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Finlandia
by Santi

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Arvid Adolf Etholén, or Adolf Karlovich Etolin ( Russian: Адольф Карлович Этолин) (January 9, 1799 Helsinki - March 29, 1876 Elimäki) was a naval officer, explorer and administrator in the Russian Empire who was employed by the Russian-American Company. He was a Swedish-speaking Finn who was born in Helsinki, Finland.

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Grecia
by Cristian

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(Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeléyev o Mendeléiev; Tobolsk, actual Rusia, 1834 - San Peterburgo, 1907) Químico ruso a quien se debe una primera formulación de la ley periódica (las propiedades de los elementos se repiten periódicamente en función de su peso atómico), así como la representación gráfica de la misma en forma de tabla, base de la actual tabla periódica de los elementos.

Dmitri Mendeléiev

Su familia, de la que era el menor de diecisiete hermanos, se vio obligada a emigrar de Siberia a Rusia a causa de la ceguera del padre y de la pérdida del negocio familiar a raíz de un incendio. Su origen siberiano le cerró las puertas de las universidades de Moscú y San Petersburgo, por lo que se formó en el Instituto Pedagógico de esta última ciudad.

Más tarde se trasladó a Alemania, para ampliar estudios en Heidelberg, donde conoció a los químicos más destacados de la época. A su regreso a Rusia fue nombrado profesor del Instituto Tecnológico de San Petersburgo (1864) y profesor de la universidad (1867), cargo que se vería forzado a abandonar en 1890 por motivos políticos, si bien se le concedió la dirección de la Oficina de Pesos y Medidas (1893).
La tabla periódica de los elementos
Entre sus trabajos destacan los estudios acerca de la expansión térmica de los líquidos, el descubrimiento del punto crítico, el estudio de las desviaciones de los gases reales respecto de lo enunciado en la ley de Boyle-Mariotte y una formulación más exacta de la ecuación de estado. En el campo práctico destacan sus grandes contribuciones a las industrias de la sosa y el petróleo de Rusia.

Con todo, su principal logro investigador fue el establecimiento del llamado sistema periódico de los elementos químicos, o tabla periódica, gracias al cual culminó una clasificación definitiva de los citados elementos (1869) y abrió el paso a los grandes avances experimentados por la química en el siglo XX.

Tabla periódica actual (clic para ampliar)

Aunque su sistema de clasificación no era el primero que se basaba en propiedades de los elementos químicos, como su valencia, sí incorporaba notables mejoras, como la combinación de los pesos atómicos y las semejanzas entre elementos, o el hecho de reservar espacios en blanco correspondientes a elementos aún no descubiertos como el eka-aluminio o galio (descubierto por Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran en 1875), el eka-boro o escandio ( Lars Fredrik Nilson, 1879) y el eka-silicio o germanio ( Clemens Winkler, 1886).

Mendeléiev demostró, en controversia con químicos de la talla de Béguyer de Chancourtois, John Newlands y Julius Lothar Meyer, que las propiedades de los elementos químicos son funciones periódicas de sus pesos atómicos. Dio a conocer una primera versión de dicha clasificación en marzo de 1869 y publicó la que sería la definitiva a comienzos de 1871. Mediante la clasificación de los elementos químicos conocidos en su época en función de sus pesos atómicos crecientes, consiguió que aquellos elementos de comportamiento químico similar estuvieran situados en una misma columna vertical, formando un grupo. Tal como se evidenciaría más adelante, su tabla se basaba, en efecto, en las propiedades más profundas de la estructura atómica de la materia, ya que las propiedades químicas de los elementos vienen determinadas por los electrones de sus capas externas.

Convencido de la validez de su clasificación, y a fin de lograr que algunos elementos encontrasen acomodo adecuado en la tabla, Mendeléiev "alteró" el valor de su peso atómico considerado correcto hasta entonces, modificaciones que la experimentación confirmó con posterioridad. A tenor de este mismo patrón, predijo la existencia de una serie de elementos, desconocidos en su época, a los que asignó lugares concretos en la tabla.

Pocos años después (1894), con el descubrimiento de ciertos gases nobles (neón, criptón, etc.) en la atmósfera, efectuado por el químico británico William Ramsay (1852-1916), la tabla de Mendeléiev experimentó la última ampliación en una columna, tras lo cual quedó definitivamente establecida.

Cómo citar este artículo:
Fernández, Tomás y Tamaro, Elena. "". En Biografías y Vidas. La enciclopedia biográfica en línea [Internet]. Barcelona, España, 2004. Disponible en [fecha de acceso: ].

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(Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeléyev o Mendeléiev; Tobolsk, actual Rusia, 1834 - San Peterburgo, 1907) Químico ruso a quien se debe una primera formulación de la ley periódica (las propiedades de los elementos se repiten periódicamente en función de su peso atómico), así como la representación gráfica de la misma en forma de tabla, base de la actual tabla periódica de los elementos.

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Francia
by Álvaro

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Jeanne Baret (sometimes spelled Baré or Barret) (July 27, 1740 - August 5, 1807) was a member of Louis Antoine de Bougainville's expedition on the ships La Boudeuse and in 1766-1769. Baret is recognized as the first woman to have completed a voyage of circumnavigation of the globe.

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Eslovaquia
by Jesús

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Ivan Bella - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre

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Ivan Bella (25 de mayo de 1964, Brezno, Checoslovaquia (actual Eslovaquia) es un oficial de la fuerza aérea de eslovaquia y antiguo cosmonauta.

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Hungría
by Ernesto

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Sándor Kőrösi Csoma - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Sándor Kőrösi Csoma ( Covasna, Transilvania, 27 de marzo de 1784 - Darjeeling, India, 11 de abril de 1842), fue un polímata: políglota, lingüista, teólogo y explorador húngaro, considerado el fundador de la tibetología. Dedicó la mayor parte de su vida a la investigación de los orígenes del pueblo húngaro.

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Italia
by Triana

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Colaboradores de los proyectos Wikimedia

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Marco Polo - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre

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Bélgica
by Alberto

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Max Cosyns - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre

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El 18 de agosto de 1934 Cosyns junto con su estudiante Nérée van der Elst pilotaron un globo a una altitud de 52,952 pies. Después de un despegue de Hour-Havenne en Bélgica, volaron sobre Alemania y Austria antes de aterrizar cerca de la aldea de Ženavlje (ahora en Eslovenia).

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Estonia
by Iván

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Alemania
by César

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Philipp von Hutten (18 December 1505 - 17 May 1546) was a German adventurer, and an early European explorer of Venezuela. He is a significant figure in the history of Klein-Venedig (1528 - 1546), the concession of Venezuela Province to the Welser banking family by Charles I. of Spain.

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Croacia
by Carolina

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David Schwarz (aviation inventor) - Wikipedia

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David Schwarz ( Croatian: David Švarc, pronounced [dǎʋit ʃʋârt͡s]; 20 December 1850 - 13 January 1897) was a Croatian-Hungarian aviation pioneer born in the Austrian Empire. He is known for creating an airship with a rigid envelope made entirely of metal. . Schwarz died only months before the airship was flown.

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Republica Checa
by Enrique

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Emil Holub - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Emil Holub ( Holice, 7 de octubre de 1847 - 21 de febrero de 1902, Viena) fue un explorador, médico, cartógrafo, zoólogo y botánico que contribuyó al conocimiento del continente africano.

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Bulgaria
by Dani Iñigo

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Lyubomir Ivanov - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Lyubomir Ivanov (en búlgaro, Любомир Иванов, (n. 7 de octubre de 1952 en Sofia, Bulgaria) es un científico, activista nogubernamental y explorador de la Antártida. En 1977 se graduó de la Universidad de Sofia con un título de Máster en matemáticas, y en 1980 obtuvo un PhD de la Universidad de Sofia, con una disertación sobre Espacios Operativos Iterativos.

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Dinamarca
by José Antonio

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Lindenov joined the Danish Royal Navy in 1605 and was the same year sent on the Hans Køning Expedition to Southern Greenland led by John Cunningham to assert Danish sovereignty. Lindenov was given command of the vessel Den Røde Løve ("Red Lion"). Lindenov landed near Atammik and brought two Inuit back to Copenhagen.

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Reino Unido
by Dani Hueso

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James Cook

FRS

Portrait by Sir Nathaniel Dance-Holland, c. 1775, National Maritime Museum

Born

7 November [O.S. 27 October] 1728

Marton, North Riding of Yorkshire, England

Died

14 February 1779 (aged 50)

Kealakekua Bay, Hawaiʻi

Cause of death | Stab wound
Nationality | British
Education | Postgate School, Great Ayton
Occupation | Explorer, navigator, cartographer

Spouse(s)

Elizabeth Batts

​

(m. )​

Children | 6

Military career
Branch | Royal Navy
Service years | 1755–1779
Rank | Captain (Post-captain)

Battles/wars

Seven Years' War

Battle of the Plains of Abraham

Signature

James Cook FRS (7 November 1728[NB 1] – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the British Royal Navy, famous for his three voyages between 1768 and 1779 in the Pacific Ocean and to New Zealand and Australia in particular. He made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific, during which he achieved the first recorded European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands, and the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand.

Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755. He saw action in the Seven Years' War and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the St. Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec, which brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and the Royal Society. This acclaim came at a crucial moment for the direction of British overseas exploration, and it led to his commission in 1766 as commander of HMS Endeavour for the first of three Pacific voyages.

In these voyages, Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail and on a scale not previously charted by Western explorers. He surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, and an ability to lead men in adverse conditions.

Cook was attacked and killed in 1779 during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific while attempting to kidnap the ruling chief of the island of Hawaiʻi, Kalaniʻōpuʻu, in order to reclaim a cutter taken from one of his ships after his crew took wood from a burial ground. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge that influenced his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him. However, there is controversy over Cook's role as 'an enabler of colonialism',[1] and the violence associated with his contacts with indigenous peoples.

