous than motorcycling, skiing, football, and rugby? Also, were you aware that the head of an equestrian riding a horse can be around 3 meters from the ground and that horses can travel up to 50 kilometers per hour?

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"Firstly, long-term inappropriate application of negative reinforcement schedules may result in a chronic stress situation for the animal, potentially leading to reduced health [66], high reactivity to acute stressors [67], or, for some individuals ‘learned helplessness’ (behavioral depression) [68]. Secondly, positive reinforcement training methods may have limitations in the amount of work the animal will perform for the reward [69] resulting in greater likelihood of refusal to perform psychologically or physically demanding tasks."

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Introduction

To attain optimal individual performance within any equestrian discipline, horses must be in peak physical fitness and have the correct psychological state. Professional riders acknowledge that these two factors are equally important and that without both, success is unlikely e.g. [ 1]. In addition, the relationship between a horse and its rider has been shown to be the most important factor when determining the risk of injury whilst riding [ 2]. However, despite its obvious importance for both performance success and human health, there is remarkably little research into any aspect of the psychology of equestrian performance. Psychological factors exist at three inter-related but separate levels: temperament, mood and emotional reaction [ 3]. Temperament exists as a relatively stable predisposition in adult life, which is shaped by both genotype and early experience [ 4], whilst mood describes a more temporary state of psychological functioning which helps to bias behavioral choices towards certain types of action in a predisposing environment [ 5]. For example, a negative mood, brought about by a series of aversive experiences in a given situation or over a particular period of time, may bias action towards escape and avoidance of novelty (and so serve to protect the organism from harm). Emotional reactions are the most tightly stimulus-bound affective states and the shortest lived temporally, thus, describing the more immediate response to the subjective evaluation of an event. If mood is negative then there is a higher probability of negative emotional reactions to a given situation [ 6]. Whilst there is a growing literature on temperament in horses (see [ 7] for review) there is still very little scientific work on the emotional reactions of horses and almost none on the assessment of moods. It is nonetheless important to appreciate that although it is difficult to study these phenomena, this does not mean that they are not important and certainly that they do not exist. Given the biological advantage served by these psychological constructs, this paper does not seek to present an argument for their existence but rather to evaluate their significance to equestrian performance. We start with a review of the role of temperament in performance, before considering the more proximate factors which can shape what a given horse may achieve at the time of a specific performance event. With this as a foundation, a comparison is then made between the training and the competition environment and the review completes with a discussion on how behavioral modification techniques and stress reduction through general husbandry may have the potential to enhance the performance of the horse.

Temperament

Like physical traits, the psychological phenotype results from genotype-environment interaction and so has a measure of heritability. Physical and performance traits have regularly been used for breeding selection purposes with noticeable improvements in some countries. In the UK, for example, dressage performance increased from 1985 until 2001 (genetic standard deviation increases of 0.047 per annum) [ 8] and, since the introduction of performance tests in the mid-1980s in Sweden, using physical, performance and some temperament measures, the genetic progress has increased by 0.032 to 0.056 standard deviations per annum for dressage and show jumping respectively [ 9]. There has been some criticism, however, about the lack of objectivity within the temperament portion of these tests, primarily on the poor interpretation of behavioral data where multiple possible causal origins including environmental and rider effects are not being taken into consideration [ 10]. This criticism applies not only to professional performance tests but to equine temperament tests in general. Indeed, the absence of sound biological constructs or definitions of the various dimensions that make up temperament may be the primary reason why heritability values of temperament traits to date have been low. For example, Brockman and Bruns [ 11] reported a heritability of 0.26 for "temperament" in German Warmblood stallions, whilst the more precisely defined "jumping ability" in the same study had a much higher heritability of 0.62. It is, therefore, essential that measures are taken to objectively quantify strictly defined components of temperament, which should be based on sound biological theory, rather than arbitrary human choice.

A more precise definition of temperament and its components also helps define, in a more standardised way, the optimal genotype and thus aid the process of developing the optimal phenotype (from the perspective of discipline-specific competitive performance). What is crucial about the last statement is that optimal genotype is discipline specific; just as a Shetland will never win the Derby, so a horse of inappropriate temperament will generally never succeed within a certain discipline. It is therefore essential, not only to concisely define the biological basis of temperament, but also to identify very carefully which components (at the level of both specific behaviors and behavioral predispositions) are required to achieve success within a given discipline. For example, 'flightiness' may be generally advantageous to racehorse performance, but detrimental within the context of a dressage competition. Indeed, in a recent study by [ 12], although not the primary aim of the study, data did potentially highlight traits often sought within the different equestrian disciplines. The identification of these high performance discipline-specific behavioral traits can either be subjective (but in an informed away) as above ('flightiness' good for racehorse performance, detrimental within dressage competition) or can be achieved through a less subjective process of statistical correlation of well-defined traits with measures of performance.

In addition, greater precision in the definition of temperament traits also provides a better opportunity to select for that trait during the breeding-training process as opposed to, for example, constructs which are as complex and as multifaceted as 'eventing' resulting in low heritability values (0.20) [ 11]. It has also been suggested [ 13] that some studies of temperament in the horse tell us more about those evaluating the horses than the true biological basis of individual differences. For example Morris and colleagues [ 14] have suggested that horses share a similar personality structure to humans, but since they used a modified version of a human personality questionnaire describing subjective ratings, it seems somewhat inevitable that items would partition in a similar way. Nonetheless, appropriate questionnaire-based studies are valid and previous work in conjunction with behavioral studies has revealed at least three consistent temperament dimensions, which also accord with our current neurobiological understanding. One appears to relate to a sensitivity to aversion (often referred to as neuroticism in the psychological literature [ 15], flightiness in popular parlance e.g. [ 13] and is often assessed within behavioral tests by reactivity to a novel object e.g. [ 16], social isolation [ 17- 20], and handling [ 19- 21]. A second relates to a sensitivity to reward, (variously described as extraversion e.g. [ 14]; or in relation to exploratory behaviour in behavioral tests e.g. [ 22]. The third trait relates to sociability or gregariousness [ 23], again evident in the individual variation that occurs in response to social isolation [ 24]. The latter is obviously relevant when considering the background management of the athlete however we will focus this review on the former two traits relating more specifically to affective processing during training.

