# data[].attributes.body
Scroll through to see different examples

# data[].attributes.body
Video

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Historically Accurate Makeup Tutorial | ANCIENT ROME

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In this Historically Accurate makeup tutorial, we're going back to the time of Ancient Rome! I've done extensive research on the Roman culture and the different ingredients they used in their makeup, as well as how they applied it.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Ancient Roman clothing was quite different from today's clothing. Romans did not wear sweaters, shirts and trousers but rather togas and tunics. The tunica was a rectangle that was pinned around the shoulders and sewn at the edges to form a tubular shape. It was the basic garment of both men and women worn under a toga. The toga was a cloth made of (thick) wool and wrapped around the body. It was usually 6 meters (20 feet) in length. The toga orginated from the Etruscans and was introduced by Numa Pompilius the second king of Rome. Romans also wore sandals called sandalia and shoes called calcei.

Just like today there were different clothes for men and for women. Men usually wore a tunic or a toga while women wore a stola which was like a dress worn over a tunic. Women also wore the palla over the stola, which was like a shawl that sometimes had a hood. They also had various decorative elements on the stola. Men often wore sandals while women wore closed shoes. Women clothes would usually have bright colors and women shoes also had various colors.

Ancient Roman clothing distinguished social classes

Roman clothing also distinguished the different social classes. For example, plebeians wore a tunic that was often dark and made of an inexpensive material or thin wool felt. In contrast, patricians wore white tunics made of expensive linen or fine wool or even silk which was very rare at the time. Shoes also indicated social status. Patricians wore expensive red sandals with an ornament at the back or red shoes called the calcei mullei. Plebeians wore (worn out) leather sandals.

There was also a specific clothing for senators and magistrates. Senators would wear tunics with purple stripes called tunica laticlavi, noting that purple was also an expensive color. Magistrates wore another kind of tunic called the tunica angusticlavi. Generals would wear the toga palmata which had a gold border in order to celebrate their triumps. Emperors wore the trabea which was an entirely purple toga.

Incredible facts about Roman clothing

It was forbidden for slaves to wear the toga which could only be worn by Roman citizens.

It was also forbidden for the plebeians to wear the toga worn by patricians.

Togas were also worn by women until the 2nd century B.C.. From the 2nd century B.C. onwards, a woman wearing a toga was branded a prostitute.

Trousers were considered to be barbarous garments worn by the Persians or barbarians in Germania. They became however in use towards the end of the Western Roman Empire which was considered by some as a sign of decadence.

The World of Roman Costume (J. L. Sebesta L. Bonfante, University of Wisconsin Press 1st edition, 2001)

Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture (J. Edmondson, University of Toronto Press, 2009)

Roman Clothing and Fashion (A. Croom, Amberley Publishing, 2012)

New Comments

If you want to correct this page or just leave a comment, please do so in the box below.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Ancient Roman clothing was quite different from today's clothing. Romans did not wear sweaters, shirts and trousers but rather togas and tunics. The tunica was a rectangle that was pinned around the shoulders and sewn at the edges to form a tubular shape. It was the basic garment of both men and women worn under a toga.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Loading...

Roman clothes were made of wool, spun into cloth by the women of the family. Later on the richer people had slaves to do this work for them. If you could afford to buy clothes, you could buy linen, cotton or silk, which was brought to Rome from other parts of the Empire. Washing clothes was difficult because the Romans did not have washing machines or soap powder. They used either a chemical called sulphur or urine.

These are the clothes that Roman men wore

Loading...

Loading...

The Toga

This man is wearing a toga. Only male citizens of Rome were allowed to wear togas. They were made out of wool and were very large. The material was not sewn or pinned but was draped around the body and over one arm. Togas were very expensive because of the large amount of material needed to make them and very heavy. It was the law that all citizens wore togas for public events. They were even told which colour of toga they had to wear:

A plain white toga was worn by all adult male citizens

An off-white toga with a purple border was worn by magistrates and upper class boys

A toga made of dark coloured wool was worn after someone had died

A bleached toga was worn by politicians

A purple toga with gold embroidery was worn by a victorious general and later by emperors.

In later times it became more acceptable to wear togas of different colours with embroidery but this was frowned on by those who preferred to keep to the established order.

The Tunic

The tunic was standard dress for all men from slaves to the nobles. It could be worn plain, belted at the waist or under a cloak. Citizens of Rome would wear a tunic under their toga.

