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Synonyms for words commonly used in student's writing

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SYNONYMS FOR WORDS COMMONLY USED IN STUDENT'S WRITINGS

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Become a geography expert and have fun at the same time! Seterra is an entertaining and educational geography game that gives you access to over 400 customizable quizzes. Seterra will challenge you with quizzes about countries, capitals, flags, oceans, lakes and more!

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One of our first 360 videos was filmed in New York a few years ago. Earlier we published grand tour of Manhattan, which includes 30 photopanoramas. Now we present new video of New York, with new cityscape.

New York is the most famous city of the USA, and Manhattan is the most famous part of New York. It all started 400 years ago when the most famous and profitable in human history real estate deal was made: the Native Americans sold this 'not so useful' piece of land to Europeans for 24 dollars.

Since that time the island has changed dramatically. For 24 dollars one can probably buy a ticket to the Empire State Building.

Present day Manhattan is the most populated island on Earth. The land itself costs about 40 billion US dollars, and the cost of the entire Manhattan, including its real estate, reaches over 3 trillion US dollars.

This remarkable part of New York City is best to be discovered on foot - not only because of the infamous New York traffic or cost of parking in New York. There is a joke in New York that only wasteful people can afford driving in New York, because the time one spends on finding a parking spot sometimes equals the time it takes to drive from one side of Manhattan to another.

New York is known to be a financial capital of the world, and the island of Manhattan is where all the banks, offices, largest insurance companies and corporations are located - literally one on top of another. Basically the rest of New York, and eventually, the rest of the United States, work for Manhattan, making sure that this gigantic "city inside of the city" continues its mission - processing the wealth of the whole world.

Besides a large number of museums, almost every building in Manhattan has a historical value. Old buildings harmoniously coexist with the best examples of the modern architecture. Most famous New York attractions are located in Manhattan, including Empire State Building mentioned above, Central Park and Times Square. There is also colorful China Town and bright Broadway - they are all located on this island. It is a shame not to bring a photo of Manhattan from your trip to New York!

Authors of the video: Dmitry Moiseenko and Ivan Roslyakov

30 December 2015

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One of our first 360 videos was filmed in New York a few years ago. Earlier we published grand tour of Manhattan, which includes 30 photopanoramas. Now we present new video of New York, with new cityscape. New York is the most famous city of the USA, and Manhattan is the most famous part of New York.

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When filming picturesque places all over our planet AirPano doesn't forget its wonderful inhabitants. Penguins, brown bears and giant pandas, sharks and other fish became subjects of our panoramas. In Cuba we were able to swim with a big jellyfish and it was really a fascinating performance. Therefore, when I found out that in Palau there is a whole lake of jellyfish, I wanted to go there immediately.

From this moment adventures turning into difficulties began: as if some forces found out about my plans and decided to play a game of chess, with me as a figure on the board. "One stop forward - to steps back", and in this way was the whole period of planning to photo the jellyfish. Let's go through it step by step.

The island based government of Palau is situated in the Pacific Ocean, about 800 km far from the Philippines and Indonesia. It is a long way to go, but my dream of going there was broken by another reason. While gathering information for the journey I found out that this lake doesn't exist anymore. To be correct, the lake itself is still there, but the fragile environment was destroyed by tourists that were using sun protection cream and went in the water with it. The cream was poisonous to the jellyfish. In order to save the remaining representatives of nature the lake was closed for visitors.

This would have been a good reason to back off and cancel the trip, but no way! Coincidentally I found out that there is a similar lake in Indonesia and we were already planning to go to Raja Ampat a couple of weeks later. My dream was coming true again. But nobody knows where this lake is and its coordinates have to be discovered before the trip. The thing is that Raja Ampat is a very inconvenient place for travelling: the only connection between a thousand islands is by boat (there are no helicopters or seaplanes). In the neighboring West Papua live at least a hundred of tribes that haven't seen civilization and somewhere you may come across cannibalism.

Looking up the info in the Internet was fruitful: I managed to find the works of Indonesian scientists that described three jellyfish lakes that were luckily situated not far from the filming destination of AirPano.

But later something went wrong again. The boat that we booked for making the underwater footage was burned! Nevertheless, the departure is almost near and we have to find another vessel.