Temperament testing is often only practically useful if it is predictive of how an animal reacts to a range of situations over time. Whilst some studies have shown that individuals are consistent in their response between different tests [ 17, 19, 21], consistency over time within individuals has been more difficult to attain [ 18, 25], although use of single behaviour measures (as opposed to combined forms [traits]) has been more successful in this respect [ 26- 28]. This may be due to a) test-specific learning, a change in stimulus salience in relation to the test (a known artefact of repeat-testing especially in the case of "novel object tests"), b) added error through the additional computational step of multivariate statistical analysis, or c) general maturation effects of the animal. Nonetheless, it may still be possible to behaviorally profile immature horses and correlate these measures with performance success later in the animal's life. Indeed, for Dutch show-jumping horses individual behavioral measures and combined forms of these data (traits) in response to 'novel-object', 'handling' and 'learning' tests were observed to be indicative of future jumping performance [ 25]. In particular, time taken to approach a novel object (open umbrella), ability to learn to avoid puffs of air in response to a bell sounding, and the combined behavioral trait of 'sensitiveness' (probably reflecting sensitivity to aversive stimuli) appeared to be particularly important in this respect. This particular study perhaps shows the value of objectively measuring behaviour in a range of well-defined tests and examining their biological commonality (e.g. sensitivity to aversion) and then correlating these with measures of performance, as opposed to measuring poorly defined traits which are preconceived to be relevant to a particular discipline (e.g. 'flightiness' for race horses).

Behavioral data of this nature also have the potential to be subjected to supervised statistical techniques e.g.discriminant function analysis [ 29, 30]. Here, statistical software is informed about the performance success of animals (where failure is due to psychological rather than physical factors) to identify sources of variation within the behavioral screening data that are predictive of other animal's potential performance success. Such a research project, at the national level, has the potential to save much time, effort and money, on horses that may have the physical but not the psychological aptitude for high-level competition success. However, one of the drawbacks of such an early screening strategy would be the risk of discarding athletically able young horses (on the results of an early temperament test), where potential behavioral problems during the middle to latter stages of the horse's career could be resolved through behavioral modification techniques. The optimal approach in this respect would be to correlate early test results with performance of the animal after behavioral modification techniques had been applied.

Summary

In conclusion, out of the previously defined five personality dimensions considered to exist at various levels for different animal species [ 15], the horse reliably shows signs of two dimensions, neurotocism and extraversion, which relate to affective response, plus a third relating to the affective state associated with social needs. Although studies have consistently identified the presence of traits (within these dimensions) over time (in the same animals) as well as between animals, consistency of the value of the trait over time for individual animals has been demonstrated to a much lesser extent. This may be due to test-specific learning or general maturation processes changing the temperament of the animal over time. However, the predictive value of early temperament testing has been demonstrated with traits from both of the affective dimensions (as measured by novelty test, handling and learning) considered to be valuable in predicting jumping performance. Much more validation-type research measuring a full range of concisely defined early temperament traits for the purpose of subsequent correlation with discipline specific performance is required.

Mood and emotional reaction

The importance of mood on performance is well recognised within equestrianism and scales such as the "Profile of Mood States" have been used to assess, through verbal report, various predispositions in the rider [ 31]. Obviously verbal report is not an option when assessing the horse, but work using heart rate variability (changes in inter-beat frequency) [ 32] suggests this may be a quantifiable alternative and a productive avenue for research for this species. For example, reduced heart rate variability (as revealed by analysis of the low and high frequency peaks in the power spectrum following Fourier transformation of the R-R data) suggests lower parasympathetic tone and thus higher arousal [ 33]. Thus, such measures in combination with behavioral data may help to determine, at the time of performance, whether high arousal relates to either a positive or a negative emotional state [ 34]. However, the relationship between arousal and performance is not a simple one. Excessive arousal, even if positive may be as detrimental to performance as under-arousal [ 35] and there is no optimal level that suits all. In human sports psychology, this individual requirement of arousal level has been termed the Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (IZOF [ 36]). It is highly conceivable, therefore, that this same concept is also applicable to the horse [ 37] and, in this context, may be determined by correlating the aforementioned periodic sampling of heart rate with behaviour and performance of the individual animal. Whilst there may be little that can be done on the day of competition to alter mood, mood assessment before competition may be a very useful predictor of poor performance (as a result of both psychological and physical [e.g. subclinical onset of disease] factors) and could therefore be used to prevent injury or unnecessary unsuccessful competition. Mood assessment may also provide an additional and more objective means of determining how the horse is affected by different training and exercise regimes and thus how this impacts on performance. Such information might be of enormous competitive and welfare significance as it seems reasonable to suggest that, in the majority of cases, horses, like other athletes, will perform best when mood is positive. Recent developments in animal welfare science have offered up some robust experimental methods for assessing mood in non-human animals, although they have yet to be applied to the horse [ 38]. There may be a real advantage, therefore, for professional equestrians to integrate mood assessment techniques, both during training and at the point of competition, into their overall training strategy.

Emotional reactions differ from mood states in that they concern the immediate evaluation of the personal significance of a situation i.e. they are much more proximate in their temporal relationship with specific events and more tightly stimulus-bound compared to 'background' mood. Emotional reaction is mediated by the limbic aspect of the brain and primarily facilitates optimal preparation to a given situation on the basis of previous experience, but also serves a communicative function to conspecifics [ 39]. The latter allows emotional responses to be identified and measured behaviorally, although there can be disagreement over the exact emotion being expressed. The emotional reactions of horses to situations are evidently of enormous importance when it comes to their performance with over-reaction to environmental stimuli (reflecting a highly sensitive limbic arousal system) at the time of competition being the primary issue in this respect. However, the point at which advantageous emotional reaction becomes over-reaction and detrimental to performance varies between discipline. For example, during the highly constrained motor actions of dressage, it is important that the horse shows little or no additional motor response to non-rider environmental stimuli, whilst in show-jumping it is often considered that a higher level of emotional arousal can be tolerated. For high racing performance on the other hand, high emotional arousal is considered a pre-requisite but again not to the point where it becomes deleterious e.g. the horse not loading into the starting gate or over-energy expenditure preventing the horse from going to distance or responding to the rider in the final furlong. Given that emotional responses are partly dependent on previous experience, the method of training used is, therefore, critically important when trying to build optimal individual performance. The majority of training is based on the use of aversive stimuli in the form of either punishment to discourage undesirable behaviour or negative reinforcement to encourage appropriate behavior [ 40]. For the latter, it is the removal of the aversive stimulus which provides the reinforcement for the correct behavior and which, with consistency, leads to early anticipation and avoidance of the training aid so the animal becomes responsive to the most subtle cue from the rider. Timing is therefore critical and poor timing may lead to the learning of unanticipated and inappropriate responses [ 40]. Although employed to a much lesser extent, training can also be achieved through positive reinforcement. Because responses are associated with reward acquisition, they are much more variable as, evolutionarily speaking, it pays an animal to explore the limits of what is required to obtain a reward so it can maximise efficiency through minimal effort [ 41]. However, the key issue with positive reinforcement (and where it contrasts most with negative reinforcement and punishment) is that emotional responses to the training situation are often entirely positive rather than largely or wholly negative [ 42, 43]. This may be extremely important in shaping the horse's perception of being ridden and the relationship which develops between the horse and rider, as a result (which may be particularly important when the rider and the trainer are the same person).