The simplest and cheapest tunics were made by sewing two pieces of wool together to make a tube with holes for the arms. For those that could afford it tunics could be made of linen or even silk. The tunic would be worn belted at the waist and just covering the knees.

Underwear

Both men and women wore a simple loincloth called a subligaculum under their clothes.

Shoes

Indoors, the Romans wore open-toed sandals. However, outdoors they preferred to wear shoes that covered their toes. The Romans made shoes and sandals by fixing strips of leather to a tough leather or cork base. Sandals, to be worn indoors or in the summer, had a smaller number of leather strips. Shoes for walking, for winter or for soldiers had many more leather strips to cover the toes and provide more warmth.

Jewellery

Men were only allowed to wear one piece of jewellery - a ring that was used to make a mark in wax for sealing documents. However, many ignored the rules and wore several rings and brooches to pin their cloaks.

Hairstyles

All men had their hair cut short and shaved. After the time of Hadrian some men began growing beards.

This article is part of our larger resource on the Romans culture, society, economics, and warfare. Click here for our comprehensive article on the Romans.

Cite This Article

"The Romans - Clothing" History on the Net
© 2000-2021, Salem Media.
August 11, 2021 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-romans-clothing>
More Citation Information.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Loading... Roman clothes were made of wool, spun into cloth by the women of the family. Later on the richer people had slaves to do this work for them. If you could afford to buy clothes, you could buy linen, cotton or silk, which was brought to Rome from other parts of the Empire.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This week sees the release of Paramount Pictures' new adaptation of Lew Wallace's 1880 novel Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ. This epic tale is guaranteed to set pulses racing - not least for the sight of Jack Huston at the reins of a chariot. The ancient world has, however, inspired some equally epic fashion so take your cue from our favourite Greco-Roman influenced looks and prepare to do battle for tickets.

The sandal

What were you wearing on your feet in the summer of 2015? It may well have been a gladiator sandal. The catwalks of Milan and Paris saw to that. French designer Isabel Marant sent out earthy warriors in tightly pleated minis paired with buckled ankle height sandals while Valentino's Maria Grazia Chiuri and Pierpaolo Piccioli offered a more romantic take, with finely braided knee-high versions teamed with macramé woven dresses resembling delicate armour. Alexander McQueen's Sarah Burton, however, created structured affairs with platform soles - showing them with tunics that had the appearance of designer breastplates.

Credit: Getty

The tunic

The Boho movement of the Noughties provided ample opportunity for channelling ancient civilisations. And spearheading the decade's aesthetic were supermodel Kate Moss and actor Sienna Miller who made the look their own, taking it from music festival to the city streets. Remember Kate in that supersized coin belt slung around a khaki shift and Sienna Miller at Glastonbury working the battle-scarred centurion look with studded belt and distressed tunic? Halle Berry went a step further in a white dress by Rachel Roy cinched with a rope tie. Just the thing for a trip to the agora in Ancient Athens.

The MET Gala

The MET Gala, the celebrity-packed ball held annually in New York to benefit the Metropolitan Museum of Art, is ever an eminently stylish affair, with the red carpet becoming an unofficial runway for celebrities wearing designer gowns. This year pop sensation Taylor Swift donned bespoke Louis Vuitton - a fierce silver tunic with sandals that laced up to the knee while actor Emma Stone opted for a metallic harness worn atop a flowing white Grecian style gown by Miuccia Prada.

The ancient world also proved inspirational for Rosie Huntington-Whiteley who chose a Balmain tunic of pleated leather and leopard print calf hair (above) for the event's 2014 incarnation.

The armour

Jean Paul Gaultier's SS10 tribal-inspired collection featured one look particularly worthy of a gladiatorial contest in the Colosseum with asymmetric body jewellery worn with a blue Grecian-inspired gown. Nicolas Ghesquière's grommeted epaulettes of Resort 16 had the look of armour and Valentino's SS16 collection saw leather breastplates that would make your fellow charioteers green with envy.

The boys

Rather more sober of late, there were a couple of seasons where Donatella Versace's menswear collections were utterly immersed in the Greco-Roman zone. SS13 represented peak phalanx with her contemporary pugilists giving more than a nod to their ancient forebears, while SS15's beach-ready boys sported towels in the manner of togas (below).

Credit: Getty

And while Alexis Mabille now concentrates on his women's line, back in the days of SS11, it was tunics and sandals that reigned supreme.