I found out about this accident by an unbelievable and lucky coincidence: during the Dive Show exhibition in Moscow the participants from Indonesia were watching the burning of the boat at the time, when I was walking by their stand.

Later AirPano photo crew found the new vessel and here we are in Indonesia.

When we finally had time to visit the lakes (at least one of them!), it became impossible: we were told that there are no jellyfish there at all. Could have the tourists killed them like it was in Papua? Good thing that we didn't come here only for the lakes. But the high forces don't allow me to forget about my plans: in the hotel a guide suddenly tells me about a place, where there are a lot of jellyfish. Technically it was not a lake, but a small gulf in a snaky bank line of the island, which did not make the acquaintance with the sea inhabitants less interesting.

A small, but not very important obstacle is the lack of information n when the jellyfish appear: the scientist wrote that they could be seen in midday, while the guide insisted that the creatures don't like sunlight. We went to the gulf in the second part of the day and were fortunate: the water here was of yellow-green color, visibility very bad, so in the daytime this place was absolutely not interesting. But near the evening the jellyfish start coming up from the depths and it is worth seeing. There are a lot of them, as if they compile a huge sphere that takes over the whole territory.

The jellyfish are not a good company for a diver. Despite the fact that descending into the porridge of jellyfish is not dangerous, being touched on sensitive parts of the body like the neck or lips is rather painful.

The first day was reconnaissance: I made only photos. Later we returned there with my colleagues to make a 360°-video shoot like we planned.

If you watched this game of chess, then it is obvious that I won. But the enemy still had something in his sleeve: the captain decided to take us to "another jellyfish gulf". Good thing I had the correct coordinates in my phone.

All in all, a thousand of incidents and insistence and the panoramic footage of the basin full of jellyfish is complete!

Video by Alexey Tishchenko. Photos by Oleg Gaponyuk. Video stitching by Ivan Roslyakov

18 June 2018

Photogallery

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When filming picturesque places all over our planet AirPano doesn't forget its wonderful inhabitants. Penguins, bears, sharks have been filmed. Recently we managed to dive into a gulf of thousands of jellyfish. Today we present 360 video of this fantastic place...

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On April 11, 1898, two months after the battleship U.S.S. Maine was destroyed by an explosion in Havana harbor, President McKinley sent a message to Congress requesting authority to use the U.S. armed forces to end a brutal civil war in the Spanish colony of Cuba. Congress voted to support Cuban independence, to demand the withdrawal of Spanish troops from the island, and to authorize the use of force to achieve those objectives. On April 25, after Spain broke diplomatic relations and declared war against the United States, Congress formally asserted that a state of war existed. In a whirlwind military campaign, the U.S. Army invaded Cuba and the U.S. Navy destroyed Spanish squadrons in the Caribbean and Manila Bay.

Hostilities were halted on August 12, 1898. The two sides signed a peace treaty in Paris on December 10, in which Madrid recognized Cuban independence and ceded Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam to the United States. With its victory in the Spanish-American War the United States claimed status as a global power ï¿½ and, in a relative absence of mind, it acquired something of an overseas empire.

In this activity, you and your group will be researching the various different aspects of this war to create a magazine with the goal of determining if its nickname, "The splendid little war," is justified. And, how this one war, changed American diplomacy forever.

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Reporting the War - Journalism & the Spanish American War

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On April 11, 1898, two months after the battleship U.S.S. Maine was destroyed by an explosion in Havana harbor, President McKinley sent a message to Congress requesting authority to use the U.S. armed forces to end a brutal civil war in the Spanish colony of Cuba.

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[jwplayer file=http://flocabulary.s3.amazonaws.com/media-jrev/industrial-revolution-media.mp4 image=http://flocabulary.s3.amazonaws.com/images-jrev/industrial-revolution-image.jpg] Check out the lyrics and more. Every aspect of life changed during the Industrial Revolution, from food to work to housing to what people did in their free time. Innovative inventions spurred many of these changes. This…

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The Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid social and technological change that has shaped the world we live in today. It was a period of great innovation and many of the tools we see today were inventions of the Industrial Revolution.