Somewhat surprisingly, given that in many disciplines, success depends on an optimal partnership rather than excellent individuals [ 1], very little is known about the effect of the rider's emotional state on that of the horses [ 37]. Horses are known to react differently when stroked by someone with a negative attitude to them compared to someone with a more positive attitude [ 44], and so they may detect changes in rider behavior due to such things as competition anxiety. More recent findings also tentatively suggest that both the rider's and horse's personality affect the level of cooperation between the two [ 45] thus supporting the common anecdote that some horses suit some riders. This is an area of research that again requires much more exploration, potentially through assessing the personality factors within the horse-rider dyad and ultimately correlating this with measures of performance.

Summary

In conclusion, both mood and emotional state are crucial in determining how the horse perceives and reacts to its environment and thus how it will perform within a training and competition environment. Positive mood is essential for all disciplines but the optimal emotional state leading to optimal emotional arousal can vary between disciplines and between horses, as in the case with humans (IZOF). Over-reaction as the result of high emotional arousal is detrimental to performance and is heavily influenced by prior training techniques and also the emotional state of the rider. More extensive research is required within both of these areas.

Training versus competition environment

Many horses may fail in competition because of the difference between the training and competition environments and thus the lack of training to generate appropriate emotional (and thus behavioral) responses to the latter. The purpose of these sections is to again highlight practical approaches and potential areas of scientific study that may be of benefit in this regard from performance perspective.

Training environment

Training has been defined as 'suppressing undesirable natural responses, exploiting desirable natural behaviour and instilling novel behaviour by the deliberate or accidental application of learning theory' [ 46]. For the performance horse, training obviously also involves conditioning of the cardio-vascular and musculoskeletal systems, and the two (psychological and physical) are normally inextricably intertwined. Two additional psychological factors that are frequently referred to in relation to learning and training ability are intelligence [ 47] and motivation [ 48, 49]. Just as with the emotional constructs discussed above, these concepts are often poorly defined, in fact, it has been argued that the use of the term "intelligence" to infer a continuous scale of ability in relation to learning is probably inappropriate as horses that perform well in one type of learning task may not necessarily perform well in another (see [ 47] for review). This is not perhaps surprising because a) tasks are predominantly based on operant learning; the animal performs a task in order to either avoid negative reinforcement (e.g.discomfort or pain) or attain positive reinforcement (e.g. food [primary reinforcer] or verbal praise/ clicker [secondary reinforcer]), b) animals differ in their sensitivity to reward and aversive stimuli (as previously discussed) and c) different balances of reward and aversive stimuli are applied within each learning task. Indeed, a recent study by Lansade and Simon [ 50] clearly demonstrated a correlation between aversion sensitivity and ability to learn via a negative but not a positive reinforcement paradigm. Given that different disciplines or training regimes within discipline also require different balances of reward versus aversive stimuli, it may therefore be more appropriate to discuss learning ability of individual horses in the context of discipline-specific tasks, as listed, for example, in Table ). However, it should also be noted that most tasks can be achieved using combinations of both positive and negative reinforcement, therefore, from a practical perspective, it is perhaps more useful to ascertain individual sensitivity to reward and aversive stimuli as a way of identifying the most effective training strategy. As previously discussed, behavioral methods of assessment (positive and negative reinforcement learning trials) already exist (see [ 47] review), but much more research is required to create more practical tests that could easily be applied pre-training within a short period of time to help determine the optimal training strategy (negative versus positive reinforcement) for the individual performance horse. A potential starting point for this work could be the simplification of experimental psychology studies that have previously quantified reinforcer sensitivities in the horse [ 51] and other species [ 52, 53].

The second factor highlighted as being important to training was motivation. It is considered that motivation, for a range of species, can originate both cognitively (within cortical regions of the brain) and emotionally (from sub-cortical regions) involving focus on specific goals associated with either the attainment of something the animal considers to be desirable (e.g. food) or, the avoidance of that which is aversive (e.g. pressure, pain) [ 54, 55]. These are the same fundamental end points that drive learning processes and thus, motivation and the attainment of goals are intertwined within a cognitive learning process. Although it has been argued that for horses, athletic activity itself may be rewarding and thus horses may be intrinsically motivated to work or exercise [ 56], the majority of training requires additional incentive. Normally this originates from avoidance of pressure or pain (negative reinforcement) and occasionally involves the use of reward (e.g. food) or associated secondary reward (e.g. verbal praise or clicker) in the form of positive reinforcement. The level of motivation for the attainment of goals in horses varies dramatically between individuals and again may reflect individual sensitivity to reward and aversive stimuli [ 22]. Thus, from a performance perspective it is perhaps again more appropriate to talk, not about learning ability, but rather motivation to learn based on the animal's basal motivation to avoid negative and attain positive reinforcers. For highly complex tasks (for example in dressage), learning ability for that task ('intelligence') will have greater importance [ 57]. However, high level of motivation will still be paramount for successful task completion. It follows, therefore, that one of the most important factors at the outset of training is to ensure that the individual animal is sufficiently motivated to perform. Interestingly, in human sports performance psychology, this motivation either to succeed or to avoid failure is so enhanced in some individuals that it often develops clinically as obsessive-compulsive characteristics, referred to as 'perfectionism' [ 58- 60]. To the extent that it has raised the question in the human literature as to whether such human personality characteristics are now a prerequisite for sport success. It may also be that such high motivation characteristics are also a pre-requisite for the modern equine equivalent. Interestingly, the neurochemical pathway considered to be intrinsic to motivational processes demonstrates significant variation in activity between individual horses [ 61]. Individuals with higher activity (and thus potentially greater motivation for goal-directed behaviors) also differ behaviorally in that they are a) more prone to stereotypic behavior and b) persist more within a positive reinforcement operant task (continue pressing the food dispensing button) when the reward that they are working for is taken away [ 62]. From a practical perspective, although these studies may suggest that the level of basal goal-directed motivation (at least in the context of positive reinforcement) could actually be tested for, it also demonstrates that such a selection strategy could lead to a greater incidence of stereotypic behaviour within that equine sub-population. This raises the moral dilemma that often exists within animal production/performance systems that selection of one trait (in this instance high motivation) for the purpose of enhanced production/performance may be detrimental to the animal from a welfare perspective.

Motivation to learn is also heavily affected by the learning environment, in particular the duration of the training session and how frequently those sessions occur on a daily or weekly basis. For example, horses in a negative reinforcement situation took fewer training sessions to learn a task when those sessions took place once instead of two or seven times a week [ 63] and the number of trials within a session has also been demonstrated to be important in the context of optimal learning [ 64]. Again the level of motivation to perform will be determined by the type of learning taking place (e.g. negative versus positive reinforcement) and the complexity of the task. In this respect, much more research is needed to establish optimal training schedules for the specific tasks listed in Table .