The (amphi) theatre

The American Superbowl of 2012 provided the perfect forum for a sartorial trip back in time to the ancient world. Madonna let rip in custom-made Givenchy worthy of a warrior queen while MIA's look resembled that of a bellicose Cleopatra. In other news, Beyoncé prefers to leave historical costume to her backing dancers.

Watch the Ben-Hur trailer

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This week sees the release of Paramount Pictures' new adaptation of Lew Wallace's 1880 novel Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ. This epic tale is guaranteed to set pulses racing - not least for the sight of Jack Huston at the reins of a chariot.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Roman Sports! Visit the Romans site for interesting history, facts and information about life in Ancient Rome including Roman Sports. History, facts and information about the Romans, Ancient Rome, the Colosseum and Roman Sports.

# data[].attributes.body
Do the gloves look like our Boxing gloves?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Gladiators, Chariots, and the Roman Games [ushistory.org]

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Gladiators, Chariots, and the Roman Games

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A table showing some of he common foods Romans ate

The Romans ate food that they could grow such as vegetables.

They used cereals they grew to make bread.

They also ate meat from animals and birds.

The Romans brought food over from other countries in their empire (imported food). Many of these food were new to Britain and had therefore never been tasted before by people living in Britain. These 'new' foods included many vegetables such as carrots, cucumbers, cabbages, radishes, broad beans and celery.

The Romans were also very fond of fish sauce called liquamen (also known as Garum).

Meals

Typically, the Romans ate three meals a day.

Breakfast - ientaculum

The Romans ate a breakfast of bread or a wheat pancake eaten with dates and honey.

Lunch - prandium

At midday they ate a light meal of fish, cold meat, bread and vegetables. Often the meal consisted of the leftovers of the previous day's cena.

Dinner - cena - The main meal

What was eaten for dinner varied among classes. The poor might only eat a simple meal of vegetables and porridge, whereas the rich could enjoy such luxuries as several course meals and exotic food and wine.
Rich Romans
Wheat was boiled to make the tasteless porridge. To add flavour to the porridge they often added flavourings and relishes as well as vegetables, herbs and a little meat.

Rich Romans held elaborate dinner parties in the triclinium (dining room). These parties often lasted up to eight hours. The Romans did not sit on chairs around the table like we do today. Instead the adults lay on sloping couches situated around a square table. Only small children or slaves were permitted to eat sitting.

The Romans ate mainly with their fingers and so the food was cut into bite size pieces. Slaves would continually wash the guests' hands throughout the dinner.
Rich Romans could afford to eat lots of meat.
Spoons were used for soup.

"Meat dishes included boar (wild pig), venison (deer), wild goat, mutton, lamb, kid, sucking pig, hare and dormice. Poultry dishes were of almost every known bird: chicken, geese, ostriches, cranes, pheasants, pigeons, doves, thrushes, fig-peckers, and- for the rich- peacocks" (Cowell, 1961: 78).

Roman writer Petronius wrote about his eating experiences in around AD 60:
Drinks

"After a generous rubdown with oil, we put on dinner clothes. We were taken into the next room where we found three couches drawn up and a table, very luxuriously laid out, awaiting us.

We were invited to take our seats. Immediately, Egyptian slaves came in and poured ice water over our hands. The starters were served. On a large tray stood a donkey made of bronze. On its back were two baskets, one holding green olives, and the other black. On either side were dormice, dipped in honey and rolled in poppy seed. nearby, on a silver grill, piping hot, lay small sausages. As for wine, we were fairly swimming in it."

Wine and water was served in jugs.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A table showing some of he common foods Romans ate The Romans ate food that they could grow such as vegetables. They used cereals they grew to make bread. They also ate meat from animals and birds. The Romans brought food over from other countries in their empire (imported food).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Top 10 ancient Roman foods and drinks

Ancient Rome was one of the largest empire of its time, primarily based around the Mediterranean. Naturally, much of the food and drink habits of the ancient Romans were influenced by popular sustenance grown in the Mediterranean region - the primary food item being wheat. Romans typically had three meals a day - jentaculum was their breakfast, prandium was the name for their lunch and cena or dinner used to be the main meal. The food and drinks served for the main course varied according to the Roman classes. The eating habits of rich Romans were far too lavish and grand when compared to that of an ordinary Roman peasant. The well-to-do Romans could afford the best of the meals and loved throwing dinner parties that lasted for hours. Regardless of such divergence in appetite, the overall ancient Roman diet primarily consisted of a certain set of cuisines. Here is a list of top 10 ancient Roman foods and drinks that made up their cuisines.