Early life and family

James Cook was born on 7 November 1728 (NS) in the village of Marton in the North Riding of Yorkshire and baptised on 14 November (N.S.) in the parish church of St Cuthbert, where his name can be seen in the church register.[2][3] He was the second of eight children of James Cook (1693–1779), a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, and his locally born wife, Grace Pace (1702–1765), from Thornaby-on-Tees.[2][4][5] In 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his father's employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years' schooling, he began work for his father, who had been promoted to farm manager. Despite not being formally educated he became capable in mathematics, astronomy and charting by the time of his Endeavour voyage.[6] For leisure, he would climb a nearby hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude.[7] Cooks' Cottage, his parents' last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, Australia, having been moved from England and reassembled, brick by brick, in 1934.[8]

In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved 20 miles (32 km) to the fishing village of Staithes, to be apprenticed as a shop boy to grocer and haberdasher William Sanderson.[2] Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window.[5]

After 18 months, not proving suited for shop work, Cook travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to Sanderson's friends John and Henry Walker.[8] The Walkers, who were Quakers, were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade. Their house is now the Captain Cook Memorial Museum. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their small fleet of vessels, plying coal along the English coast. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and astronomy—all skills he would need one day to command his own ship.[5]

His three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea. After passing his examinations in 1752, he soon progressed through the merchant navy ranks, starting with his promotion in that year to mate aboard the collier brig Friendship.[9] In 1755, within a month of being offered command of this vessel, he volunteered for service in the Royal Navy, when Britain was re-arming for what was to become the Seven Years' War. Despite the need to start back at the bottom of the naval hierarchy, Cook realised his career would advance more quickly in military service and entered the Navy at Wapping on 17 June 1755.[10]

Cook married Elizabeth Batts, the daughter of Samuel Batts, keeper of the Bell Inn in Wapping[11] and one of his mentors, on 21 December 1762 at St Margaret's Church, Barking, Essex.[12] The couple had six children: James (1763–1794), Nathaniel (1764–1780, lost aboard HMS Thunderer which foundered with all hands in a hurricane in the West Indies), Elizabeth (1767–1771), Joseph (1768–1768), George (1772–1772) and Hugh (1776–1793, who died of scarlet fever while a student at Christ's College, Cambridge). When not at sea, Cook lived in the East End of London. He attended St Paul's Church, Shadwell, where his son James was baptised. Cook has no direct descendants—all of his children died before having children of their own.[13]

Start of Royal Navy career

Cook's first posting was with HMS Eagle, serving as able seaman and master's mate under Captain Joseph Hamar for his first year aboard, and Captain Hugh Palliser thereafter.[14] In October and November 1755, he took part in Eagle's capture of one French warship and the sinking of another, following which he was promoted to boatswain in addition to his other duties.[10] His first temporary command was in March 1756 when he was briefly master of Cruizer, a small cutter attached to Eagle while on patrol.[10][15]

In June 1757 Cook formally passed his master's examinations at Trinity House, Deptford, qualifying him to navigate and handle a ship of the King's fleet.[16] He then joined the frigate HMS Solebay as master under Captain Robert Craig.[17]

Newfoundland

During the Seven Years' War, Cook served in North America as master aboard the fourth-rate Navy vessel HMS Pembroke.[18] With others in Pembroke's crew, he took part in the major amphibious assault that captured the Fortress of Louisbourg from the French in 1758, and in the siege of Quebec City in 1759. Throughout his service he demonstrated a talent for surveying and cartography and was responsible for mapping much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege, thus allowing General Wolfe to make his famous stealth attack during the 1759 Battle of the Plains of Abraham.[19]

Cook's surveying ability was also put to use in mapping the jagged coast of Newfoundland in the 1760s, aboard HMS Grenville. He surveyed the northwest stretch in 1763 and 1764, the south coast between the Burin Peninsula and Cape Ray in 1765 and 1766, and the west coast in 1767. At this time, Cook employed local pilots to point out the "rocks and hidden dangers" along the south and west coasts. During the 1765 season, four pilots were engaged at a daily pay of 4 shillings each: John Beck for the coast west of "Great St Lawrence", Morgan Snook for Fortune Bay, John Dawson for Connaigre and Hermitage Bay, and John Peck for the "Bay of Despair".[20]

While in Newfoundland, Cook also conducted astronomical observations, in particular of the eclipse of the sun on 5 August 1766. By obtaining an accurate estimate of the time of the start and finish of the eclipse, and comparing these with the timings at a known position in England it was possible to calculate the longitude of the observation site in Newfoundland. This result was communicated to the Royal Society in 1767.[21]

His five seasons in Newfoundland produced the first large-scale and accurate maps of the island's coasts and were the first scientific, large scale, hydrographic surveys to use precise triangulation to establish land outlines.[22] They also gave Cook his mastery of practical surveying, achieved under often adverse conditions, and brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society at a crucial moment both in his career and in the direction of British overseas discovery. Cook's maps were used into the 20th century, with copies being referenced by those sailing Newfoundland's waters for 200 years.[23]

Following on from his exertions in Newfoundland, Cook wrote that he intended to go not only "farther than any man has been before me, but as far as I think it is possible for a man to go".[16]

First voyage (1768–1771)

On 25 May 1768,[24] the Admiralty commissioned Cook to command a scientific voyage to the Pacific Ocean. The purpose of the voyage was to observe and record the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun which, when combined with observations from other places, would help to determine the distance of the Earth from the Sun.[25] Cook, at age 39, was promoted to lieutenant to grant him sufficient status to take the command.[26][27] For its part, the Royal Society agreed that Cook would receive a one hundred guinea gratuity in addition to his Naval pay.[28]

The expedition sailed aboard HMS Endeavour, departing England on 26 August 1768.[29] Cook and his crew rounded Cape Horn and continued westward across the Pacific, arriving at Tahiti on 13 April 1769, where the observations of the transit were made.[30] However, the result of the observations was not as conclusive or accurate as had been hoped. Once the observations were completed, Cook opened the sealed orders, which were additional instructions from the Admiralty for the second part of his voyage: to search the south Pacific for signs of the postulated rich southern continent of Terra Australis.[31]

Cook then sailed to New Zealand where he mapped the complete coastline, making only some minor errors. With the aid of Tupaia, a Tahitian priest who had joined the expedition, Cook was the first European to communicate with the Māori.[32] However, at least eight Māori were killed in violent encounters.[33] Cook then voyaged west, reaching the southeastern coast of Australia near today's Point Hicks on 19 April 1770, and in doing so his expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline.[NB 2]

On 23 April, he made his first recorded direct observation of Aboriginal Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point, noting in his journal: "... and were so near the Shore as to distinguish several people upon the Sea beach they appear'd to be of a very dark or black Colour but whether this was the real colour of their skins or the C[l]othes they might have on I know not."[34]

Endeavour continued northwards along the coastline, keeping the land in sight with Cook charting and naming landmarks as he went. On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the continent at a beach now known as Silver Beach on Botany Bay (Kamay). Two Gweagal men of the Dharawal / Eora nation opposed their landing and in the confrontation one of them was shot and wounded.[35][36][37]

Cook and his crew stayed at Botany Bay for a week, collecting water, timber, fodder and botanical specimens and exploring the surrounding area. Cook sought to establish relations with the Indigenous population without success.[38][b][39] At first Cook named the inlet "Sting-Ray Harbour" after the many stingrays found there. This was later changed to "Botanist Bay" and finally Botany Bay after the unique specimens retrieved by the botanists Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander.[40] This first landing site was later to be promoted (particularly by Joseph Banks) as a suitable candidate for situating a settlement and British colonial outpost.[41]

After his departure from Botany Bay, he continued northwards. He stopped at Bustard Bay (now known as Seventeen Seventy) on 23 May 1770. On 24 May, Cook and Banks and others went ashore. Continuing north, on 11 June a mishap occurred when Endeavour ran aground on a shoal of the Great Barrier Reef, and then "nursed into a river mouth on 18 June 1770".[42] The ship was badly damaged, and his voyage was delayed almost seven weeks while repairs were carried out on the beach (near the docks of modern Cooktown, Queensland, at the mouth of the Endeavour River).[5] The crew's encounters with the local Aboriginal people were mostly peaceful, although following a dispute over green turtles Cook ordered shots to be fired and one local was lightly wounded.[43]

The voyage then continued and at about midday on 22 August 1770, they reached the northernmost tip of the coast and, without leaving the ship, Cook named it York Cape (now Cape York).[44] Leaving the east coast, Cook turned west and nursed his battered ship through the dangerously shallow waters of Torres Strait. Searching for a vantage point, Cook saw a steep hill on a nearby island from the top of which he hoped to see "a passage into the Indian Seas". Cook named the island Possession Island, where he claimed the entire coastline that he had just explored as British territory.[45]

Return to England

Cook returned to England via Batavia (modern Jakarta, Indonesia), where many in his crew succumbed to malaria, and then the Cape of Good Hope, arriving at the island of Saint Helena on 30 April 1771.[46] The ship finally returned to England on 12 July 1771, anchoring in The Downs, with Cook going to Deal.[47]

Interlude

Cook's journals were published upon his return, and he became something of a hero among the scientific community. Among the general public, however, the aristocratic botanist Joseph Banks was a greater hero.[5] Banks even attempted to take command of Cook's second voyage but removed himself from the voyage before it began, and Johann Reinhold Forster and his son Georg Forster were taken on as scientists for the voyage. Cook's son George was born five days before he left for his second voyage.[48]

Second voyage (1772–1775)

Portrait of James Cook by William Hodges, who accompanied Cook on his second voyage

Shortly after his return from the first voyage, Cook was promoted in August 1771 to the rank of commander.[49][50] In 1772, he was commissioned to lead another scientific expedition on behalf of the Royal Society, to search for the hypothetical Terra Australis. On his first voyage, Cook had demonstrated by circumnavigating New Zealand that it was not attached to a larger landmass to the south. Although he charted almost the entire eastern coastline of Australia, showing it to be continental in size, the Terra Australis was believed to lie further south. Despite this evidence to the contrary, Alexander Dalrymple and others of the Royal Society still believed that a massive southern continent should exist.[51]

Cook commanded HMS Resolution on this voyage, while Tobias Furneaux commanded its companion ship, HMS Adventure. Cook's expedition circumnavigated the globe at an extreme southern latitude, becoming one of the first to cross the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773. In the Antarctic fog, Resolution and Adventure became separated. Furneaux made his way to New Zealand, where he lost some of his men during an encounter with Māori, and eventually sailed back to Britain, while Cook continued to explore the Antarctic, reaching 71°10'S on 31 January 1774.[16]

Illustration from the 1815 edition of Cook's Voyages, depicting Cook watching a human sacrifice in Tahiti c. 1773

Cook almost encountered the mainland of Antarctica but turned towards Tahiti to resupply his ship. He then resumed his southward course in a second fruitless attempt to find the supposed continent. On this leg of the voyage, he brought a young Tahitian named Omai, who proved to be somewhat less knowledgeable about the Pacific than Tupaia had been on the first voyage. On his return voyage to New Zealand in 1774, Cook landed at the Friendly Islands, Easter Island, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, and Vanuatu.