Competition environment

The competition environment is considerably different to that of the training one in several respects; 1) the presence of other horses (except for racing), 2) additional visual and aural stimuli, and 3) conditioned stimuli that signal a competitive event. Each of these factors will elicit an emotional response in the animal that will affect the motivation of the horse towards the set task on the day of competition. For many horses, these factors enhance arousal, increase 'excitability' and lead to a general increase in locomotory behaviour. The latter often have to be restricted (given the competition environment) which can result in an acute stress response in the horse. However, for some disciplines, the physiological consequences of acute stress, i.e. energy mobilisation and increased cardio-vascular activity, can be beneficial. For example, the presentation of novel stimuli (known to induce an acute physiological stress response) pre-race has been found to enhance running performance in Thoroughbreds [ 65]. Overly aroused horses, however, can become difficult to handle, expend too much energy before the competition or become distracted in a way that detracts from performance as they move out of their previously described 'Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning' [ 37].

Factors associated with the competition environment can also result in enhanced motivation to perform other non-competition behaviors. This is normally a consequence of either 1) the horse being fearful of novel visual and aural stimuli associated with the competition environment and/or 2) previous negative experiences (e.g. pain) associated with the competition environment. Both result in motivation and behaviour focussed on exit from that environment (flight response). Behaviorally, it can be difficult to differentiate between the aforementioned 'excitability' (as a result of restricted motivation to perform) and enhanced locomotory response to novel stimuli or fear. It is important, however, to make this distinction in the emotional response of the animal if behavioral modification techniques are to be applied (discussed in the next section).

Summary

In summary, for the purposes of successful competition regardless of the discipline, it is important that the horse is highly motivated to perform the specific athletic activity at the outset of training and competition. The animal should also respond in a highly motivated way to positive and negative reinforcement techniques during training to facilitate modification of athletic activity. However, it is important to identify the individual sensitivity to these reinforcers in advance to ensure optimal training strategy and much more research needs to be done in this respect to establish practical and reliable tests for the performance horse owner. A starting point for this work could potentially be based on experimental psychology studies that have quantified reinforcer sensitivities in the horse [ 51] and other species [ 52, 53].

The performance horse also needs to be motivated at the time of competition, but not to the extent that any restriction of that motivated behaviour has a negative effect on the animal's physiological or psychological state. Highly motivated horses, however, can be exposed to behavioral modification techniques in order to attenuate specific unwanted behaviors but the animal must be capable of responding to these techniques in a positive way. Modification techniques can also be applied to highly reactive horses that are responding to novel stimuli or previous negative experiences, but again those individuals need to be responsive to those techniques.

Behavioral modification

In light of the previous discussion, the main areas where behavioral modification could potentially be applied to enhance performance are:

1) Basic positive and negative reinforcement techniques to aid motivation towards the correct athletic behaviour;

2) Counter-conditioning and systematic desensitisation to attenuate overly reactive behaviour in anticipation of the competitive event;

3) Counter-conditioning and systematic desensitisation to attenuate overly reactive behaviour to novel stimuli associated with the competitive event;

4) Counter-conditioning and systematic desensitisation to attenuate motivated behaviors in response to stimuli associated with the onset of a competitive event that are a result of previous negative experiences linked to those stimuli.

As previously discussed, identifying individual sensitivity to reward and aversive stimuli is considered crucial in determining the individual optimal training strategy from a positive versus negative reinforcement perspective. However, two other issues surrounding the different reinforcement techniques need to be taken into consideration when devising a training approach. Firstly, long-term inappropriate application of negative reinforcement schedules may result in a chronic stress situation for the animal, potentially leading to reduced health [ 66], high reactivity to acute stressors [ 67], or, for some individuals 'learned helplessness' (behavioral depression) [ 68]. Secondly, positive reinforcement training methods may have limitations in the amount of work the animal will perform for the reward [ 69] resulting in greater likelihood of refusal to perform psychologically or physically demanding tasks. Given that all companion animal species have evolved in environments where both positive and negative reinforcement occurs, it is generally considered that a combination of both schedules [ 70] are the most efficient in terms of terms of training and are less likely to affect other aspects of the horse either behaviorally or physiologically. Testing for reward versus aversion sensitivity within the individual horse, therefore, will again help determine the optimal balance of reinforcement schedules (negative versus positive) to be used rather than an exclusion of one over the other.

Habituation, as a method to reduce reactive behaviour to novel stimuli also has its limitations in that some individual horses do not attenuate their behavioral response to repeated exposure of the stimuli, although this can be managed through the use of systematic desensitisation [ 71]. Anecdotally, this difficulty has been recognised for some time, however, it has also been recently demonstrated within a controlled experimental situation that individual horses appear to adopt either one out of two adaptive strategies to repeated exposure of a novel stimulus, either habituation (reduced physiological and behavioral response) or sensitisation (increased physiological and behavioral response) (McBride, unpublished data). In this context, it is important to identify the phenotype in order to apply the correct modification techniques that will yield productive results. In the absence of the necessary stimulus control for systematic desensitisation, counter-conditioning is an appropriate alternative behavioral modification strategy for the latter group of horses where animals are taught to perform a behavior which is incompatible with the unwanted behavior (e.g. standing to replace locomotory behavior), normally with the use of a positive reinforcer [ 40].

Previous negative experiences linked to stimuli associated with the onset of a competitive event not only generates a range of motivated behaviors that have the primary aim of removing the animal from that situation (for example [ 72]), but it can affect motor function in a way that is normally interpreted as reduced confidence. In human sports psychology, confidence along with 'mental toughness' and 'motivation' is one of the primary factors that determines competitive athletic performance [ 73]. As stated, confidence is based primarily on prior experience, where that experience has not been persistently negative for the animal. In this respect, the rate of training and physical demand within an equestrian discipline is extremely important so that tasks set do not become aversive by being outside the horse's physical capability, either in terms of strength or motor co-ordination. Incorrect rate of training can also increase the chances of injury to the animal which will again be perceived as a negative event affecting subsequent performance. As previously stated, negative experiences also induce an anticipatory stress response on re-presentation of the same situation. Stress affects motor control to reduce motor co-ordination [ 58, 74, 75], thus, the animal is more likely to perform motor error potentially resulting in further injury. A perpetual cycle of anticipatory stress followed by injury can be categorised, in the context of conventional learning theory, as 'punishment' and will have drastic effects on the performance of the animal. Conventional methods to counter this condition are to reduce the physical demand of the exercise to allow the animal to perform the task without injury, followed by increased demand built up slowly over time thus restoring the animal's 'confidence'. It should also be noted, however, that in humans, athletic confidence has also been directly related to the individual's general personality [ 76] regardless of experience. This area again needs much more research with regard to the performance horse.

Non-competition and non-training stressors

It should be noted that stress affecting performance does not necessarily have to originate from sources associated with training or the competitive event. Performance horses are exposed to a range of stressors most of which relate to the husbandry of the animal (often dictated by the training regime) and are stressful because they affect the behavioral needs of the horse as a species [ 77]. Behavioral needs are species-specific highly motivated behaviors that are performed irrespective of their functional consequence [ 78]. More often than not they do have a functional role and human-intervention to pre-provide the consequence of the behavior may not reduce the motivation for its performance i.e. there appears to be some physiological 'need' to perform the behavior regardless of what that behaviour brings to the animal. Foraging is a primary example in this respect [ 79]. For many herbivores, forage is naturally available ad libitum with up to 70% of the day spent eating [ 80]. For horses, the reduction of eating time to two meals per day can meet the nutritional requirements of the animal, but may not necessarily meet the animal's behavioral need to forage [ 81- 83]. The problem with restriction of behavioral needs from a competition perspective is that it induces a chronic stress response in the animal [ 69, 84] which will subsequently prevent optimal individual performance.