Barley was an essential staple in the ancient Greek culture since it made up a large portion of the diet for the athletes. The Roman athletes followed their suit and made barley an integral part of their training diet. It was especially famous among the Roman gladiators who were also known by the name of hordearii which meant "Eaters of barley" or "Barley men". Barley, being a rich source of carbohydrate, helped them gain weight and maintain a spectacular physique to please the crowds.

The gladiators were served barley as a sprouted gruel and a similar barley gruel meal was also served in the Roman army as a staple food. Sprouting helped transform the hard barley grains into a paste of easier-to-digest dense food which came along with the added bonus of nutrient surplus. Cultivation of barley was far easier since barley crops are more adaptable and resistant. The Romans wasted no time in reaping all these benefits - barley was most used grain in the Republican era of ancient Rome.

A popular commodity among the Romans, olive oil became even more common in Roman kitchens, when Roman emperors began to actively support olive tree plantations and olive oil production. As a vegetable, olive was one of the most commonly grown food item in the Mediterranean region. It also had a symbolic attachment to ancient Rome since the olive leaves and its branches represented peace, fertility and prosperity. Upon that, the Romans used olive oil for various purposes.

Most of the rural Romans would either boil their food or fry it in olive oil. Most of the diets in Roman military were cooked in olive oil and vinegar. It also was a major ingredient in some of the most popular sauces used in ancient Roman cuisines. But olive oil was not just confined to Roman eating habits, it was in fact a part of their daily lifestyle. They used it in lamps, and even used it to cleanse their bodies in baths (Roman people did not have soaps).

Posca was a popular drink among ancient Roman soldiers and poor peasants. It was usually made by watering down low quality wine and then adding spices to make it taste better. The Roman legions used to receive a lot of vinegar in rations. The soldiers used to add water to the vinegar to turn it into drinkable posca. Water, sanitation in those times was quite sub-standard and normal drinking water was usually contaminated. This only added to posca's popularity as its acidity killed most of the germs and kept the drink from early stagnation.

The Roman legions were known to carry huge barrels of posca wine during their military campaigns. Drinking good wine while in the army was taken as a matter of bad reputation and against the discipline. So high ranking generals would also drink it together with troops to show their allegiance to the legion. Even the great Hadrian always drank posca when in campaigns, to show his men he was one of them.

See Also,
Top 10 amazing facts about Ancient Rome
Fruits also made up a major part in the daily diets of the ancient Romans. Popular fruits like apple, figs, grapes, pear, plums, dates, cherries, and peaches were easily available in the Mediterranean region. Moreover, many of the fruits used to be dried to increase their edible life. The juicy fruits like grape and cherries were used for making wine. One of the most popular fruit among all Romans alike was Carob.

It can be taken as an equivalent to modern day cocoa and was frequently used to add its chocolate like flavor to various cuisines. In its earliest of use, the carob pods were eaten raw straight from the tree. And just like many other delicacies, the Romans learned the various uses of Carob from the culinary practices of the ancient Greeks.

Unlike the rich Romans, the common peasant diets were more dependent on vegetables than any other food items. The staple vegetables were the legumes which consisted of three primary legume items - beans, lentils and peas. They were often mixed into bread and since they were much easily available sources of protein, these legumes became a routine item in Roman meals.

Things were little different for the affluent Romans though. Vegetables like asparagus, artichokes, beets, cabbage, turnips, carrots, chard, turnips, onions, leeks, pumpkins and cucumbers were often used as appetizers or as starters in their lavish dinner parties. Olive was another major staple vegetable, and also the source of much popular olive oil. Just like with the fruits, the Romans would also store vegetables in brine, vinegar or preserved wine as pickles.

The ancient Romans were almost inexplicably fond of sauces and spices with their meals. For the poor Romans, much of their meal was bland and boiled paste of available staples like wheat, barley and vegetables. So adding a little sauce and spices in the mix helped them have a cuisine that equally excited their taste buds. Again, a rich Roman's dining habits included pretty much every popular variety of sauces and exotic spices he could purchase. One fish condiment based sauce by the name of garum was particularly famous among the Romans.