Before returning to England, Cook made a final sweep across the South Atlantic from Cape Horn and surveyed, mapped, and took possession for Britain of South Georgia, which had been explored by the English merchant Anthony de la Roché in 1675. Cook also discovered and named Clerke Rocks and the South Sandwich Islands ("Sandwich Land"). He then turned north to South Africa and from there continued back to England. His reports upon his return home put to rest the popular myth of Terra Australis.[52]

Cook's second voyage marked a successful employment of Larcum Kendall's K1 copy of John Harrison's H4 marine chronometer, which enabled Cook to calculate his longitudinal position with much greater accuracy. Cook's log was full of praise for this time-piece which he used to make charts of the southern Pacific Ocean that were so remarkably accurate that copies of them were still in use in the mid-20th century.[53]

Upon his return, Cook was promoted to the rank of post-captain and given an honorary retirement from the Royal Navy, with a posting as an officer of the Greenwich Hospital. He reluctantly accepted, insisting that he be allowed to quit the post if an opportunity for active duty should arise.[54] His fame extended beyond the Admiralty; he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society and awarded the Copley Gold Medal for completing his second voyage without losing a man to scurvy.[55] Nathaniel Dance-Holland painted his portrait; he dined with James Boswell; he was described in the House of Lords as "the first navigator in Europe".[16] But he could not be kept away from the sea. A third voyage was planned, and Cook volunteered to find the Northwest Passage. He travelled to the Pacific and hoped to travel east to the Atlantic, while a simultaneous voyage travelled the opposite route.[56]

Third voyage (1776–1779)

Hawaii

On his last voyage, Cook again commanded HMS Resolution, while Captain Charles Clerke commanded HMS Discovery. The voyage was ostensibly planned to return the Pacific Islander Omai to Tahiti, or so the public was led to believe. The trip's principal goal was to locate a Northwest Passage around the American continent.[57] After dropping Omai at Tahiti, Cook travelled north and in 1778 became the first European to begin formal contact with the Hawaiian Islands.[58][59] After his initial landfall in January 1778 at Waimea harbour, Kauai, Cook named the archipelago the "Sandwich Islands" after the fourth Earl of Sandwich—the acting First Lord of the Admiralty.[59]

North America

From the Sandwich Islands, Cook sailed north and then northeast to explore the west coast of North America north of the Spanish settlements in Alta California. He sighted the Oregon coast at approximately 44°30′ north latitude, naming Cape Foulweather, after the bad weather which forced his ships south to about 43° north before they could begin their exploration of the coast northward.[60] He unknowingly sailed past the Strait of Juan de Fuca and soon after entered Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island. He anchored near the First Nations village of Yuquot. Cook's two ships remained in Nootka Sound from 29 March to 26 April 1778, in what Cook called Ship Cove, now Resolution Cove,[61] at the south end of Bligh Island. Relations between Cook's crew and the people of Yuquot were cordial but sometimes strained. In trading, the people of Yuquot demanded much more valuable items than the usual trinkets that had been acceptable in Hawaii. Metal objects were much desired, but the lead, pewter, and tin traded at first soon fell into disrepute. The most valuable items which the British received in trade were sea otter pelts. During the stay, the Yuquot "hosts" essentially controlled the trade with the British vessels; the natives usually visited the British vessels at Resolution Cove instead of the British visiting the village of Yuquot at Friendly Cove.[62]

After leaving Nootka Sound in search of the Northwest Passage, Cook explored and mapped the coast all the way to the Bering Strait, on the way identifying what came to be known as Cook Inlet in Alaska.[60] In a single visit, Cook charted the majority of the North American northwest coastline on world maps for the first time, determined the extent of Alaska, and closed the gaps in Russian (from the west) and Spanish (from the south) exploratory probes of the northern limits of the Pacific.[16]

HMS Resolution and Discovery in Tahiti

By the second week of August 1778, Cook was through the Bering Strait, sailing into the Chukchi Sea. He headed northeast up the coast of Alaska until he was blocked by sea ice at a latitude of 70°44′ north. Cook then sailed west to the Siberian coast, and then southeast down the Siberian coast back to the Bering Strait. By early September 1778 he was back in the Bering Sea to begin the trip to the Sandwich (Hawaiian) Islands.[63] He became increasingly frustrated on this voyage and perhaps began to suffer from a stomach ailment; it has been speculated that this led to irrational behaviour towards his crew, such as forcing them to eat walrus meat, which they had pronounced inedible.[64]

Return to Hawaii

Cook returned to Hawaii in 1779. After sailing around the archipelago for some eight weeks, he made landfall at Kealakekua Bay on Hawai'i Island, largest island in the Hawaiian Archipelago. Cook's arrival coincided with the Makahiki, a Hawaiian harvest festival of worship for the Polynesian god Lono. Coincidentally the form of Cook's ship, HMS Resolution, or more particularly the mast formation, sails and rigging, resembled certain significant artefacts that formed part of the season of worship.[5][64] Similarly, Cook's clockwise route around the island of Hawaii before making landfall resembled the processions that took place in a clockwise direction around the island during the Lono festivals. It has been argued (most extensively by Marshall Sahlins) that such coincidences were the reasons for Cook's (and to a limited extent, his crew's) initial deification by some Hawaiians who treated Cook as an incarnation of Lono.[65] Though this view was first suggested by members of Cook's expedition, the idea that any Hawaiians understood Cook to be Lono, and the evidence presented in support of it, were challenged in 1992.[64][66]

Death

Marker at the shoreline of Kealakekua Bay near the spot Captain Cook was slain

After a month's stay, Cook attempted to resume his exploration of the northern Pacific. Shortly after leaving Hawaii Island, however, Resolution's foremast broke, so the ships returned to Kealakekua Bay for repairs.

Tensions rose, and a number of quarrels broke out between the Europeans and Hawaiians at Kealakekua Bay, including the theft of wood from a burial ground under Cook's orders.[67] An unknown group of Hawaiians took one of Cook's small boats. The evening when the cutter was taken, the people had become "insolent" even with threats to fire upon them.[68] Cook attempted to kidnap and ransom the King of Hawaiʻi, Kalaniʻōpuʻu.

The following day, 14 February 1779, Cook marched through the village to retrieve the king. Cook took the king (aliʻi nui) by his own hand and led him away. One of Kalaniʻōpuʻu's favourite wives, Kanekapolei, and two chiefs approached the group as they were heading to the boats. They pleaded with the king not to go. An old kahuna (priest), chanting rapidly while holding out a coconut, attempted to distract Cook and his men as a large crowd began to form at the shore. At this point, the king began to understand that Cook was his enemy.[68] As Cook turned his back to help launch the boats, he was struck on the head by the villagers and then stabbed to death as he fell on his face in the surf.[69] He was first struck on the head with a club by a chief named Kalaimanokahoʻowaha or Kanaʻina (namesake of Charles Kana'ina) and then stabbed by one of the king's attendants, Nuaa.[70][71] The Hawaiians carried his body away towards the back of the town, still visible to the ship through their spyglass. Four marines, Corporal James Thomas, Private Theophilus Hinks, Private Thomas Fatchett and Private John Allen, were also killed and two others were wounded in the confrontation.[70][72]

The routes of Captain James Cook's voyages. The first voyage is shown in red, second voyage in green, and third voyage in blue. The route of Cook's crew following his death is shown as a dashed blue line.