The following 27 inventions are a hand-picked selection of some of the most important inventions of the period as well as some of the lesser-known ones. If it tickles your fancy, we also have a video embedded below.

They range from innovations within the textile industry to the iron industry and consumer goods of the later Industrial Revolution.

We have limited our time period between the mid-1700s and 1840 which is commonly agreed to be the period of time for the Industrial Revolution.

1. Flying shuttle, or weaving made easy

Flying Shuttle Loom, Weaver's Cottage Museum, Source: Betty Longbottom/Wikimedia Commons

This great example was widely used throughout Lancashire after 1760 and was one of the key developments of the period. It was patented in 1733 by John Kay, and its implementation effectively doubled the output a weaver could make, thereby allowing the workforce to effectively be halved.

RELATED: INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION - THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO THIS GAME-CHANGING PERIOD

Prior to this invention, a weaver was required on each side of a broad-cloth loom, now one weaver alone could do the job of two. Several subsequent improvements were made to it over the years with an important one in 1747.

Its impact was incredibly significant, effectively allowing the production of textiles beyond the capacity of the rest of the industry. It arguably prompted further industrialization throughout the textile and other industries to keep up.

2. The Spinning Jenny increased wool mills' productivity

Model Spinning Jenny, Museum of Early Industrialisation, Wuppertal, Germany, Source: Markus Schweiß/Wikimedia Commons

The Spinning Jenny was another example of great inventions of the Industrial Revolution. It was developed by James Hargreaves who patented his idea in 1764.

The Spinning Jenny was groundbreaking during its time and one that would help change the world forever. It allowed workers to spin more wool at a given time.

This vastly increased mills productivity and, along with the Flying Shuttle, helped force further industrialization of the textile industry in the United Kingdom.

It allowed for a massive reduction in the work needed to produce a piece of cloth and allowed for a worker to work eight or more spools at a time. With further refinement, this increased to 120 spools over time.

Hargreaves has long been credited as the main driver for the development of a modern factory system. By the time of his death in 1778, there were around 20,000 Spinning Jennys across the UK.

3. The Watt Steam Engine, the engine that changed the world

Newcomen Engine, Source: Andy Dingley/Wikimedia Commons

When James Watt created the first reliable steam engine in 1775 his invention would literally change the world. His innovation blew the older less efficient models, like the Newcomen engine, out of the water.

James' innovation of adding a separate condenser significantly improved steam engine efficiency, especially latent heat losses. His new engine would prove very popular and would wind up installed in mines and factories across the world.

It was hands down, one of the greatest inventions of the Industrial Revolution.

His version also integrated a crankshaft and gears and it became the prototype for all modern steam engines. It would eventually lead to incredible improvements in almost all industries, including the textile industry, across the world.

Steam engines would also lead to the development of locomotives and massive leaps forward in ship propulsion.

4. The Cotton Gin: the engine that made cotton production boom

Cotton Gin at Eli Whitney Museum, Source: Brighterorange/Wikimedia Commons

Eli Whitney is another name synonymous with inventions of the Industrial Revolution. He invented the cotton engine, gin for short, in 1794.

Prior to its introduction into the textile industry, cotton seeds needed to be removed from fibers by hand. This was laborious and time-consuming, to say the least. This machine vastly improved the profitability of cotton for farmers.

The Cotton Gin enabled many more farmers to consider cotton as their main crop. This was especially significant for farmers and slave plantation owners in the Americas.

With the seeds and fibers separated more efficiently it became much easier for farmers to use the fibers to make cotton goods like linen. They could also simultaneously separate seeds for more crop growth or cottonseed oil production.

5. Telegraph communications, a pillar of the Industrial Revolution

Hasler Electrical Telegraph, Source: Hp.Baumeler/Wikimedia Commons

Coming in at the tail end of the Industrial Revolution, the Telegraph was one another of the greatest inventions of the Industrial Revolution. Created in the early 1800s it changed communication forever.

Thanks to this technology, near-instant communication became possible initially across the country and eventually across the globe. This enabled people to stay in contact and become aware of wider geopolitical events much more easily.