They would first make a brine of fish intestines, then crush the mixture and leave it for fermentation for weeks until it was ready for serving. They also used a wide range of spices such as pine kernels, leeks, celery seeds, parsley, capons, dried mint, safflower, coriander, dates, honey, vinegar and broth to season their cuisine.

Bread was quite popular staple food in the ancient Roman times. In fact, the Romans started baking bread as early as 300 BC and soon realized the perks of baking wheat and other flour over serving them as a gruel or paste. Soon, consumption of bread gained so much popularity that in 168 BC, the first of Bakers Guild was formed. And within 150 years, more than three hundred specialist pastry chefs were already serving in Rome .

As baking flourished, more varieties of breads were made - the difference in their quality depending on the flour being used, the fineness of grains and the mills used for grinding the flour. Furthermore, legumes, milk, egg and butter were also added to bread to make it more nutritious and better in taste, but such surplus breads could only be afforded by the rich citizens.

Meat used to be an expensive consumption item in ancient Rome (at least for the poor Roman peasants), so the common people preferred buying it in small pieces and used to get a major share during the festivals. Meat used to be more exclusive to the rich since they could afford pretty much anything. So naturally, a variety of meat items used to be served in the grand dinner parties the rich Roman families used to throw on occasions. Primary meat sources were poultry, wild game such as rabbit, hare and boar.

It further extended to a variety of birds like geese, ducks, blackbirds, doves, magpies, quails and woodcocks. The meat of flamingo, peacock and ostrich were considered quite exotic - their presence at the dinner was taken as a matter of honor for the house owner. They also had a taste for fish, especially the ones found in the Mediterranean, which they ate fresh, dried, salted, smoked or pickled.

Wine was such a popular drink among the Romans that it could be called their national drink. They utterly despised beer since it was a popular drink among the barbarians , Brits and Celts; so naturally wine was the best choice to prefer. The Romans always had their wine diluted in water since it drinking straight wine was not in their culture. Much like their cuisines, the wine they consumed also came in varieties - the popular ones being black, red, white and yellow wines.

The first course of dinner in households was usually accompanied by mulsum - a slight variation of regular wine made by mixing honey with it. Clearly, there was an ever increasing demand for wine in ancient Rome which gave rise to wine production especially around the border between Latium and Campania in Italy. Some of the vintage wines like Caecuban, Setian, Falernian and Massic came from wine producers in these areas.

One of the most primary food item in ancient Rome, wheat was an essential ingredient in most of the meals and cuisines of the Roman people. Wheat flour was used to bake the best of the breads. It was also used to prepare the porridge meal and pancake biscuits. All three primary meals used to have one or more food items made up of wheat.

Wheat pancakes with dates or honey was a common diet for breakfast, wheat breads and cheese were usually taken for lunch and wheat porridge was almost always on the dinner menu for Roman households. On the downside, wheat breads were rather expensive than bran breads, so the common people used to give more preference to the later, while best quality wheat breads became the first choice staple for the rich folks.
Final Conclusion
The early Romans were not the biggest and grandest of the eater, but as the empire gained stability, their culinary habits also expanded along with the expansion of Roman civilization. There was a time when most of the Romans had to gratify their appetite with porridge made of barley or wheat. But soon, there was a surplus of resources as the empire kept on expanding. A stable governance meant almost everyone could access sustenance with ease. Not to forget, the Romans made the most out of baking practices they learned from the Greeks and the Egyptians. It was under the Roman era that the bread production attained new heights and their love for bread, gave the biggest boost to the baking industry.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Top 10 ancient Roman foods and drinks Ancient Rome was one of the largest empire of its time, primarily based around the Mediterranean. Naturally, much of the food and drink habits of the ancient Romans were influenced by popular sustenance grown in the Mediterranean region - the primary food item being wheat.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Poppy shows us what the Romans in Britain ate.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Roman Empire: in the First Century. The Roman Empire. Social Order. Slaves & Freemen | PBS

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Roman Empire Republic to Empire Age of Augustus Years of Trial Empire Reborn Emperors Social Order - Patricians - Senators - Equestrians - Plebians - Slaves & Freemen - Soldiers - Women - On The Frontiers Life in Roman Times Writers Enemies and Rebels Religion

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
From our perspective, slavery is one of the most controversial institutions of the past. We see slavery as an inhumane, immoral, and intolerable business, an unacceptable human flesh for cash type of business that none of us could tolerate. For the ancients, however, slavery was part of the everyday landscape, a completely recognized social institution smoothly integrated into the overall social fabric.