Aftermath

The esteem which the islanders nevertheless held for Cook caused them to retain his body. Following their practice of the time, they prepared his body with funerary rituals usually reserved for the chiefs and highest elders of the society. The body was disembowelled and baked to facilitate removal of the flesh, and the bones were carefully cleaned for preservation as religious icons in a fashion somewhat reminiscent of the treatment of European saints in the Middle Ages. Some of Cook's remains, thus preserved, were eventually returned to his crew for a formal burial at sea.[73]

Clerke assumed leadership of the expedition and made a final attempt to pass through the Bering Strait.[74] He died of tuberculosis on 22 August 1779 and John Gore, a veteran of Cook's first voyage, took command of Resolution and of the expedition. James King replaced Gore in command of Discovery.[75] The expedition returned home, reaching England in October 1780. After their arrival in England, King completed Cook's account of the voyage.[76]

Legacy

Ethnographic collections

The Australian Museum acquired its "Cook Collection" in 1894 from the Government of New South Wales. At that time the collection consisted of 115 artefacts collected on Cook's three voyages throughout the Pacific Ocean, during the period 1768–80, along with documents and memorabilia related to these voyages. Many of the ethnographic artefacts were collected at a time of first contact between Pacific Peoples and Europeans. In 1935 most of the documents and memorabilia were transferred to the Mitchell Library in the State Library of New South Wales. The provenance of the collection shows that the objects remained in the hands of Cook's widow Elizabeth Cook, and her descendants, until 1886. In this year John Mackrell, the great-nephew of Isaac Smith, Elizabeth Cook's cousin, organised the display of this collection at the request of the NSW Government at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London. In 1887 the London-based Agent-General for the New South Wales Government, Saul Samuel, bought John Mackrell's items and also acquired items belonging to the other relatives Reverend Canon Frederick Bennett, Mrs Thomas Langton, H.M.C. Alexander, and William Adams. The collection remained with the Colonial Secretary of NSW until 1894, when it was transferred to the Australian Museum.[77]

Navigation and science

A 1775 chart of Newfoundland, made from James Cook's Seven Years' War surveyings

Cook's 12 years sailing around the Pacific Ocean contributed much to Europeans' knowledge of the area. Several islands, such as the Hawaiian group, were encountered for the first time by Europeans, and his more accurate navigational charting of large areas of the Pacific was a major achievement.[78] To create accurate maps, latitude and longitude must be accurately determined. Navigators had been able to work out latitude accurately for centuries by measuring the angle of the sun or a star above the horizon with an instrument such as a backstaff or quadrant. Longitude was more difficult to measure accurately because it requires precise knowledge of the time difference between points on the surface of the earth. The Earth turns a full 360 degrees relative to the sun each day. Thus longitude corresponds to time: 15 degrees every hour, or 1 degree every 4 minutes.[79] Cook gathered accurate longitude measurements during his first voyage from his navigational skills, with the help of astronomer Charles Green, and by using the newly published Nautical Almanac tables, via the lunar distance method – measuring the angular distance from the moon to either the sun during daytime or one of eight bright stars during night-time to determine the time at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and comparing that to his local time determined via the altitude of the sun, moon, or stars.

On his second voyage, Cook used the K1 chronometer made by Larcum Kendall, which was the shape of a large pocket watch, 5 inches (13 cm) in diameter. It was a copy of the H4 clock made by John Harrison, which proved to be the first to keep accurate time at sea when used on the ship Deptford's journey to Jamaica in 1761–62.[80] He succeeded in circumnavigating the world on his first voyage without losing a single man to scurvy, an unusual accomplishment at the time. He tested several preventive measures, most importantly the frequent replenishment of fresh food.[81] For presenting a paper on this aspect of the voyage to the Royal Society he was presented with the Copley Medal in 1776.[82][83] Cook became the first European to have extensive contact with various people of the Pacific. He correctly postulated a link among all the Pacific peoples, despite their being separated by great ocean stretches (see Malayo-Polynesian languages). Cook theorised that Polynesians originated from Asia, which scientist Bryan Sykes later verified.[84] In New Zealand the coming of Cook is often used to signify the onset of the colonisation[5][8] which officially started more than 70 years after his crew became the second group of Europeans to visit that archipelago.

Cook carried several scientists on his voyages; they made significant observations and discoveries. Two botanists, Joseph Banks and the Swede Daniel Solander, sailed on the first voyage. The two collected over 3,000 plant species.[85] Banks subsequently strongly promoted British settlement of Australia,[86][87] leading to the establishment of New South Wales as a penal settlement in 1788. Artists also sailed on Cook's first voyage. Sydney Parkinson was heavily involved in documenting the botanists' findings, completing 264 drawings before his death near the end of the voyage. They were of immense scientific value to British botanists.[5][88] Cook's second expedition included William Hodges, who produced notable landscape paintings of Tahiti, Easter Island, and other locations. Several officers who served under Cook went on to distinctive accomplishments. William Bligh, Cook's sailing master, was given command of HMS Bounty in 1787 to sail to Tahiti and return with breadfruit. Bligh became known for the mutiny of his crew, which resulted in his being set adrift in 1789. He later became Governor of New South Wales, where he was the subject of another mutiny—the 1808 Rum Rebellion.[89] George Vancouver, one of Cook's midshipmen, led a voyage of exploration to the Pacific Coast of North America from 1791 to 1794.[90] In honour of Vancouver's former commander, his ship was named Discovery. George Dixon, who sailed under Cook on his third expedition, later commanded his own.[91] Henry Roberts, a lieutenant under Cook, spent many years after that voyage preparing the detailed charts that went into Cook's posthumous atlas, published around 1784.

Cook's contributions to knowledge gained international recognition during his lifetime. In 1779, while the American colonies were fighting Britain for their independence, Benjamin Franklin wrote to captains of colonial warships at sea, recommending that if they came into contact with Cook's vessel, they were to "not consider her an enemy, nor suffer any plunder to be made of the effects contained in her, nor obstruct her immediate return to England by detaining her or sending her into any other part of Europe or to America; but that you treat the said Captain Cook and his people with all civility and kindness ... as common friends to mankind."[92]

Memorials

A U.S. coin, the 1928 Hawaii Sesquicentennial half-dollar, carries Cook's image. Minted for the 150th anniversary of his discovery of the islands, its low mintage (10,008) has made this example of an early United States commemorative coin both scarce and expensive.[93] The site where he was killed in Hawaii was marked in 1874 by a white obelisk. This land, although in Hawaii, was deeded to the United Kingdom by Princess Likelike and her husband, Archibald Scott Cleghorn, to the British Consul to Hawaii, James Hay Wodehouse, in 1877.[94][95][failed verification] A nearby town is named Captain Cook, Hawaii; several Hawaiian businesses also carry his name. The Apollo 15 Command/Service Module Endeavour was named after Cook's ship, HMS Endeavour,[96] as was the Space Shuttle Endeavour.[97] In addition, the first Crew Dragon capsule flown by SpaceX was named for Endeavour.[98] Another shuttle, Discovery, was named after Cook's HMS Discovery.[99]

The first institution of higher education in North Queensland, Australia, was named after him, with James Cook University opening in Townsville in 1970.[100] Numerous institutions, landmarks and place names reflect the importance of Cook's contributions, including the Cook Islands, Cook Strait, Cook Inlet and the Cook crater on the Moon.[101] Aoraki / Mount Cook, the highest summit in New Zealand, is named for him.[102] Another Mount Cook is on the border between the U.S. state of Alaska and the Canadian Yukon territory, and is designated Boundary Peak 182 as one of the official Boundary Peaks of the Hay–Herbert Treaty.[103] A life-size statue of Cook upon a column stands in Hyde Park located in the centre of Sydney. A large aquatic monument is planned for Cook's landing place at Botany Bay, Sydney.[104]

One of the earliest monuments to Cook in the United Kingdom is located at The Vache, erected in 1780 by Admiral Hugh Palliser, a contemporary of Cook and one-time owner of the estate.[105] A large obelisk was built in 1827 as a monument to Cook on Easby Moor overlooking his boyhood village of Great Ayton,[106] along with a smaller monument at the former location of Cook's cottage.[107] There is also a monument to Cook in the church of St Andrew the Great, St Andrew's Street, Cambridge, where his sons Hugh, a student at Christ's College, and James were buried. Cook's widow Elizabeth was also buried in the church and in her will left money for the memorial's upkeep. The 250th anniversary of Cook's birth was marked at the site of his birthplace in Marton by the opening of the Captain Cook Birthplace Museum, located within Stewart Park (1978). A granite vase just to the south of the museum marks the approximate spot where he was born.[108] Tributes also abound in post-industrial Middlesbrough, including a primary school,[109] shopping square[110] and the Bottle 'O Notes, a public artwork by Claes Oldenburg, that was erected in the town's Central Gardens in 1993. Also named after Cook is James Cook University Hospital, a major teaching hospital which opened in 2003 with a railway station serving it called James Cook opening in 2014.[111] The Royal Research Ship RRS James Cook was built in 2006 to replace the RRS Charles Darwin in the UK's Royal Research Fleet,[112] and Stepney Historical Trust placed a plaque on Free Trade Wharf in the Highway, Shadwell to commemorate his life in the East End of London. A statue erected in his honour can be viewed near Admiralty Arch on the south side of The Mall in London. In 2002, Cook was placed at number 12 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.[113]

In 1959, the Cooktown Re-enactment Association first performed a re-enactment of Cook's 1770 landing at the site of modern Cooktown, Australia, and have continued the tradition each year, with the support and participation of many of the local Guugu Yimithirr people.[114]

Cultural references

Cook was a subject in many literary creations; one of the earliest was "Captain Cook" by Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L.E.L.). In 1931, Kenneth Slessor's poem "Five Visions of Captain Cook" was the "most dramatic break-through" in Australian poetry of the 20th century according to poet Douglas Stewart.[115]

The Australian slang phrase "Have a Captain Cook" means to have a look or conduct a brief inspection.[116]

Controversy

Statue of James Cook, Hyde Park, Sydney. The rear inscription reads: "Discovered this territory, 1770".

The period 2018 to 2021 marked the 250th anniversary of Cook's first voyage of exploration. A number of countries, including Australia and New Zealand, arranged official events to commemorate the voyage[117][118] leading to widespread public debate about Cook's legacy and the violence associated with his contacts with Indigenous peoples.[1][119] In the leadup to the commemorations, various memorials to Cook in Australia and New Zealand were vandalised and there were public calls for their removal or modification due to their alleged promotion of colonialist narratives.[120][121] On 1 July 2021, a statue of James Cook in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, was torn down following an earlier peaceful protest about the deaths of Indigenous residential school children in Canada.[122] There were also campaigns for the return of Indigenous artefacts taken during Cook's voyages (see Gweagal shield).[123] Alice Proctor argues that the controversies over public representations of Cook and the display of Indigenous artefacts from his voyages are part of a broader debate over the decolonisation of museums and public spaces and resistance to colonialist narratives.[124] While a number of commentators argue that Cook was an enabler of British colonialism in the Pacific,[1][125] Geoffrey Blainey, among others, notes that it was Banks who promoted Botany Bay as a site for colonisation after Cook's death.[126] Robert Tombs defended Cook, associating him with the values of the Enlightenment and positing him as "The leading figure in an age of scientific exploration".[127]

See also

New Zealand places named by James Cook

Australian places named by James Cook

European and American voyages of scientific exploration

Exploration of the Pacific

List of places named after Captain James Cook

List of sea captains

Death of Cook (paintings)

References

Notes

1. ^ Old Style date: 27 October

2. ^ At this time, the International Date Line had yet to be established, so the dates in Cook's journal are a day earlier than those accepted today.