The first true electrical telegraphs finally superseded optical semaphore telegraph systems to become the world's first electrical form of telecommunications. In only a matter of decades, the electrical telegraph became the de facto means of communication for businesses and private citizens long distance.

6. Portland Cement and the invention of concrete

Interior of the Thames Foot Tunnel, mid-19th century, Source: Nichtbesserwisser/Wikimedia Commons

Joseph Aspdin was a bricklayer turned builder who, in 1824, devised and patented a chemical process for making Portland Cement. This one invention from the Industrial Revolution has been one of the most important of all time for the construction industry.

His process involved sintering a mixture of clay and limestone to around 1,400-degrees Celcius. This then needed to be ground into a fine powder only to be later mixed with sand and gravel to make concrete.

Years later, Brunel would use Portland Cement to help construct the Thames Tunnel. It was also used on a large scale in the construction of the London Sewage system and many other construction projects around the world.

It was also one of the greatest inventions of the Industrial Revolution.

7. The modern roads by John McAdam

Example of Macadam Road in around 1850, Source: Sutter County Library/Wikimedia Commons

Before the Industrial Revolution, the quality of Britain's roads was less than great. At the time France was known to have the best quality ones in the world.

Many British roads were poorly maintained and poor quality. During the 1700s turnpike trusts were set up to charge tolls in an attempt to improve maintenance and the general quality of the country's transport system.

By 1750 almost every main road in England and Wales was the responsibility of a turnpike trust.

John McAdam would eventually develop a new road-building technique that would revolutionize road construction forever. His 'macadamized' roads would prove to be the biggest advancement in road building since the Roman Empire thousands of years before.

8. The Bessemer process that changed steel

Bessemer converter at former ironworks, Hogbo, Sweden. Source: Calle Eklund/V-wolf/Wikimedia Commons

The Bessemer Process was the world's first inexpensive process for mass production of steel from molten pig iron. This would also prove to be one of the greatest inventions of the Industrial Revolution.

It is noted for its removal of impurities from the iron via oxidation as air is blown through the molten metal. Oxidation also helps raise the temperature of the iron mass to keep it molten for longer. The process is named after its inventor Henry Bessemer who patented the technique in 1856.

The ability to mass-produce high-quality steel and iron allowed a literal boom in the use of them in many other aspects of the revolution. Iron and steel suddenly became essential materials and would be used to make almost everything from appliances to tools, machines, ships, buildings, and infrastructure.

9. The first modern Battery by Volta

Volta's electric battery in Como, Italy, Source: GuidoB/Wikimedia Commons

Although there is evidence of early batteries from the Parthian Empire around 2,000 years ago, the first true modern electric battery was invented in 1800. This world-first was the brainchild of one Alessandro Volta with the development of his voltaic pile.

Mass production of the world's first battery began in 1802 by William Cruickshank.

The first rechargeable battery was invented in 1859 by the French physician Gaston Plante. Later advancements would lead to the Nickel-Cadmium battery being developed in 1899 by Waldemar Jungner.

Volta's initial invention literally sparked a great amount of scientific excitement around the world which would lead to the eventual development of the field of electrochemistry.

10. The Locomotive revolution

Replica of the "Rocket", Nuremberg Museum, Germany, Source: Urmelbeauftragter/Wikimedia Commons

The invention of the steam engine would eventually lead to a revolution in transportation around the globe. Locomotives allowed large-scale movement of resources and people over long distances.

Previously the industry relied on man -and animal-powered wagons and carts. These were common all over Europe and were commonly associated with mining and agriculture.

RELATED: INVENTIONS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 4.0

After the pioneering work, Richard Trevithick in 1804 and of George Stephenson and his "Rocket" train networks would begin to spring up all over the United Kingdom and eventually the world.

The first public railway opened in 1825 between Stockton and Darlington in England, UK. This would be the first of many railways and locomotives that would revolutionize the way business and private citizens transport their goods and themselves around.

11. The first factory opened by Lombe

Lombe's Manufactory/Mill, Derby circa 1770, Source: ClemRutter/Wikimedia Commons

One of, if not the first documented factory was opened by John Lombe in Derby around 1721. Lombe's factory used water power to help the factory mass produce silk products.