What follows is a list of 10 interesting facts about slavery in ancient Rome, including several firsthand accounts so we can hear the voices and views of the ancients on this controversial matter.

10 Slave Population

Ancient Roman society had a high proportion of slave population. Some have estimated that 90 percent of the free population living in Italy by the end of the first century BC had ancestors who had been slaves (McKeown 2013: 115).

The proportion of slaves was so significant that some Romans left written accounts on the dangers of this situation: "It was once proposed in the Senate that slaves should be distinguished from free people by their dress, but then it was realized how great a danger this would be, if our slaves began to count us" [Seneca, On Mercy: 1.24].

Modern estimations on slave population in Italy give us a figure of about 2 million by the end of the Republican period, a slave-to-free ratio of about 1:3 (Hornblower and Spawforth 2014: 736).

9 Slave Revolts

There are many slave uprisings recorded in Roman history. A Syrian slave named Eunus was the leader of one of these revolts during the 135-132 BC period, which took place in Sicily. It is said that Eunus presented himself as a prophet and claimed to have a number of mystical visions.

According to Diodorus Siculus [The Library: 35.2], Eunus managed to persuade his followers with a trick that made sparks and flames come out of his mouth. The Romans defeated Eunus and crushed the revolt, but this example might have inspired another slave rebellion in Sicily in 104-103 BC.

The most famous slave uprising in ancient Rome is the one led by Spartacus. The Roman army fought Spartacus's force for two years (73-71 BC) before they could put the rebellion down.

8 Versatile Lifestyles

The living conditions and expectations of slaves in ancient Rome were versatile, strongly linked to their occupations. Slaves involved in exhausting activities such as agriculture and mining did not enjoy promising prospects. Mining, in particular, had a reputation of being a brutal activity.

Pliny [Natural History 33.70] reports the arduous conditions of this activity: "Mountains are hollowed out by the digging of long tunnels by the light of torches. The miners work in shifts as long as the torches last and do not see daylight for months at a time. [ . . . ] Sudden cracks appear and crush the miners so that it now seems less perilous to dive for pearls and purple mollusks in the depths of the sea. We have made dry land so much more dangerous!"

Household slaves, on the other hand, could expect a more or less humane treatment, and in some cases, they had opportunities to keep and manage some money and other forms of property for themselves. This property, known as "peculium," would legally be owned by the slave's master, but in practical terms, the slave would be allowed to use the money for his or her own purposes.

Eventually, if the slave had enough property, he could try buying his own freedom and becoming a "freedman," a social class in between the slaves and the freemen. As a freedman, the slave would still be legally part of his or her master's household.

7 The Most Famous Roman Slave?

Spartacus is the name of a Roman slave of Thracian origin, arguably the most renowned Roman slave of all time. He escaped from a gladiator training camp located in Capua in 73 BC, taking about 78 other slaves with him. Spartacus and his men took full advantage of the pathological inequalities of Roman society by recruiting thousands of other slaves and destitute country folks.

Spartacus and his men defied the Roman authorities and military machine for two years. Frontinus [Stratagems: 1.5.22] reported that Spartacus's army employed dead bodies attached to stakes outside their camp and equipped with weapons. From a distance, this gave the impression that the army was larger and better organized than it actually was.

The revolt was finally crushed by the Roman General Crassus. Spartacus was killed, but his name and deeds became immortal and were kept alive in the memory of Rome. Even today, his story has inspired countless books, TV series, and movies. After Spartacus's army was defeated, more than 6,000 slaves who took part in the revolt were crucified along the road between Rome and Capua, the Via Appia.

6 Slave Ownership

Owning slaves was a widespread practice among Roman citizens, no matter their social status. Even the poorest Roman citizens could own a slave or two. In Roman Egypt, it is probable that artisans had about two or three slaves each. The wealthiest could own a lot more. We know that Nero owned about 400 slaves who worked at his urban residence. It is recorded that a wealthy Roman named Gaius Caecilius Isidorus had 4,166 slaves at the time of his death (Hornblower and Spawforth 2014: 736).

5 Slave Demand

The slave demand in Rome was so high for a number of reasons. With the sole exception of public office, slaves were accepted in almost every activity. Mining and other exploitative occupations also had a high demand for human labor that was fulfilled with slaves.