Two other considered behavioral needs of the horse as a gregarious ungulate, are social interaction and locomotory behaviour where again the restriction of these behaviors are considered to reduce the animal's welfare [ 56]. Thus, optimal environmental conditions, to maintain the horse at a high performance level, are those that facilitate the behavioral needs of the species, thus reducing the risk of a chronic stress situation.

Other potential sources of stress for the competition horse include transportation [ 85] and over-exercise. The latter is well recognised in the field of human sports science and is related to the condition of 'burn-out' [ 85], resulting in reduced motivation towards training and athletic competition [ 86, 87]. The primary causal factor of 'burnout' appears to relate to insufficient positive feedback (reward) for work performed and again there appears to be individual genetic susceptibility in this respect [ 88]. This condition is again anecdotally recognised in horses but no research has been carried out to ascertain what level of exercise and type of training brings it about within the different equestrian disciplines and whether it is possible to predict individual predisposition in this respect.

Conclusions

The increased competitiveness and performance level of sport now requires that individuals and teams must give over a substantial amount of time to their respective disciplines. However, even when an optimal training infrastructure has been attained, successful competition is now only achieved through the additional integration and application of sports/exercise science and technology. Although it is considered that this is the antithesis of sporting ethos [ 89], it is without doubt a considered pre-requisite for international sporting success [ 90].

This review has identified areas within the current performance horse industry where known behavioral research and behavioral modification techniques could be applied to enhance further the performance of those animals. These include:

1. current research on equine behavioral needs to ensure optimal environmental conditions;

2. the application of behavioral modification techniques to:

a. sufficiently motivate the animal to perform the correct athletic behaviour;

b. attenuate overly reactive behaviour in anticipation of the competitive event;

c. attenuate emotionally reactive behaviour to novel stimuli associated with the competitive event;

d. attenuate motivated behaviors in response to stimuli associated with the onset of a competitive event that are a result of previous negative experiences linked to those stimuli.

This review has also identified areas of further research that could potentially enhance the performance horse industry. These include:

1) the development of a behavioral screening tool to identify young horses that do not have the correct temperament in order to proceed to the top level of competition within a given equestrian discipline;

2) the integration of methods aimed at assessing the emotional state of the horse during training and competition in order to ensure that the horse is in an appropriate psychological state for competition.

3) the identification of optimal training regimes in terms of applying positive and/or negative reinforcement schedules and also in terms of training duration and training interval with the primary aim of avoiding the equine equivalent of psychological 'burn-out'.

Finally greater work is required on the rider-horse partnership in order to identify the constituents of a winning team within a given discipline.

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To attain optimal individual performance within any equestrian discipline, horses must be in peak physical fitness and have the correct psychological state. Professional riders acknowledge that these two factors are equally important and that without both, success is unlikely e.g. [ 1].

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Horse Stable Flooring Materials and Drainage-Extension PennState University

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"The importance of good flooring becomes more evident as a horse spends more time in his stall. The fitness of a horse's legs and feet can be greatly affected by the type of stall flooring chosen. The most suitable floor is highly dependent on management style, while personal preferences can have a strong influence. Fortunately, there are many options for suitable floors in a horse facility. "

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The best-known German warmbloods are the Hanoverian, Holsteiner, Oldenburg and the purebred Trakehner. Others include the Württemberger, Rhinelander, Westphalian, Zweibrücker, Brandenburger, Mecklenburger, and Bavarian Warmblood. Several of these breeds are also represented by ancestral types such as the Ostfriesen and Alt-Oldenburger, Alt-Württemberger, and Rottaler.

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A Critical Review of Horse-Related Risk: A Research Agenda for Safer Mounts, Riders and Equestrian Cultures

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A Critical Review of Horse-Related Risk: A Research Agenda for Safer Mounts, Riders and Equestrian Cultures

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"In relation to racing eque-cultures, the common rehoming of racehorses to novice riders is one example of a contemporary eque-cultural practice that presents risks to horses and humans. Whilst the aim is often to reduce the risk of horses being unnecessarily euthanized, this practice may increase the risk of a horse-related risk or injury to a human, and the potential mistreatment of a horse that is subsequently labeled ‘dangerous’."

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1. Background

Horse-riding is a hazardous activity. Each year, horse riders are injured, hospitalized or killed as a result of horse-related accidents and injuries. Despite technological advancements in equestrian safety equipment [ 1], horse riding continues to be found more dangerous than motorcycling, skiing, football, and rugby [ 2, 3]. Whilst injury can occur simply from handling horses [ 4, 5, 6, 7], falling from a horse constitutes a dangerous fall from height, possibly at speed. A rider's head can be elevated up to 3 m from the ground and horses can travel at speeds around 50 km/h. one study of children under 15 years of age found that a 'mean Modified Injury Severity Scale score of injured riders was exceeded only by that of pedestrians struck by a car' [ 8] (p. 487).

Improving safety for the millions of horse-riders around the globe is significant for moral, economic, socio-cultural, and public health reasons. While the importance of improving horse-related safety seems self-evident, no rigorous study into understanding or reducing horse-related risk has been undertaken internationally in the academic literature. This may be due to a historical legacy of horse-riding being a pre-modern sport with a robust culture that accepts the dangers of riding. It may also be due to the difficulty of analyzing and mitigating the risks inherent in, and generated by, a complex socio-technical network and interspecies interaction that is historically, socially and culturally constructed. Nonetheless, complexity must be addressed to enhance the safety of millions of equestrians around the globe.

In this paper, we discuss four inter-related dimensions of horse-related risk: the risk itself, the horse, the rider and the cultural context through which equestrian activities become meaningful. For each dimension, we present an overview of current knowledge and offer a list of important questions that remain. Moreover, we identify the repercussions of how risk has been constructed for each dimension. Risk management strategies are commonly presented as four options: avoidance, transference (of responsibility to a third party), mitigation and acceptance [ 9]. As argued throughout this paper, the acceptance and avoidance of horse-related risk is high. Horses are frequently constructed as irrevocably unpredictable and dangerous. As a result, most horse-related safety information concentrates on avoiding injury by keeping out of horse-related danger. Risk transference is also high, in relation to a reliance on insurance companies, professional trainers to manage difficult horses or the use of protective technologies such as helmets, body protectors or even sedative substances. Lowest of all is mitigation, particularly mitigation directed at: (a) improving the predictability of horses (through making horses more predictable and making riders more able to predict their behavior); and (b) improving riders' competence in the physical skills with the explicit intention of making them more resilient to injury and falls.