The factory was built on an island on the River Derwent in the English county of Derby. The idea for the factory came to Lombe after he had toured Italy looking at silk throwing machines.

On his return to the UK, he employed the services of the architect George Sorocold to design and build his new "Factory". Once completed the mill, at its height, employed around 300 people.

On its completion it was the first successful silk throwing mill in England and, it is believed, the first fully mechanized factory in the world. Lombe was granted a 14-year patent for his throwing machines only to die mysteriously in 1722. His death has been attributed to the King of Sardinia, who reacted badly to the commercialization of silk production in the UK.

12. The Power Loom, overtaking all UK factories

Source: Fumihiro Kato/Wikimedia Commons

The invention of the Power Loom effectively increased the output of a worker by over a factor of 40. It was one of the most important inventions of the Industrial Revolution.

It was introduced in 1784 by Edmund Cartwright who built the very first working machine in 1785. Over the next 47 years, the Power Loom was refined until it was made completely automated by Kenworthy and Bullough.

By 1850 there were around 260,000 Power Looms installed in factories all over the United Kingdom.

Cartwright's power loom was first licensed by Grimshaw of Manchester who built a small steam-powered weaving factory in 1790. Sadly this soon burnt down. Initially, his looms were not a commercial success as they needed to be stopped to dress the warp.

This was soon addressed over the next few decades as he modified the design into a more reliable automated machine.

13. Arkwright's Water Frame spinning machine

A working example of Arkwright's water frame, Helmshore Mills Textile Museum, Source: ClemRutter/Wikimedia Commons

Richard Arkwright was a barber and wig maker who managed to devise a machine that could spin cotton fibers into yarn or thread very quickly and easily. In 1760 he and John Kay managed to produce a working machine. This prototype could spin four strands of cotton at the same time.

He would later patent his design in 1769. Further refinement of his design would ultimately allow the machine to spin 100's of strands at one time.

The spinning machine would go on to be installed in mills around Derbyshire and Lancashire where they were powered by waterwheels hence they were called water frames. Arkwright's machines alleviated the need for highly skilled operators adding significant cost savings to mills that installed them.

14. The Spinning Mule: the yarn game-changer

Spinning Mule at Quarry Bank Mill, Source: Black Stripe/Wikimedia Commons

The Spinning Mule combines features of two earlier Industrial Revolution inventions: the Spinning Jenny and the above-mentioned Water Frame. The Mule managed to produce a strong, fine, and soft yarn that could be used in many kinds of textiles.

It was, however, best suited for the production of muslins. The Mule was devised by Samuel Crompton in 1775 who was too poor to actually patent his invention and so sold it to a Bolton manufacturer. The very first Mules were hand-operated but by the 1790s larger versions were driven by steam engines. These larger machines had as many as 400 spindles.

The Spinning Mule would become a very popular machine indeed and was installed in a large number of factories but as he had relinquished his rights to the machine, Crompton would see none of the proceeds from the sales.

15. Henry Cort's puddling process

Source: Helix84/Wikimedia Commons

In 1784, Henry Cort succeeded in developing a method of converting pig iron into wrought iron by heating it and frequently stirring it in the presence of oxidizing substances. It was, at the time, the first method that allowed wrought iron to be produced on a large scale.

Henry had managed to save a large amount of capital during his 10-year service in the Royal Navy. With this money had bought an ironworks near Portsmouth in 1775.

By 1783 he managed to obtain a patent for grooved rollers that would allow him to produce iron bars more quickly than the old method of hammering.

His puddling process would take the iron industry by storm and over the following 20-years, British iron production quadrupled!

16. Gaslighting, lighting the streets of the modern world

Source: Chris Allen/Geograph.org.uk

Commercial gas lighting was first developed and introduced in 1792 by William Murdoch. These early gas lights used coal gas which was installed as the lighting in his house in Redruth, Cornwall.

Over a decade later German inventor Freidrich Winzer became the first person to patent the use of coal gas for lighting in 1804. A thermo-lamp was also developed in 1799 using gas distilled from wood and David Melville received the first patent in the U.S. for gas lighting in 1810.

After its development, gas lighting became the method of street lighting across the United States and Europe. These would eventually be replaced with low-pressure sodium or high-pressure mercury lighting in the 1930s.