Domestic labor and farming were two occupations where slaves were also in high demand. Moreover, slave management is a topic included in many surviving Roman handbooks on farming. In his treatise known as On Farming, Varro recommends that free labor be used in unhealthy places. The logic behind this tip is that, unlike the death of free farmers, the death of slaves has a negative financial impact (Hornblower and Spawforth 2014: 736).

4 Slave Procurement

Slaves were acquired in four main ways: as war captives, as victims of pirate raids and brigandage, by trade, or by breeding. During different stages of Roman history, some of these methods were more relevant than others. During the early expansion of the Roman Empire, for example, a significant number of war captives were turned into slaves.

The pirates from Cilicia in present-day southern Turkey were expert suppliers of slaves, and the Romans were used to doing business with them. Cilician pirates typically brought their slaves to the island of Delos (Aegean Sea), which was considered to be the international center of the slave trade.

It is recorded that on one occasion during the course of a single day, at least 10,000 people were traded as slaves and shipped to Italy. This would indicate that the borders were blurred between piracy and trade as a means of acquiring slaves.

3 An Unquestioned Institution

We tend to see slavery as an immoral and inhumane institution. However, there is no evidence of serious questioning of slavery in Roman society. All major economic, social, and legal forces in ancient Rome conspired to make slavery a perpetuating system.

Slaves were considered to be the reverse of free people, a necessary social counterbalance. Civic freedom and slavery were two sides of the same coin. Even when more humane rules were introduced that improved the living conditions of slaves, this did very little to reduce slavery. It simply made it more tolerable (Hornblower and Spawforth 2014: 736-737).

2 Fugitive Slaves

Slaves running away from their masters was a common problem among slave owners. A way to deal with this was to hire professional slave catchers known as fugitivarii, who would track down, capture, and return the slave to his owner in exchange for a fee. Sometimes, the owners would advertise rewards for the return of the fugitives, and in other cases, they would try to locate the runaways themselves (Hornblower and Spawforth 2014: 736-737).

Another curious method to combat fugitive slaves was the use of slave collars with instructions on where to return them. A surviving example reads:

I am Asellus, slave of Praeiectus, who is an official in the Department of the Grain Supply. I have escaped from my post. Detain me, for I have run away. Take me back to the barber's shops near the temple of Flora [Select Latin Inscriptions 8272] (McKeown 2013: 116).

1 Slave Freedom

In Roman society, a slave owner had the option of granting freedom to their slaves. This process was known as manumission. This could be achieved in different ways: It could be granted by the slave owner as a reward for the slave's loyalty and service, it could be earned by the slave by paying the master a sum of money and therefore buying his freedom, or in some cases, the master would find it convenient to free a slave.

An example of this last case were merchants who needed someone to be able to sign contracts and conduct different transactions on their behalf and needed someone legally entitled to do so. From a legal standpoint, slaves were not entitled to represent their masters.

In some cases, the freedom of the slave could be complete, and in other cases, the former slave would still have a duty to provide services to his former master. Former slaves who were skilled in some profession were expected to provide their professional services free of charge to their former masters. Former slaves even had the possibility of becoming Roman citizens, and sometimes, they would (ironically) become slave owners.

Cristian Violatti is a freelance writer and one of the editors of Ancient History Encyclopedia. He is currently studying archaeology at the University of Leicester, England. Cristian has a broad spectrum of interests, including ancient scripts and languages, archaeological and anthropological theories of ethnicity and its markers, Asian culture, military history, world mythology, philosophy, and prehistory, among other topics.

Cristian has been consistently publishing articles both in digital and printed media. You can find some of his published work in Ancient Warfare Magazine and Ancient History Magazine.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
10 Interesting Facts About Slavery In Ancient Rome - Listverse

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
From our perspective, slavery is one of the most controversial institutions of the past. We see slavery as an inhumane, immoral, and intolerable business, an unacceptable human flesh for cash type of business that none of us could tolerate.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Barbarians Rising: Spartacus and the Slave Rebellion (S1, E2) | History

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Forced to entertain bloodthirsty Roman audiences as a gladiator, Spartacus plots an escape that inspires a massive slave uprising in this web exclusive.