To address the questions raised throughout the paper, we conclude with a list of recommended methods for future data collection. Together, these questions and methods comprise a multidisciplinary agenda for research that could reduce accident, injury and death to millions of horse-riders around the world.

2. Current Knowledge and Critical Questions

2.1. The Risk

As noted above, horses are dangerous and interacting with them is more or less risky. Horses are often pushed to their physical and physiological limits in equestrian pursuits [ 10], resulting in risk to both horses and riders. Research on horse-related risk is biased towards cross-sectional epidemiological studies of injury type and severity [ 7], or the efficacy of technical interventions such as frangible pins on jumping obstacles, helmets and back protectors [ 8, 11, 12, 13]. With very little exception [ 13, 14, 15], a focus on the causes and consequences of horse-related injury rather than prevention, could lead to researchers being accused of 'shutting the gate after the horse has bolted'.

Whilst risk analysis is an important aspect of risk research, especially for ranking risk, prioritizing intervention and evaluating campaigns, risk-reduction requires changing the attitudes and behaviours of participants in risky activities. Sandman's model of risk communication is particularly useful in this regard [ 16]. According to Sandman, 'risk' is most usefully understood not as the standard arithmetical product of likelihood and consequence of an incident occurring (ISO 31000), but as the cultural sum of 'hazard + outrage'. Sandman discusses combinations of high/low risk/outrage on a 2X2 matrix and their implications for crisis management. For example, the risk of autism being induced by childhood immunization is a 'low risk/high outrage' concern. The cultural response of high outrage outweighs and overshadows the objective risk but has had a significant impact on rates of failure to immunize.

Horse-related risk can be considered 'high risk/low outrage', suggesting a level of wide-spread recognition of risk but a high degree of acceptance, complacency or inaction. The recommended strategy for encouraging behaviours that reduce horse-related risk would then be to reduce the risks (see sections on the rider and the horse below), whilst also increasing outrage (see 'culture', below). In particular, outrage over horse-related injury needs to be increased amongst riders as well as the governments that have the ability to financially support or legislate for change. As increasing outrage when there is no available risk mitigation can lead to paralyzing fear and perpetuate complacency, there is a need to fortify existing technical risk controls with behavioural, physical and cultural controls.

In relation to the risk dimension of horse-related risk, we therefore need to ask: How can horse-related injuries be prevented?

What contributes to complacency around horse-related risk?

How can outrage over horse-related risk be usefully increased?

What behavioural, physical and cultural controls can supplement existing technical controls?

2.2. The Horse

The risk of horse-related accidents and injury are well known and widely accepted. Risk is frequently attributed to the 'nature' of horses as irrevocably unpredictable, fearful and flight-wired [ 17]. As noted by Lawrence, even the most highly trained horses can be treated with suspicion, lest they go 'feral' and return to a state of unruly wildness [ 18]. This essentialist view of horses as more or less 'unchangeable' could explain why horse-related risk intervention is largely technical, and risk management is avoidance-based (as discussed in more detail below).

In equestrianism, there has been a strong focus on using personal protective equipment (e.g., helmet, boots, gloves and, more recently, body protectors) and maintaining horse equipment to safe standards (e.g., checking stitching on saddlery). Whilst technical intervention has an undeniable role in reducing the likelihood and consequence of an adverse equestrian event, the voluntary use of basic protective equipment such as helmets use is low to inconsistent [ 11, 12, 15]. Technical intervention should therefore not overshadow attention to horse behavior, or rider skill (discussed in more detail below).

Overall, there seems to have been more discussion about why horses are dangerous (e.g., unpredictable, large and flighty), rather than if, how and to what extent those risk factors can be mitigated or even controlled. In fact, research suggests that the unpredictability of horses can be reduced through behavioural interventions and approaches [ 19]. This is particularly encouraging, given that a taken-for-granted assumption that horses are irrevocably unpredictable may contribute to a lack of outrage about current levels of horse-related accident, injury and death. Even if horses are irrevocably unpredictable based on the innate fears or a prey animal, there has been no consideration of the extent to which their own need to feel safe could be reconfigured to reduce risk to humans. As noted by McGreevy and colleagues, 'the value of safety to animals is often overlooked by trainers and handlers' [ 20]. This is a firm reminder that feelings of risk, fear and safety are at least as important to horses as well as people. As these equine desires may contribute to risks where their importance goes unrecognized, the corollary is that they could be used to reduce risk where their importance is accommodated and addressed.

The unpredictability of horses suggests that risks may be higher amongst people with low levels of knowledge of horse ethology and behaviour, since this can help to anticipate natural but undesirable equine behaviours and responses. Evidence of breed differences in personality [ 21] and vision [ 22] has been revealed, but there is little guidance on how to use this information to reduce the risks associated with handling and riding certain horses. One exception is the recent 'Guide to managing risks when new and inexperienced persons interact with horses' [ 23], that singles out Thoroughbred horses as unsuitable for beginners. This seminal guide highlights the potential risk reduction benefits of applying WHS principles to equestrian cultures. In workplaces, workers are given guidance and decision-making support tools to safely operate dangerous plant, machinery or equipment through the identification and control of hazards. However, professional, amateur or leisure riders are rarely given decision-making tools for riding a given horse on a given occasion ( i.e., the equivalent of a pre-flight safety check). Although evidence of its adoption is lacking, the following seven point pre-ride equestrian checklist has been suggested by Guyton et al. [ 24]:

Am I wearing adequate protective gear?

Is the tack durable and well-fit to the horse?

Are the environmental conditions (weather, ground footing) safe for riding?

Does the arena contain unfamiliar objects, animals, or people that may alarm the horse?

Is the horse healthy and prepared for riding? Is the mood or behavior of the horse uncharacteristic or concerning?

Am I healthy and prepared for riding? Do I have an emotional or physical condition that may impair my ability to safely ride this horse?

Do the horse and I have a healthy relationship? Do I have concerns about my ability to assert myself with this horse? [ 24]

The list is entirely relevant, but can be significantly improved. The first two checks relate to technology and are under direct control of the human. Checks Three and Four relate to the environment, over which riders have less control, especially when riding in open spaces. Check Six relates to the rider but 'emotional or physical' condition is rather broad, especially around the degree to which safety is jeopardized. Checks Five and Seven relate to the horse, but require familiarity with individual horses or a perceptive eye informed by knowledge of equine behavior. The idea of a 'healthy relationship' and being 'assertive' are both open to interpretation and relative to different equestrian disciplines. Moreover, being able to interpret and predict equine behaviour may be a more useful risk-management tool than being assertive. Check Six relates to the rider, but 'emotional or physical' condition is rather broad, especially around the degree to which safety is jeopardized by particular conditions. Furthermore, Check Six does not address specific physical skills essential for riding, such as those discussed in more detail below.