17. 2,000 cells to create the first Arc Lamp

Davy's Arc Lamp and battery, Source: Chetvorno/Wikimedia Commons

Sir Humphrey Davy was able to build the world's first arc lamp in 1807. His device used a battery of 2,000 cells to create a 100mm arc between two charcoal sticks.

As impressive as his initial success as it was not a practical piece of equipment until the development of electrical generators in the 1870s. Arc lamps are still in use today in applications like searchlights, large film projectors, and floodlights.

The term is usually limited to lamps with an air gap between consumable carbon electrodes. but fluorescent and other electric discharge lamps generate light from arcs in gas-filled tubes. Also, some ultraviolet lamps are of the arc type.

18. The Tin Can, jumping to new production heights

Source: Chris Potter/Wikimedia Commons

The humble tin can was patented by a British merchant Peter Durand in 1810. It would have an incalculable impact on food preservation and transportation right up to the present day.

John Hall and Bryan Dorkin would open the very first commercial canning factory in England in 1813. In 1846, Henry Evans invented the machine that can manufacture tin cans at a rate of sixty per hour.

This was a significant increase over the previous rate of only six per hour.

The very first tin cans had very thick walls and needed to be opened using a hammer. Over time they became thinner enabling the later invention of a dedicated can opener in 1858.

It took the American Civil War to inspire the creation of tin cans with a key can opener as can still be found on sardine cans.

19. Spectrometer, or how we studied glowing objects

Joseph von Fraunhofer demonstrating the spectroscope. Source: Richard Wimmer/Wikimedia Commons

In 1814, a German inventor, Joseph von Fraunhofer invented the spectrometer. His early device was devised to enable the chemical analysis of glowing objects.

Little did Joseph know the full impact his invention would have on the scientific world. We owe the fact that we know what the Sun is made of thanks to Fraunhofer.

Thanks to Fraunhofer’s contributions, Bavaria overtook England as the leader in optics research. He invented the spectroscope in 1814.

In fact, his discoveries earned him a knighthood in 1824, two years before his death. Like all glassmakers of the time, he died early because of heavy metal poisoning.

20. Camera Obscura: The first photograph

World's first photograph by Joseph Niepce, Source: Joanjoc~commonswiki/Wikimedia Commons

Beginning in 1814, Joseph Nicéphore Niépce started a journey of discovery that would eventually lead him to become the first person to ever take a photograph. He would eventually do this using his new-fangled camera obscura that was set up in the windows of his home in France.

The entire exposure took around 8 hours to capture the image.

Joseph constructed his first camera in around 1816 which allowed him to create an image on white paper. But he was unable to fix it.

He would continue his experimentation using different cameras and chemical combinations for the next 10 years or so.

In 1827 he successfully produced the first, long-lasting image using a plate coated with bitumen. This was then washed in a solvent and placed over a box of iodine to produce a plate with light and dark qualities.

21. The first Electromagnet findings

Sturgeon's electromagnet, Source: Chetvorno/Wikimedia Commons

The electromagnet was the culmination of a series of developments from Hans Christian Oersted, Andre-Marie Ampere, and Dominique Francois Jean Arago made their critical discoveries on electromagnetism.

One man, William Sturgeon, would take the findings of these great scientists and build on them to build the world's first electromagnet.

He found that leaving some iron inside a coil of wire would vastly increase the magnetic field created. He also realized that by bending the iron into a u-shape allowed the poles to come closer together, thereby concentrating the field lines.

His design was improved upon by Joseph Henry who built, in 1832, a very strong electromagnet that was able to lift 1630 kgs.

22. The Mackintosh Raincoat

The Mackintosh, Circa 1893, Source: Cbaile19 /Wikimedia Commons

Perhaps one of the most useful of all inventions during the Industrial Revolution was when, in 1823, Charles Mackintosh devised the Mackintosh. Prior to his invention clothing was waterproofed by using a coating of rubber.

But rubber would become sticky and tacky during hot weather and extremely stiff during winter months. Charles, a Scottish Chemist, successfully cured this problem and patented a new method of using rubber to waterproof clothing.