Citations

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121. ^ "Captain James Cook statue defaced in Gisborne". nzherald.co.nz. 13 June 2020. Archived from the original on 9 March 2021. Retrieved 16 March 2021.

122. ^ "Capt. James Cook statue recovered from Victoria Harbour; what's next is undecided". Times Colonist. 3 July 2021. Archived from the original on 3 July 2021. Retrieved 4 July 2021.

123. ^ "Shots Fired". ABC Radio National. 13 November 2020. Archived from the original on 7 March 2021. Retrieved 12 March 2021.

124. ^ Proctor, Alice (2020) Chs 11, 21; pp 255-62 and passim

125. ^ Proctor, Alice (2020). The Whole Picture: The colonial story of the art in our museums and why we need to talk about it. London: Cassell. p. 243. ISBN 9781-78840-1-555.

126. ^ Blainey, Geoffrey (2020). Captain Cook's Epic Voyage: the strange quest for a missing continent. Australia: Viking. p. 287. ISBN 978-1-76089-509-9.

127. ^ Tombs, Robert (4 February 2021). "Captain Cook wasn't a 'genocidal' villain. He was a true Enlightenment man". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 9 December 2021.

Bibliography

Beaglehole, J. C., ed. (1968). The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Vol. I: The Voyage of the Endeavour 1768–1771. Cambridge University Press. OCLC 223185477.

Beaglehole, John Cawte (1974). The Life of Captain James Cook. A & C Black. ISBN 978-0-7136-1382-7.

Collingridge, Vanessa (2003). Captain Cook: The Life, Death and Legacy of History's Greatest Explorer. Ebury Press. ISBN 978-0-09-188898-5.

Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe (2006). Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-06259-5.

Fisher, Robin (1979). Captain James Cook and his times. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-7099-0050-4.

Hayes, Derek (1999). Historical Atlas of the Pacific Northwest: Maps of exploration and Discovery. Sasquatch Books. ISBN 978-1-57061-215-2.

Horwitz, Tony (October 2003). Blue Latitudes: Boldly Going Where Captain Cook Has Gone Before. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-7475-6455-3.

Hough, Richard (1994). Captain James Cook. Hodder and Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-82556-3.

Kemp, Peter; Dear, I. C. B. (2005). The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea. OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-860616-1.

Kippis, Andrew (1788). Narrative of the voyages round the world, performed by Captain James Cook; with an account of his life during the previous and intervening periods. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 16 July 2012.

McLynn, Frank (2011). Captain Cook: Master of the Seas. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11421-8.

Moorehead, Alan (1966). Fatal Impact: An Account of the Invasion of the South Pacific, 1767–1840. H Hamilton. ISBN 978-0-241-90757-3.

Mundle, Rob (2013). Cook: from Sailor to Legend. ABC Books. ISBN 978-1-46070-061-7.

Obeyesekere, Gananath (1992). The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691056807.

Obeyesekere, Gananath (1997). The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific (PDF). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05752-1. With new preface and afterword replying to criticism from Sahlins

Rigby, Nigel; van der Merwe, Pieter (2002). Captain Cook in the Pacific. National Maritime Museum, London. ISBN 978-0-948065-43-9.

Robson, John (2004). The Captain Cook Encyclopædia. Random House Australia. ISBN 978-0-7593-1011-7.

Robson, John (2009). Captain Cook's War and Peace: The Royal Navy Years 1755–1768. University of New South Wales Press. ISBN 978-1-74223-109-9.

Sahlins, Marshall David (1985). Islands of history. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-73358-6.

Sahlins, Marshall David (1995). How "Natives" Think: About Captain Cook, for example. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-73368-5.

Sidney, John Baker (1981). The Australian Language: An Examination of the English Language and English Speech as Used in Australia, from Convict Days to the Present. Melbourne: Sun Books. ISBN 978-0-7251-0382-8.

Stamp, Tom and Cordelia (1978). James Cook Maritime Scientist. Whitby: Caedmon of Whitby Press. ISBN 978-0-905355-04-7.

Sykes, Bryan (2001). The Seven Daughters of Eve. Norton Publishing: New York City and London. ISBN 978-0-393-02018-2.

Wagner, A. R. (1972). Historic Heraldry of Britain. London: Phillimore & Co Ltd. ISBN 978-0-85033-022-9.

Wharton, W. J. L. (1893). Captain Cook's Journal during his first voyage round the world made in H.M. Bark "Endeavour" 1768–71. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 16 July 2012.

Further reading

Aughton, Peter (2002). Endeavour: The Story of Captain Cook's First Great Epic Voyage. London: Cassell & Co. ISBN 978-0-304-36236-3.

Beazley, Charles Raymond (1911). "Cook, James" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). pp. 71–72.

Edwards, Philip, ed. (2003). James Cook: The Journals. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-043647-1. Prepared from the original manuscripts by J. C. Beaglehole 1955–67

Forster, Georg, ed. (1986). A Voyage Round the World. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-05-000180-7. Published first 1777 as: A Voyage round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years, 1772, 3, 4, and 5

Hawkesworth, John; Byron, John; Wallis, Samuel; Carteret, Philip; Cook, James; Banks, Joseph (1773), An account of the voyages undertaken by the order of His present Majesty for making discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere, and successively performed by Commodore Byron, Captain Wallis, Captain Carteret, and Captain Cook, in the Dolphin, the Swallow, and the Endeavour drawn up from the journals which were kept by the several commanders, and from the papers of Joseph Banks, esq, London Printed for W. Strahan and T. Cadell, Volume I, Volume II–III.

Igler, David (2013). The Great Ocean: Pacific Worlds from Captain Cook to the Gold Rush. New York: Oxford U.P.[ISBN missing]

Kippis, Andrew (1904). The Life and Voyages of Captain James Cook. George Newnes, London & Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.

Richardson, Brian. (2005) Longitude and Empire: How Captain Cook's Voyages Changed the World (University of British Columbia Press.) ISBN 0-7748-1190-0.

Sydney Daily Telegraph (1970) Captain Cook: His Artists – His Voyages The Sydney Daily Telegraph Portfolio of Original Works by Artists who sailed with Captain Cook. Australian Consolidated Press, Sydney

Thomas, Nicholas The Extraordinary Voyages of Captain James Cook. Walker & Co., New York. ISBN 0-8027-1412-9 (2003)

Uglow, Jenny, "Island Hopping" (review of Captain James Cook: The Journals, selected and edited by Philip Edwards, London, Folio Society, three volumes and a chart of the voyages, 1,309 pp.; and William Frame with Laura Walker, James Cook: The Voyages, McGill-Queen University Press, 224 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 2 (7 February 2019), pp. 18–20.

Villiers, Alan (Summer 1956–57). "James Cook, Seaman". Quadrant. 1 (1): 7–16.[ISBN missing]

Williams, Glyndwr, ed. (1997). Captain Cook's Voyages: 1768–1779. London: The Folio Society.

Withey, Lynne. Voyages of discovery: Captain Cook and the exploration of the Pacific (Univ of California Press, 1989).[ISBN missing]

External links

| Wikimedia Commons has media related to James Cook.

Captain Cook Society

Captain Cook historic plaque, Halifax

"Explorer, navigator, coloniser: revisit Captain Cook's legacy with the click of a mouse". The Conversation. 29 April 2020. Retrieved 29 April 2020.

"Articles on Captain Cook". The Conversation. 2017–2020. Retrieved 23 December 2020.

Biographical dictionaries

"Cook, James (1728–1779)". Australian Dictionary of Biography (online ed.). National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. 1966. Retrieved 8 January 2016.

Williams, Glyndwr (1979). "Cook, James". In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. IV (1771–1800) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.

Mackay, David. "Cook, James". Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. Ministry for Culture and Heritage.

Journals

The Endeavour journal (1) and The Endeavour journal (2), as kept by James Cook – digitised and held by the National Library of Australia

The South Seas Project: maps and online editions of the Journals of James Cook's First Pacific Voyage, 1768–1771. Includes full text of journals kept by Cook, Joseph Banks and Sydney Parkinson, as well as the complete text of John Hawkesworth's 1773 Account of Cook's first voyage.

Digitised copies of log books from James Cook's voyages at the British Atmospheric Data Centre

Works by James Cook at Project Gutenberg

Works by or about James Cook at Internet Archive

Works by James Cook at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

Log book of Cook's second voyage: high-resolution digitised version in Cambridge Digital Library

Digitised Tapa cloth catalogue held at Auckland Libraries

Collections and museums

The Library of the Royal Geographical Society of South Australia specialises in collecting works on Captain James Cook, his voyages and HMS Endeavour

Cook's Pacific Encounters: Cook-Forster Collection online Images and descriptions of more than 300 artefacts collected during the three Pacific voyages of James Cook.

Images and descriptions of items associated with James Cook at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa

"Archival material relating to James Cook". UK National Archives.

Captain Cook Birthplace Museum Marton

Captain Cook Memorial Museum Whitby

Cook's manuscript maps of the south-east coast of Australia, held at the American Geographical Society Library at UW Milwaukee.

Newspaper clippings about James Cook in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW

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Fernando de Magallanes, también conocido como Hernando de Magallanes (en portugués, Fernão de Magalhães, Sabrosa, primavera de 1480- Mactán, Filipinas, 27 de abril de 1521),​ fue un militar, explorador, marino y navegante portugués de linaje noble.