Overall, whilst the checklist comprises questions that are undoubtedly important to ask, most if not all rely on a level of knowledge and expertise in their interpretation and assessment. There is particular scope to incorporate objective checks of safety, quality of the human-horse relationship and resilience to external or environmental stimuli. These can be undertaken first from the ground and then under saddle in a confined area through testing basic responses such as deceleration, acceleration (sometimes necessary to avoid hazards such as vehicles or other horses), reversing and turning.

Moreover, riders are not routinely given explicit advice on what to do if they assess a horse as unsafe, i.e., additional controls, alternative (less dangerous) activities, strategies to improve the safety of a mount ( i.e., install robust deceleration responses and habituate the horses to common hazards). Whilst riders may be given instruction that has the effect of improving safety, it may not be understood or framed explicitly as a risk-management strategy. Rather, it may be seen as taken for granted tradition or simply 'just the way things are done', as has been found in relation to risk management by volunteer firefighters [ 25]. Riders too may already be engaging in risk-reduction practices that are tacit. The explicit identification of practices that improve safety as risk-reduction strategies may encourage riders not only to value, improve and maintain high standards of those practices and the horse's response to them, but to communicate those practices to other riders to create safer equestrian cultures.

It is tempting to construct the horse as an independent source of risk. Certainly, without a horse there is no risk. However, from a safety systems perspective, there is a need to recognize the ways in which risk is generated in, by and through socio-technical networks. Despite the importance of matching riders with appropriate horses being acknowledged [ 24] and largely carried out on a basis of experienced/inexperienced horse/rider [ 26], there is no widely accepted or validated means of assessing experience for the purpose of determining safe horse-rider combinations. As environmental conditions and stressors can impact the behavior of horses and riders, assessment needs to be undertaken in general as well as on specific occasions, such as during competition, on return to work after an injury or in unfamiliar surroundings.

In relation to the equine dimension of horse-related risk, we therefore need to ask:

How well do riders understand horse behavior?

How can increasing levels of knowledge about horse behavior improve safety?

Which horses are most likely to be unpredictable for riders (e.g., age, breed, level of experience, level of horse education, early preparation and history of unwelcome behaviour)

What physical and behavioural conditioning increases a horse's predictability or make a horse reasonably safe to ride?

How might a horse's preference for 'safety' be used to reduce risk?

What benefits may be taken from OHS approaches to safety?

How can a rider assess, train, maintain and improve a horse's level of risk?

What tacit practices do riders currently engage in without being aware of their risk-reduction benefits, which could be emphasized?

What tools could enable safer matching of horse and rider?

2.3. The Rider

Most-if not all-riders are aware of the risk of equestrian sports and mindful of their own safety [ 27]. Pony club manuals are replete with references to safe practices around horses [ 28, 29, 30] and the pony club movement itself has a 'safety first' attitude. However, from a risk management perspective, the most common strategies for improving safety around horses can be characterized as avoidance strategies-keeping out of harm's way. Aside from the safe use of safe equipment, being 'horse safe' usually refers to how to avoid being kicked, bitten, trampled or crushed. Once again, the reliance on avoidance rather than control could be a repercussion of the construction of horses as irrevocably unpredictable. As discussed above, there is very little overt discussion about how to manage or reduce 'equinogenic' risk.

Similarly, there is little overt discussion of the physical and postural skills that can increase a rider's resilience to injury or falls. Riders communicate to horses through 'natural aids'; their hands (rein tension increases for 'stop' and 'turn'), legs (leg pressure increases for 'go'), seat (classically conditioned weight and balance cues for 'stop' or 'go'), voice and various 'artificial aids' such as whips and spurs. The self-awareness, timing and accuracy of the application of aids have been related to rider safety, especially (1) rein pressure [tension and release], (2) leg stability and (3) balance and trunk stability [ 31]. When these stimuli are applied incorrectly, inadvertently or simultaneously, they can cause miscommunication, confusion, discomfort or pain for the horse. The horse may respond with evasive behaviour, resistance or flight behaviour and anti-predator responses such as rearing, bucking or bolting, potentially leading to rider injury or even death. Riders' cues must be applied with awareness, accuracy, timing and consistency to: (a) avoid or reduce the likelihood of a horse-related incident occurring; and (b) provide the rider with the ability to safely respond to an untoward incident, thereby reducing the significance of its consequences [ 32].

The mensuration of cues from riders' hands and legs has commenced as part of equitation science [ 33]. There may also be benefits in measuring levels of cognitive and somatic anxiety in riders, as anxiety can impact horse-rider communication by affecting fine motor control and decision-making [ 34, 35]. High self-efficacy may reduce anxiety [ 36], although little is known about riders' subjective confidence in their proficiency in the application of those cues, based on self-report. From a psychological perspective, high self-efficacy may mislead riders into over-estimating their safety and/or taking increased risks [ 37, 38].

Furthermore, there is a need to know if and how riders associate their physical skills with safety, especially in some of the more artistic equestrian disciplines such as dressage where a rider's skills have significant aesthetic value. There are several well established approaches to improving riding position such as 'centred riding' [ 39] and 'riding with your mind' [ 40] that focus on riders developing better feel, relating better with the horse, and becoming more effective as well as feeling and looking more aesthetically pleasing. The simultaneous effect of these approaches on improving safety is largely taken for granted and remains to be determined, as does the usefulness of 'improved safety' as a means to motivate riders to adopt such approaches.

In relation to the rider dimension of horse-related risk, we therefore need to ask:

How riders acquire and objectively perform skills related to horse safety?

How riders subjectively self-evaluate the skills essential to horse safety?

If and how riders and trainers associate physical ability with safety?

What is the impact of existing rider position programmes on safety?

2.4. The Culture

As acknowledged by Sandman's hazard/outrage model descried above, subjective perceptions of risk do not always align with objective risk calculations [ 41], and not all strategies that reduce fear actually reduce risk. Perceptions of risk can have a significant impact on the uptake of safety behaviours and protective equipment. 'Safety culture' is a contested term that has been used in studies of organizational culture to describe the ways in which workplaces do (or do not) value safety [ 42, 43] or perform on measures thought to indicate an organisation's 'safety climate' [ 44]. The concept can be used to consider the ways in which various equestrian cultures or 'eque-cultures' [ 45] impact on the safety of equestrians, through cultural variation in risk perceptions, attitudes, beliefs and behaviours. In relation eque-culture in general, safety is often poorly evaluated especially at the point of sale [ 14, 46]. This is despite a growing appreciation of the horse's need to feel safe [ 20] and the range of responses a horse offers when threatened [ 47]. In relation to racing eque-cultures, the common rehoming of racehorses to novice riders is one example of a contemporary eque-cultural practice that presents risks to horses and humans. Whilst the aim is often to reduce the risk of horses being unnecessarily euthanized, this practice may increase the risk of a horse-related risk or injury to a human, and the potential mistreatment of a horse that is subsequently labeled 'dangerous'.