Initially, he created his new waterproof clothing at his family's textile factory. By 1843, Mackintosh had begun mass production of their clothes and merged with a larger clothing manufacturing company.

His method of waterproofing is known to us today as vulcanization. This process allowed the rubber to maintain its shape and not become sticky during hot weather like natural rubber.

Mackintosh's design also placed the rubber covering inside two pieces of fabric rather than covering one.

23. Modern Friction Matches made possible with wood

Source: Jef-Infojef/Wikimedia Commons

In 1826, John Walker gave the world the first modern matches. Early attempts were made to make a match that produced ignition through friction by Francois Derosne in 1816.

These were, however, crude and used sulfur tipped match to scrape inside a tube coated with phosphorus. This was both inconvenient and unsafe. Waker was a Chemist and druggist from Stockton-on-Tees who developed a keen interest in trying to make fire as easily as possible.

Chemical combinations were known that provided sudden ignition but hadn't been finalized as a means of transmitting the flame to a slow-burning material like wood.

When, quite by accident, a prepared match ignited by accident from friction on the hearth he at once knew he had found the answer. He immediately set about producing wooden splints or sticks of cardboard and coating them with sulfur.

He then added a tip with a mixture of a sulfide of antimony, chlorate of potash, and gum. Camphor was added later to mask the smell of the sulfur once ignited.

24. Every great writer's companion, the Typewriter

Burt's Typographer, Source: Flickr/Wikimedia Commons

It is widely accepted that in 1829, William Austin Burt patented the "first typewriter" which he termed a "Typographer". There were earlier machines similar in purpose, a notable example being Henry Mill's 1714 patent, but it appears to have never been capitalized upon.

The Science Museum in London describes Burt's machine as "the first writing mechanism whose invention was documented". Despite its apparent breaking of new ground, contemporary sources indicated that even when used by Burt the machine was slower than handwriting.

This was because the typographer needed to use a dial rather than keys to select each character.

This lack of efficiency improvement over handwriting ultimately sealed Burt's machine's doom. Both he and its promoter John D. Sheldon never found a buyer for the patent.

The modern typewriter would ultimately be invented in 1867 by Christopher Sholes.

25. The Dynamo/Electrical generator powered by the Faraday principle

Hippolyte Pixii's Dynamo, Source: DMahalko/Wikimedia Commons

Here's another great invention of the Industrial Revolution. The basic principles of electromagnetic generators were discovered in the early 1830s by Michael Faraday.

Faraday noted that the electromotive force is generated when an electrical conductor encircles a varying magnetic flux. This would later become known as Faraday's Law.

Michael also built the first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday Disk. This was a type of homopolar generator that used a copper disc that rotated between the poles of a horseshoe magnet.

The first true dynamo, based on Faraday's principle, was built in 1832 by Hippolyte Pixii, a French instrument maker. His device used a permanent magnet that was rotated using a crank.

26. Blueprints from Herschel and Poitevin

Source: Adrian Michael/Wikimedia Commons

John Herschel, a British scientist, and inventor succeeded in developing the process that was the direct precursor to what we now know as blueprints. John made improvements in photographic processes, particularly in inventing the cyanotype process and variations (such as the chrysotype), the precursors of the modern blueprint process in around 1839.

This process enabled the production of a photograph on glass, he also experimented with some color reproduction. It is also believed that he coined the term photography.

It wasn't until 1861 that 'true' blueprints were developed by Alphonse Louis Poitevin, A French Chemist. He found that Ferro-gallate in gum is actually light-sensitive.

When exposed to light it turns into an insoluble permanent blue. He successfully postulated that a coating of this on paper or other material could be used to copy an image from another translucent document.

Who would have thought that this was one of the inventions of the Industrial Revolution?

27. The Hydrogen Fuel Cell

Grove's 1842 sketch of a Fuel, Source: Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy/Wikimedia

The Hydrogen Fuel Cell was first documented in 1838 in a letter published in the December edition of The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science.

The piece was written by a Welsh physicist and barrister William Grove. In it, he described his development of a crude fuel cell that combined sheet iron, copper and porcelain plates and a solution of sulfate of copper and dilute acid.