Al servicio de Carlos I, inició en 1519 la expedición para alcanzar las Indias Orientales atravesando el Pacífico para abrir una ruta comercial en la que descubrió el canal natural navegable que hoy recibe el nombre de estrecho de Magallanes, realizando la primera navegación de origen europeo desde el océano Atlántico hasta el océano Pacífico, llamado hasta entonces mar del Sur. Esta expedición, en la que Magallanes murió en 1521 en Filipinas, se convirtió en la primera circunnavegación de la Tierra cuando una de sus naos, capitaneada por Juan Sebastián Elcano, regresó a España en 1522 al decidir Elcano regresar navegando hacia el Oeste a través del océano Índico y bordeando África.​

Orígenes y familia

Magallanes nació en el norte de Portugal en el año 1480. Disputan ser su lugar de nacimiento entre la de Sé en Oporto, Vila Nova de Gaia y Ponte da Barca.​

Era hijo de Rui de Magalhães y de su primera esposa Alda de Mesquita. Hermano de Duarte de Sousa, Diogo de Sousa, Isabel de Magalhães, Genebra de Magalhães y Aires de Magalhães. El padre de Fernando, Rui de Magalhães, fue caballero hidalgo de la casa de D. Afonso, conde de Faro, señor de Aveiro y alcalde mayor de Estremoz. Rui fue alcalde de Aveiro, donde está documentado en 1486; entre 1472 y 1478 ejerció cargos de juez ordinario, procurador de cámara y concejal en Oporto. Su hermano Aires de Magalhães siguió la carrera eclesiástica, recibiendo el subdiaconado en Braga en 1509.

Magallanes tenía cerca de diez años cuando entró a servir como paje en la corte de la reina Leonor, consorte de Juan II de Portugal. Se casó en Sevilla en 1515 con Beatriz Barbosa, pariente suya, hija de Diogo Barbosa y María Caldeira, y tuvo dos hijos: Rodrigo, que falleció muy niño en octubre de 1522, y Carlos que murió al nacer. Beatriz Barbosa también murió poco después, en marzo de 1522.​

Primeros viajes

En marzo de 1505, con veinticinco años, se alistó en la Armada de la India, en la flota de veinte navíos enviados para instalar a Francisco de Almeida como primer virrey de la India. Aunque su nombre no aparezca en las crónicas, se sabe que permaneció allí ocho años y que estuvo en Goa, Cochín y Quíloa. Participó en varias acciones militares, incluyendo la batalla naval de Cananor ( Kerala) donde fue herido, y en la decisiva batalla de Diu. En 1509 partió en la primera expedición a Malaca mandada por Diogo Lopes de Sequeira, junto con Francisco Serrão, su amigo y posiblemente primo.​ Llegados a Malaca en septiembre, fueron víctimas de una conspiración y la expedición terminó en fuga dejando atrás diecinueve prisioneros. Magallanes tuvo un papel crucial avisando a Sequeira y salvando a Serrão que había desembarcado, actos que le valieron honores y una promoción.

Al servicio del nuevo gobernador, Afonso de Albuquerque, participó junto con Serrão en la conquista de Malaca en 1511. Después de la conquista de la ciudad, los caminos de los amigos se separaron: Magallanes, promovido, con un rico botín y en compañía de un esclavo adquirido en Sumatra, Enrique de Malaca, regresó a Europa. Serrão partió en la primera expedición enviada a las "islas de la especiería", las Molucas. Allí permaneció y se casó con una mujer de Amboina, volviéndose consejero militar del sultán de Ternate. Sus cartas a Magallanes serían decisivas, pues de ellas obtuvo informaciones sobre la situación de los lugares productores de especias.

Mientras tanto Magallanes, después de participar en la batalla de Azamor ( Marruecos), ya de servicio en esa ciudad, fue acusado de comerciar ilegalmente con los moros; al comprobarse varias de las acusaciones cesaron las ofertas de empleo a partir del 15 de mayo de 1514. Posteriormente, en 1515, le ofrecieron formar parte de la tripulación de un navío portugués, pero rechazó la oferta. De regreso en Lisboa, se dedicó a estudiar las cartas más recientes, investigando junto al cosmógrafo Rui Faleiro un pasaje hacia el Pacífico por el Atlántico Sur y la posibilidad de que las Molucas estuviesen en la zona española definida en el Tratado de Tordesillas.

En 1517 fue a Sevilla con Rui Faleiro y encontró en Juan de Aranda, el factor de la Casa de Contratación sevillana, un aliado importante para el proyecto que había concebido: dar a España la posibilidad de llegar a las Molucas por occidente, sin atravesar mares reservados a los portugueses por el Tratado de Tordesillas y, además de eso, según Faleiro, probar que las "islas de la especiería" se encontraban en el hemisferio castellano. Con la influencia de Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca, obispo de Burgos, consiguieron la aprobación del rey Carlos I.

El 22 de marzo de 1518 Carlos I nombra almirantes a Magallanes y Faleiro para que partan a la búsqueda de las "islas de la especiería", y en julio los eleva al grado de comendadores de la Orden de Santiago y les otorga un conjunto de privilegios:​

El monopolio de la ruta descubierta por el término de diez años.

El nombramiento como gobernadores de las tierras e islas que encontrasen, con el cinco por ciento de las ganancias netas que resultasen.

Una vigésima parte de las ganancias del viaje.

El derecho a retener mil ducados sobre los próximos viajes, pagando solo cinco por ciento sobre el excedente.

La concesión de una isla a cada uno, excepto de las seis más ricas de las cuales no recibirían más que una decimoquinta parte.

Comenzaron los lentos preparativos para el viaje, que estuvieron plagados de incidentes: insuficiencia de fondos, maniobras del rey de Portugal, Manuel I, que procuraba hacerlos encarcelar, desconfianza de los castellanos hacia Magallanes y los otros portugueses involucrados, sin olvidar el difícil carácter de Faleiro.​ Por intermedio del obispo de Burgos, obtienen la participación del mercader Cristóbal de Haro que suministra una parte de los fondos y las mercaderías para trocar por especias. El cartógrafo portugués Diego Ribero, al servicio de la Casa de Contratación desde 1518, participó en el desarrollo de los mapas utilizados en el viaje.

Después de romper con Faleiro, Magallanes continuó aparejando las naves que habrían de partir de Sevilla. La tripulación se componía de marinos de muy distintos orígenes, principalmente españoles de casi todas las regiones. Entre los pocos marinos portugueses se contaban Álvaro de Mezquita, primo hermano de Magallanes, Duarte Barbosa, primo de la esposa de Magallanes, Juan Serrano, primo o hermano de Francisco Serrão y Esteban Gómez. Acompañaba también a Magallanes su esclavo Enrique de Malaca,​ quien según algunas fuentes sería la primera persona en circunnavegar el planeta.​

Antonio Pigafetta, cronista y geógrafo veneciano, que participó en la expedición a sus propias expensas, escribió un diario completo del viaje, posibilitado por el hecho de haber sido uno de los pocos viajeros en retornar vivo a Europa. De esa forma, legó a la posteridad un raro e importante registro de donde se puede extraer mucho de lo que se sabe de este episodio de la historia.

Inicio del viaje

El 10 de agosto de 1519 partió de Sevilla la escuadra de cinco naves, capitaneada por Fernando de Magallanes que, descendiendo por el Guadalquivir, llegó hasta Sanlúcar de Barrameda ( Cádiz), Durante las siguientes semanas, se acabó de avituallar la escuadra y se resolvieron otros asuntos. Mientras, el propio Magallanes otorgó testamento en Sevilla el 24 de agosto nombrando herederos a su hijo Rodrigo y a las criaturas a que diese a luz su esposa, a la que dejaba embarazada.​​

El 20 de septiembre la expedición zarpó finalmente de Sanlúcar, con la intención de encontrar el paso marítimo hacia los territorios de las Indias Orientales y buscar el camino que, recorriendo siempre mares castellanos (según el Tratado de Tordesillas), llegase a las islas de las especias, lo que era la llamada ruta hacia el oeste que ya había buscado Cristóbal Colón.

Después de recalar en las Canarias, pasaron frente a las islas de Cabo Verde y a las costas de Sierra Leona, tocando las tierras de lo que hoy es Río de Janeiro el 13 de diciembre de 1519. Siguieron hacia el sur, pasando por el río de la Plata (ya descubierto por Juan Díaz de Solís en 1516) en marzo de 1520, y llegaron a la bahía San Julián, que exploraron en busca de un posible paso. Magallanes, en vista de la llegada del invierno, decidió recalar allí hasta la primavera.

Impacto en Brasil

La expedición de Hernando de Magallanes permaneció por poco tiempo en Brasil. La flota atracó primeramente en Cabo de Santo Agustino, en Pernambuco, el 29 de noviembre de 1519. Se trataba de una rápida estancia destinada al abastecimiento de sus naos. Algún tiempo después la expedición llegó a Bahía de Guanabara donde permaneció por dos semanas, del 13 al 26 de diciembre del mismo año. Las estancias en la costa de Brasil fueron breves porque no estaban autorizados a recalar en territorios portugueses debido al Tratado de Tordesillas. Durante el pasaje por Brasil, los marineros mantuvieron contacto con los pueblos Tupíes que habitaban la costa. Ellos establecieron relaciones comerciales con indios, usualmente conocido como permuta.​ Compraron productos frescos y variados a cambio de objetos europeos. Algunas de estas transacciones fueron registradas por el cronista de la expedición, el veneciano Antonio Pigafetta.​

Como todo acontecimiento histórico global, el primer viaje de circunnavegación de la tierra generó impacto por los lugares donde pasó, y en Brasil no fue diferente. La Marina de Brasil rehízo el viaje en el siglo XIX con la Corveta Vital de Oliveira,​ iniciando el trayecto en 1879. Algunos años después, la Marina rehízo nuevamente el trayecto, pero esta vez con la nao Almirante Barroso (1888-1890), cuyo objetivo era realizar la instrucción de una turma de guardas-marina formada en 1886. Este viaje recurrió 36.691 millas náuticas, fue registrado en un libro escrito por su comandante. Durante el trayecto ocurrió un hecho curioso. Debido a la Proclamación de la República en Brasil, el nieto del Emperador, el segundo teniente de la Armada Imperial, Príncipe Don Augusto Leopoldo, que haría parte de la tripulación, tuvo que desembarcar en Colombo (Sri Lanka).​ La Marina tiene un interés especial por la temática que la refleja en varias sesiones de la Institución, sobre todo en la Directoria del Patrimonio Histórico y Documentación de la Marina (DPHDM). En el Museo Naval del Río de Janeiro hay una referencia a la expedición en la entrada de la exposición permanente, así como artefactos del siglo XVI, incluyendo instrumentos de navegación, Además, en la Revista Marítima Brasileña fueron publicados artículos sobre la importancia de Hernando de Magallanes en el arte de la navegación, así como las posteriores conmemoraciones de su viaje, sobre todo el cuarto centenario.