From a more socio-historical standpoint, the romantic cultural construction of horse riding as an art can also conflict with practical considerations of risk. Since the Classical Greek period and especially in the renaissance in Europe, equitation has been constructed as an art [ 48, 49, 50]. As with any artistic endeavor, there is reverence for those who seem blessed with a natural affinity or 'feel' that eludes explanation. In equestrian culture, there has always been an acceptance that some equestrians have a natural ability to communicate seemingly telepathically with horses such that the two become one [ 51, 52]. These riders are said to have natural 'feel' [ 26]. However, equitation science is helping to demystify many of the qualities that distinguish such individuals [ 32, 53, 54, 55]. For example, communication from rider to horse always relies upon at least some form of pressure cues, however subtle [ 55]. These cues appear imperceptible in the best cases having been reduced from larger operant cues [ 19] by a process of classical conditioning [ 56]. Different eque-cultures have different tolerances for the 'volume' of cues to the horse and their visibility to bystanders.

Whilst equitation science has the potential to significantly reduce horse-related injury and death, it would be disingenuous to present it as a panacea, at least uncritically. In any given population, there will be varying levels of scientific literacy and diverse attitudes towards 'scientific' modes of thought, ranging from supporters to skeptics. For some riders, the elusive experience of harmony is precisely what attracts them to horse-riding [ 51]. For others, instruction from elite competitors is highly valued [ 26, 27]. Some resist a scientific framework of horse training, preferring leadership narratives that place them above their horses in a perceived hierarchy [ 57]. Moreover, research has identified that the desire to achieve a 'good' human-horse relationship (or at least to 'perform' the achievement of a 'good' relationship) can be a barrier to precautionary behaviour when such riders consider their 'good' relationship as evidence of reduced risk and therefore a reduced need to wear protective equipment such as helmets [ 15].

This heterogeneity of styles of engagement with equestrianism, or 'equestrian dispositions', suggests that safety information needs to be communicated in forms that resonate with riders of a multitude of dispositions including scientific and artistic approaches to equitation. Understanding the cultural specificity and generalizability of eque-cultures and equestrianism more broadly will be crucial to effectively applying or adapting longstanding behavior change theories and models from health psychology [ 58, 59, 60, 61]; as well as theories of decision-making and threat and error management from human factors and safety science [ 62]. Whilst different equestrian dispositions have been operationalized from researcher experience [ 57] and through factor analysis [ 63], there remains a need to evaluate their resonance with equestrians themselves. There is a particular need to understand what motivates the behaviour of different equestrians to identify useful 'irrelevant motivators' [ 64] that could encourage the adoption of protective behaviours in the short term and cultivate safety values in the medium to long term. For example, signaling being fashionable or professional may be a powerful motivator for some riders to wear helmets [ 65]. Others might be more motivated to wear helmets if they become a symbol of the 'toughness' of their discipline, especially in traditional cowboy equestrian disciplines associated with masculinity, bravery and resilience [ 66]. Regardless of the motivation, many riders will be influenced by their peers, and could be engaged to replicate desired precautionary behaviours through 'participant modeling' [ 36] by their role models.

In relation to the cultural dimension of horse-related risk, we therefore need to ask:

How do riders perceive equestrianism in general and equitation science in particular?

What are the different styles of engagement with equestrianism?

What are the most powerful motivators for equestrians?

How do riders consume safety-related information?

How are the causes of horse-related injuries and deaths understood by riders?

How is the use of horse safety equipment represented in the horse community?

What are the socio-cultural dimensions and determinants of risk and safety?

What are the socio-cultural barriers and enablers to improve rider safety?

What are the elements of effective behavior change campaigns and programmes that increase rider safety?

3. Discussion

In this paper we critically reviewed four dimensions important to horse-related risks to horse riders. Whilst they were presented discretely, they are mutually inclusive within a complex socio-technical network and interspecies interaction that is historically, socially and culturally constructed. In relation to the dimensions of risk, horses, riders and culture, we found that research on risk explains the intricacies of what can go wrong, how often and what the consequences are. Research on horses is also problem focused, arguing why horses are a source of risk. These biases favour risk-management options of acceptance and avoidance. To take full advantage of risk-management strategies of mitigation, further research is required on the extent to and ways in which the behavior of horses can be made more predictable, and riders can be made more capable of predicting their behaviour. There is also a need for research evaluating rider proficiency at performing and self-assessing the physical skills that increase resilience to horse-related injury whilst riding. Finally, we considered the unavoidable and omnipotent cultural context that affects riders' behaviours, values, attitudes and beliefs regarding risk and safety. Inconsistent levels of voluntary helmet use suggest that increasing the safety of eque-cultures and equestrianism in general will require external legislation and internal transformation. Overall, we found enormous potential for reducing horse-related risk through the risk management strategy of mitigation.

For each element of horse-related risk, we presented a list of research questions. Together, they comprise a multidisciplinary agenda for further research that could significantly reduce accident, injury and death to millions of horse-riders around the world. As these questions are multi-disciplinary, so too do they require data from various sources, including but not limited to:

Surveys and questionnaires-to obtain a wider perspective on a range of issues, and to generate quantitative results for policy development and advocacy around horse and rider safety [ 67, 68].

Interviews and focus groups-to explore controversial subjects that pertain to risk and safety of both the horse and rider [ 45, 69].

Ethnographic research-to study the actual practices of equestrians; and identify risk management strategies consistent with the motivations, beliefs and values of eque-cultures [ 26, 70, 71, 72, 73].

Media analysis-to identify how particular incidents and risks are reported (or not reported) and relationships to the values, beliefs and practices of equestrians [ 15, 67, 74, 75].

Physiometry-to measure rider position and identify physical attributes positively correlated with safety or resistance to being unseated [ 33, 76, 77, 78].

Psychometric research into fear [ 79], risk-taking propensity [ 80, 81] and sensation seeking [ 82] amongst riders and equestrian discipline-to identify target groups and tailor behavior change interventions [ 38, 83].

Analysis of accident and injury reports ( i.e., from inquests, insurance records and hospital admission data)-to enable triangulation of objective and self-report data, especially around risk [ 6, 84, 85].

Inferential modeling - to determine predictors of risk and safety, animal attachment and target group archetyping [ 86, 87].

To ensure that data are translated into effective safety intervention tools that can reduce numbers of horse-related injury and death, researchers should focus on developing initiatives that (a) increase outrage about preventable horse-related injury and death, and (b) reduce horse-related risk, such as:

Ethical techniques and behavioral interventions to increase the predictability of horses

Interventions to improve riders' ability to predict horse behaviour

Horse safety assessment and decision-making support tools

Rider safety skills assessment tools

Validated measure of horse training/riding style

Behavior change for safe equestrian cultures

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A Critical Review of Horse-Related Risk: A Research Agenda for Safer Mounts, Riders and Equestrian Cultures

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Horse-riding is a hazardous activity. Each year, horse riders are injured, hospitalized or killed as a result of horse-related accidents and injuries. Despite technological advancements in equestrian safety equipment [ 1], horse riding continues to be found more dangerous than motorcycling, skiing, football, and rugby [ 2, 3].