# data[].attributes.body
Slaves working

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Roman slaves' quarters are discovered in ancient ruins.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Day in the Life of a Slave! Visit the Romans site for interesting history, facts and information about life in Ancient Rome including Day in the Life of a Slave. History, facts and information about the Romans, Ancient Rome, the Colosseum and Day in the Life of a Slave.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Coolest song in the movie, ancient Roman Legion Anthem on Latin language.

# data[].attributes.body
Scroll down for Music section

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
ANCIENT ROMAN CULTURE AND MUSIC | Facts and Details

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Art from ancient Greece and Rome is often called classical art. This is a reference to the fact that the art was not only beautiful and of high quality but that it came from a Golden Age in the past and was passed down to us today.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ancient Roman Musical Instruments | ClipArt ETC

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Ancient Roman Musical Instruments ClipArt gallery offers 23 illustrations of the aulos, buccina, cithara, cornu, cymbalum, flute, litus, sambuca, tuba, and tympanum.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Presentation-- Created using PowToon -- Free sign up at http://www.powtoon.com/youtube/ -- Create animated videos and animated presentations for free. PowToon is a free tool that allows you to develop cool animated clips and animated presentations for your website, office meeting, sales pitch, nonprofit fundraiser, product launch, video resume, or anything else you could use an animated explainer video.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Patricians! Visit the Romans site for interesting history, facts and information about life in Ancient Rome including the Patricians. History, facts and information about the Romans, Ancient Rome and the Patricians.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Four sisters in Ancient Rome - Ray Laurence

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
View full lesson: http://ed.ted.com/lessons/four-sisters-in-ancient-rome-ray-laurence How did the young, wealthy women of Ancient Rome spend their days? Meet Domitia and her sister Domitia and her sister Domitia and her sister Domitia. Ray Laurence sketches the domestic life of leisure that these young girls lived, despite little recorded information on women from this otherwise well-documented era.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In ancient Rome, the plebs was the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census. Shopkeepers, crafts people, and skilled or unskilled workers might be plebeian (/plɨˈbiːən/; Latin: plebeius).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Daily Life of a Plebeian Child Social Life This is a picture of a child helping a parent. When they were not learning, Plebeian Children were usually helping out their parents, or entertaining themselves. Girls would help out their mothers, and boys would help out their fathers.

# data[].attributes.body
Two Plebians

# data[].attributes.body
What is going on in this picture?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Romans, probably plebians in relief

Rome's working class, the plebeians had little individual power. Grouped together, however, they became a Roman mob and had to be handled carefully.

By the first century AD, plebeians comprised a formal class, which held its own meetings, elected its own officials and kept its own records. The term plebeian referred to all free Roman citizens who were not members of the patrician, senatorial or equestrian classes.

Working class heroes

Plebeians were average working citizens of Rome – farmers, bakers, builders or craftsmen – who worked hard to support their families and pay their taxes. Over the course of this period, early forms of public welfare were established by Titus and Trajan and, in difficult times, plebeians could ask Roman administrators for help.

We know much less about daily life for the lower classes, such as plebeians. Unlike the more privileged classes, most plebeians could not write and therefore they could not record and preserve their experiences.

A glimpse of normal life

This is one reason why archeological sites like the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum are so important: they preserve the living spaces, shops, tools, and graffiti of the common people that would otherwise be lost to history.

Social climbing

Some plebeians, who were doing reasonably well, might try to save enough money to join the equestrian class. For many, however, life was a daily struggle.

But although individual plebeians had little power, there were a lot of them. In bad times, or during political unrest, there was always the risk of the Roman 'mob' rioting or rebelling against the upper classes.

Bread and circuses

The Emperor Augustus was well aware of this risk and was keen to keep the poorest plebeians happy enough and reasonably well fed so that they would not riot. He began the system of state bribery that the writer Juvenal described as 'bread and circuses'.

Free grain and controlled food prices meant that plebeians could not starve, while free entertainment – such as chariot races and gladiators in amphitheaters and the Circus Maximus – meant that they would not get bored and restless. Bribery it may have been, but it often worked.

Where to next:
Life in Roman Times – Chariot races
Life in Roman Times – Gladiators

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Roman Empire: in the First Century. The Roman Empire. Social Order. Plebians | PBS

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Romans, probably plebians in relief Rome's working class, the plebeians had little individual power. Grouped together, however, they became a Roman mob and had to be handled carefully. By the first century AD, plebeians comprised a formal class, which held its own meetings, elected its own officials and kept its own records.