El viaje fue también rehecho por la Familia Schürmann, famosos navegadores brasileños, en el marco de la expedición de Magallanes Global Adventure. Partieron en 23 de noviembre de 1997 en el velero Aysso, recorriendo 32.657 millas durante 912 días. El viaje fue concluido con la llegada a Lisboa a tiempo de las conmemoraciones de 500 años del Descubrimiento de Brasil. La aventura fue registrada en el documental, El mundo en dos vueltas (O Mundo em Duas Voltas). Por ocasión del viaje de la familia, la escuela de samba Embajada Copa Lord, integrante de la Liga de las Escuelas de Samba de Florianópolis (LIESF), realizó un homenaje a la expedición de Magallanes en 2001. Él trama de samba, intitulado "Viento en sinfonía, la Familia Schürmann zarpará" (Vento em sinfonia, a Família Schürmann vai zarpar), conquistó el segundo lugar del desfile.

Hernando de Magallanes también inspiró algunas producciones culturales brasileñas, que trataban de su historia y participación en la circunnavegación. Una revista de cómics de la serie "Descubrimiento" publicada en 1959 por la Editora EBAL, habla sobre su biografía. La colección "Biografía en comics" (Biografías em Quadrinhos) tenía un carácter educativo, que buscaba cambiar la percepción que esta forma literaria tenía hasta entonces. La influencia de Magallanes perduró en la sociedad brasileña por varias décadas. Él fue, por ejemplo, honrado por "Gaviones Imperiales" (Gaviões Imperiais), escuela de samba virtual que presentó el enredo dos veces, en 2009 y en 2015. El desfile cuenta la historia de la circunnavegación, cuyo título es "Por mares nunca antes navegados... El sueño de Fernando de Magallanes" (Por Mares Nunca Antes Navegados... O sonho de Fernão de Magalhães).​ La escuela integra la Liga independiente de las Escuelas Virtuales (LIESV).

Por ocasión de las conmemoraciones del 5° Centenario del viaje una serie de iniciativas fui desarrolladas en Brasil, sobre todo en Río de Janeiro. La Marina Portuguesa hizo diversos eventos relacionados con la efeméride. El primero ocurrió en octubre de 2019, el Simposio de Historia Marítima "Por una Historia Marítima y sus perspectivas en el campo historiográfico brasileño" (Por uma História Marítima e suas perspectivas no campo historiográfico brasileiro)​ realizado en el Instituto Histórico y Geográfico Brasileño (IHGB). En el mismo año, Brasil fue anfitrión del seminario internacional sobre el "5º Centenario de la primera vuelta al mundo: la estancia de la flota en Río de Janeiro" (5º Centenário da primeira volta ao mundo: a estadia da frota no Río de Janeiro). Realizado en el Museo Histórico Nacional, tuvo la participación de historiadores españoles, portugueses, brasileños y otros latino-americanos. En 2020, una ceremonia que cuenta con la presencia de autoridades lusitanas y brasileñas dio el nombre de "Plaza de la circunnavegacion" (Praça da Circum-Navegação) a una localidad a los alrededores de la Baía de Guanabara, al lado de la Rio Star, la mayor rueda-gigante de América Latina, haciendo una alusión a la vuelta al mundo y al refuerzo del carácter redondo de la Tierra, resultado del viaje de circunnavegación.

El deseo de regresar en lo que se consideraba un fracaso por no haber hallado el paso hacia las Molucas, unido a lo inhóspito del paraje y las condiciones de navegación provocaron descontento entre la tripulación.

Apenas fondearon en el puerto de San Julián, cuando los capitanes de las otras cuatro naves tramaron un motín para matar al comandante en jefe. Los conspiradores eran: Juan de Cartagena, veedor; Luis de Mendoza, tesorero; Antonio de Coca, contador; Gaspar de Quesada, capitán de la Concepción. Fracasado el complot, Magallanes condenó a muerte a Gaspar de Quesada, y mandó descuartizar su cadáver junto al de Luis de Mendoza, que había muerto durante la revuelta. Juan de Cartagena fue abandonado en tierra, junto con el clérigo Sánchez de Reina, al zarpar la expedición el 21 de agosto de 1520 del puerto de San Julián, sin que nada se haya sabido después de ellos.​

El 22 de mayo la , al mando de Juan Serrano, naufraga mientras exploraba la costa meridional de la Patagonia. Magallanes nombra a Serrano capitán de la Concepción y a Duarte Barbosa capitán de la Victoria.​

Descubrimiento del estrecho de Magallanes

Llegados a la boca del que sería el estrecho de Magallanes, se ordenó a las naves Concepción y San Antonio explorar el canal. La nave San Antonio, con Álvaro de Mezquita se adelantó, momento en el que el piloto Esteban Gómez y el tesorero Jerónimo Guerra deponen a Mezquita para desandar el camino por la noche y regresar a España.​ La nave Concepción al mando del capitán Juan Serrano atraviesa el canal y espera en vano a la nave San Antonio. Cruzarlo fue muy difícil, dado lo complicado de las costas. Una vez terminadas estas minuciosas etapas consiguieron salir del "laberinto" hacia el mar del Sur.

La fortuna hizo que la travesía por el océano Pacífico, al que se bautiza con tal nombre (que permanecería, haciendo olvidar el anterior de mar del Sur) debido a la calma, a que no se encontrara con ninguna tempestad. Por el contrario, la desventura de no hallar tierra firme hasta al cabo de tres meses.

Debido a que la tripulación del barco que llevaba los víveres huyó de vuelta a España, la hambruna y el escorbuto azotaron a su tripulación, hasta el punto de que se pagaban cuantiosas monedas por una simple rata para devorar. El agua se pudrió, apareció el escorbuto y los hombres comían incluso cuero reblandecido y serrín. Antonio Pigafetta relata:

La galleta que comíamos ya no era más pan sino un polvo lleno de gusanos que habían devorado toda su sustancia. Además, tenía un olor fétido insoportable porque estaba impregnada de orina de ratas. El agua que bebíamos era pútrida y hedionda. Por no morir de hambre, nos hemos visto obligados a comer los trozos de cuero que cubrían el mástil mayor a fin de que las cuerdas no se estropeen contra la madera... Muy a menudo, estábamos reducidos a alimentarnos de aserrín; y las ratas, tan repugnantes para el hombre, se habían vuelto un alimento tan buscado, que se pagaba hasta medio ducado por cada una de ellas... Y no era todo. Nuestra más grande desgracia llegó cuando nos vimos atacados por una especie de enfermedad que nos inflaba las mandíbulas hasta que nuestros dientes quedaban escondidos... .

Antonio Pigafetta. Cronista de la expedición.

Por fin el 6 de marzo de 1521 encontró una isla en la que los navegantes aprovecharon para descansar y recoger víveres. Pronto acudirían a aquella isla numerosos indígenas con regalos para estos nuevos "visitantes", habían arribado a la isla de los Ladrones (probablemente la actual isla de Guam) en el archipiélago de las Marianas.

Muerte de Magallanes en Filipinas

Buscando las Molucas, Magallanes y los suyos llegaron a la isla de Cebú, perteneciente al archipiélago que más tarde se conocería como " islas Filipinas" en honor de Felipe II. Habían llegado al Extremo Oriente, cumpliendo el proyecto de Cristóbal Colón.

Magallanes pereció el 27 de abril de 1521 en la batalla de Mactán, luchando contra una tribu cebuana encabezada por el jefe tribal Lapulapu, en la isla filipina de Mactán.

La expedición tras la muerte de Magallanes

Tras la muerte de Magallanes en Filipinas, los miembros de la expedición decidieron quemar la Concepción, distribuyéndose en las otras dos naves que quedaban. Fue elegido jefe de la expedición y capitán de la nao Gonzalo Gómez de Espinosa, y al frente de la nao se puso de capitán a Juan Sebastián Elcano. Tras arribar a las islas Molucas, objeto del viaje, y cargar con las especias, se emprendió el regreso a España.

La Trinidad navegaba mal y hubo de quedarse en el puerto de Tidore para ser reparada y volver por el Pacífico hasta Panamá. Elcano tomó finalmente el mando de la expedición de regreso, eligiendo navegar por los mares portugueses hacia el oeste, bordeando África por rutas conocidas y con posibilidades de hacer aguadas, aun teniendo que esquivar los puertos y flotas portuguesas.

Llegada a España de la nao Victoria capitaneada por Elcano

La expedición llegó solo con la Victoria de regreso a Sanlúcar de Barrameda el 6 de septiembre de 1522, al cabo de casi tres años de travesía. En total, 216 hombres perecieron durante el viaje, y solo 18, entre ellos Juan Sebastián Elcano, pudieron sobrevivir. Otros cuatro hombres de los 55 de la tripulación original de la Trinidad, que había emprendido una ruta de regreso distinta desde las Filipinas y fue capturada por los portugueses, regresaron finalmente a España en 1525.

Tras atravesar el océano Índico y dar la vuelta a África, Juan Sebastián Elcano completó la primera circunnavegación del globo, consiguiendo llevar a término la expedición y llegar al puerto de partida, Sevilla, el 8 de septiembre de 1522 en la nao Victoria, junto con otros 17 supervivientes, lo que suponía el logro de una imponente hazaña para la época.

Elcano, deseoso de llegar a Sevilla, apenas se detuvo en Sanlúcar de Barrameda. El mismo día de la llegada tomó a su servicio un barco para remolcar la Victoria por el Guadalquivir hasta Sevilla, por el mal estado en que se encontraba la nave. Los oficiales de la Casa de la Contratación de Indias de Sevilla prepararon una lancha con 12 remos, cargada de provisiones frescas, en el muelle esperaban las autoridades de la ciudad y los miembros de la Casa de la Contratación en pleno, junto a un numeroso público que contemplaba la llegada de la desvencijada nave.

Gracias a la Providencia, el sábado 6 de septiembre de 1522 entramos en la bahía de San Lúcar... Desde que habíamos partido de la bahía de San Lúcar hasta que regresamos a ella recorrimos, según nuestra cuenta, más de catorce mil cuatrocientas sesenta leguas, y dimos la vuelta al mundo entero,.....El lunes 8 de septiembre largamos el ancla cerca del muelle de Sevilla, y descargamos toda nuestra artillería"

La expedición había partido de Sanlúcar de Barrameda el 20 de septiembre de 1519, compuesta inicialmente por cinco naves: Trinidad, nave capitana al mando de Magallanes, Victoria, San Antonio, Concepción y Santiago.

Esta es la lista de los supervivientes que volvieron a Sanlúcar, después de dar la vuelta al mundo:

1. Copia encargada en 1848 por el Museo Naval de Madrid de un original que, según Vargas Ponce, se encontraba en la casa de Felipe Vallejo, canónigo de la catedral de Toledo, en 1787 y del que Fernando Selma sacaría el grabado que figura en la Relación del último viaje al Magallanes, publicado en Madrid en 1788. Es posible que todos ellos tengan su origen en un cuadro del siglo XVI atribuido a la escuela de Bronzino y perteneciente a la galería del duque de Florencia.

2. Arturo Cruz Corral: Magallanes no completó la primera vuelta al mundo al ser asesinado en una escaramuza por unos indígenas en Filipinas (1521) pero sí lo hizo el español Juan Sebastián Elcano (Guetaria 1476-1526), quien formaba parte la misma expedición promovida y financiada por el Reino de España. Así está recogido en la obra Relación del primer viaje alrededor del mundo (Relazione del primo viaggio intorno al mondo) publicada en Venecia en 1536, del italiano Antonio Pigafetta, quien también formó parte de la expedición. Terminado el viaje Pigafetta viajó a Valladolid, donde fue recibido en audiencia por el Emperador Carlos, a quien le regaló una copia de su diario de viaje que luego transformaría en libro de viaje al anadirle un prólogo y estructurarlo como libro para así conseguir una mayor difusión. Por eso la primera vuelta al mundo se conoce como Expedición Magallanes-Elcano, y no solo de Magallanes.

3. Alexandre Parafita escribió:

Desde tiempos inmemoriales se dio como origen inequívoco de Magallanes la vila de Sabrosa. Contribuyó a ello la existencia de dos testamentos, uno de 1504 (cuando el navegante partió hacia los océanos) y otro de 1580 (de un sobrino nieto suyo exiliado en el Brasil), reforzados por un acta oficial de 1798 en que seis escribanos y cuatro testigos confirmaban la genealogía del navegante ligada a esa vila. En estos documentos se identifican bienes efectivamente localizados en Sabrosa, tales como una casa (la "Casa da Pereira"), la quinta de la Soura (aún hoy existente frente al Vale da Porca) y el legado de misas anuales en el altar del Señor Jesús de la Iglesia de San Salvador, de lo que aún existen vestigios en la actual iglesia matriz de la vila. La existencia en la referida casa del blasón de la familia Magalhães con las armas picadas y arrasadas, traduciendo un castigo que, en tiempos de D. Manuel I, era corriente aplicar sobre quien practicase actos considerados traición a la patria, entendiéndose como tal la misión de Magallanes al servicio de la corona de España, corroboraba la misma tesis. Sin embargo, hace ya muchas décadas, comenzó a ser puesta en duda la veracidad de estos documentos. En principio, porque el primer documento emplea la expresión "su majestad" para referirse a D. Manuel I cuando se sabe que en ese tiempo no existía ese tratamiento, sino el de "su alteza". Aunque en el documento notarial de 1798 se diga que fue "fielmente copiado menos algunas palabras que por estar mal escritas en letra gótica y el papel carcomido por el tiempo no fue posible leer", no ha faltado quien procure (...) desvalorizar estos testamentos, como no falta quien lo haya rebatido (...). Estas dudas permitieron que otras hipótesis de origen se fuese desarrollando. Por ejemplo, de Oporto se dice que existe una declaración que alude a la expresión "Vecino de la cidade del puerto", que indicaría que fue natural de allí. No obstante, se sabe también que en un testamento hecho más tarde en España, se declara del mismo modo "vesino q soy desta muy noble e muy leal çibdad de Sevylha". ¿Cuál es entonces el valor de esta palabra "vecino" en tales documentos? (...) Importa tener presente que las cuestiones divergentes sobre el origen de Magallanes se generaron mucho después de su muerte, cuando se percibió que habría una notable fortuna a reivindicar de la corona de España, por serle debidos al navegante una parte de los territorios descubiertos.

Parafita, A. Fernão de Magalhães: símbolo inequívoco da tradição de Sabrosa", en Jornal de Notícias, suplemento "Terra de Fernão Magalhães", 5 de septiembre de 2009.

4. Enrique de Malaca habría de ser, con toda probabilidad, el primer hombre en circunnavegar el globo: la expedición lo llevó a las cercanías del lugar donde había sido capturado antes de ser vendido a Magallanes en 1511.

1. Ficha: Núm. de catálogo: 646. Centro Virtual Cervantes/Museo Naval de Madrid. Consultado el 16 de agosto de 2015.

2. Barros, Amândio (2009). Edições Afrontamento, ed. La Naturalidad de Fernando de Magallanes (en portugués). .

3. Gil, Juan (2009). El exilio portugués en Sevilla de los Braganza a Magallanes. Fundación Cajasol. pp. 180-182. .

4. Bernstein, J. William J. (2008), A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World, pp. 183-5. Nueva York: Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 978-0-87113-979-5.

5. "El viaje de Enrique". www.exlibric.com. Archivado desde el original el 20 de octubre de 2017.

6. El contenido del testamento se conserva en el Archivo General de Indias, signatura PATRONATO,36,R.2; transcripción por Cristóbal Bernal., pero también se conserva un fragmento del original en el Archivo Histórico Provincial de Sevilla

7. GARCIA, Elisa Frühauf. "Os índios brasileiros na formação do mundo moderno. Alianças, comércio e trocas culturais". In: Gesteira, Heloísa (org.). Magalhães-Elcano: a primeira viagem ao redor do mundo 1519-1522. Rio de Janeiro: Andrea Jakobsson Estúdio, 2021.

8. PIGAFETTA, Antonio (2006). Primeira viagem ao redor do Mundo. [S.l.]: L&PM POCKET. OCLC 1104049046

9. "Alimentação e saúde na primeira circum-navegação da Marinha Imperial Brasileira | História, Ciências, Saúde - Manguinhos". Consultado em 27 de abril de 2021

10. "Viagens de Circum-navegação | DPHDM". www.marinha.mil.br. Consultado em 27 de abril de 2021

11. "Gaviões Imperiais 2015 | Passarela Virtual - CARNAVAL VIRTUAL". museu.liesv.com.br. Consultado em 16 de junho de 2021

12. "I Simpósio de História Marítima - Praticagem do Brasil". Consultado em 27 de abril de 2021

13. Bernal, Cristóbal (17 de enero de 2015). "Relación de varios acaecimientos sucedidos a la armada de Magallanes cuando iba a la Especiería, y vuelta de la nao San António el 8 de mayo de 1521, que surgió en el puerto de las Muelas". Sevilla 2019-2022.

14. Primer viaje alrededor del globo. Antonio Pigafetta. (con un estudio preliminar del Prof. Nelson Martínez Díaz). Título original: Primo viaggio in torno al Globo Terracqueo (edic. de 1800). Ediciones Orbis, Barcelona, 1986. ISBN 84-7634-527-5. Se puede consultar en versión electrónica. Último acceso: 28 de mayo de 2011

15. "Articulo sobre Juan de Santander, en la revista n°23 de ASCAGEN".

16. "Magelhaens". Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature (en inglés). Flagstaff: USGS Astrogeology Research Program. .

17. "Magelhaens". Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature (en inglés). Flagstaff: USGS Astrogeology Research Program. .

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Fernando de Magallanes - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre

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Fernando de Magallanes, también conocido como Hernando de Magallanes (en portugués, Fernão de Magalhães, Sabrosa, primavera de 1480- Mactán, Filipinas, 27 de abril de 1521),​ fue un militar, explorador, marino y navegante portugués de linaje noble.

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Emil G. Racoviţă (pronunciado eˈmil ˈrakovit͡sə, a menudo escrito en estilo francés como Émile Gustave Racovitza ( 1868 - 1947) fue un biólogo, zoólogo, oceanógrafo, y espeleólogo pionero rumano. Fue explorador de la Antártica y se le considera uno de los padres de la bioespeleología.

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En 1905 fue a la India a través de Persia, y franqueó repetidas veces la gran cadena del Transhimalaya (acerca de ello publicó en 1909-1912 dos volúmenes); luego identificó las fuentes del Brahmaputra y del Indo.

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Olivier van Noort (a veces, en español, Oliverio van Noort; Utrecht, . 1558- Schoonhoven, 22 de febrero de 1627), fue un navegante y pirata neerlandés.