In the same publication published a year later a German physicist Christain Freidrich Schonbein also discussed his crude fuel cell that he believed he had invented. His letter described how current was generated using hydrogen and oxygen dissolved in water.

Grove sketched his design later in 1842, once again, for the same journal. Both of these used similar materials to days phosphoric acid fuel cells.

28. Dynamite was another child of the Industrial Revolution

Source: Cbyd/Wikimedia Commons

Dynamite is yet another invention that can trace its origins to the Industrial Revolution. This highly-explosive combination of nitroglycerin, sorbents, and stabilizers was first invented by the Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel.

It was one of the world's first safe manageable explosives. Nobel was apparently inspired by his father's work as an industrialist, engineer, and inventor who helped build bridges and other structures.

His father, Immanuel Nobel, spent many years trying to find a safer, more effective alternative to black powder but was not successful.

He would later patent it in 1867.

This potent explosive quickly gained wide-scale use around the world as a far more powerful alternative to black powder. Today, dynamite is mainly used in mining, quarrying, construction, and demolition activities.

29. The internal combustion engine was also born during the revolution

Source: CZmarlin/Wikimedia Commons

Yet another invention of the Industrial Revolution is the internal combustion engine (ICE). The technology, like many complex pieces of engineering like an ICE, is the product of a long line of scientists and engineers over time.

But, they were first commercialized in the 1860s by Étienne Lenoir. It would take the work of Nicolaus Otto, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach to produce the first modern ICE in the 1870s - a working, compressed charge, four-cycle engine.

The first liquid-fuel internal combustion engine was invented by George Brayton in the early-1870s. Karl Benz would later produce the first motor vehicles powered by ICEs in the 1880s and Rudolf Diesel would create his revolutionary diesel engine over a decade later.

30. Another invention of the Industrial Revolution is the humble sewing machine

Source: Birmingham Museums Trust/Wikimedia Commons

The sewing machine is also an invention of the Industrial Revolution. In 1755 a German-born engineer called Charles Fredrick Wiesenthal developed an early mechanical device for sewing.

It consisted of a double-pointed needle with an eye at the end. A little later, in the 1790s, an English inventor, Thomas Saint, developed the world's first sewing machine but did not succeed in marketing his invention with any great success.

A little later in the 1820s, the first practical and widely used sewing machine was developed by ed by Barthélemy Thimonnier -- a French tailor. This machine was able to sew straight seams using a chain stitch similar to that developed by Saint decades before.

Years later, Isaac Merritt Singer would produce his first straight stitch sewing machine. The company he would later found, Singer, is now widely considered the Gold standard in sewing machines today.

31. The incandescent light bulb was also developed during the Industrial Revolution

Swan's carbon filament lamps, Source: Ulfbastel/Wikimedia Commons

Yet another invention of the Industrial Revolution that changed the world is the incandescent light bulb. Just like other inventions on this list, like the internal combustion engine, the light bulb is the end product of a long line of inventors throughout history.

One of the lightbulb's major developments was performed by Sir Humphrey Davy in the early-1800s. He was able to produce the world's first true artificial electric light -- the arc light.

Over the next 70 years, or so, the technology would be further refined with another major breakthrough being achieved by Warren de la Rue in the 1840s. He was able to enclose a coil of platinum filament inside a vacuum tube.

It worked, but platinum is far from cheap.

In the 1850s, Joseph Wilson Swan began experimenting with different types of filament to act as a cheaper replacement. He eventually perfected his design in the late-1870s. Around the same time, Thomas Edison also began tinkering with his own design and would eventually lead to the founding of the Edison Electric Light Company.

His designs were so similar to Swan's that Swan actually took Edison to court over copyright infringement. He won and was made a partner in Edison's new company.

32. The modern assembly line was, funnily enough, also a product of the revolution

Source: Siyuwj/Wikimedia Commons

And finally, yet another world-changing invention of the Industrial Revolution was the modern assembly line. This manufacturing process breaks down the assembly process into sections where the final product is sequentially completed along the line.

This helped speed up the manufacturing process considerably and with less manpower than traditionally would have been required. Also termed division of labor, some early forms of it first appeared in China.

But it would take the Industrial Revolution of the modern assembly line to really take form. Great strides were made in the early-1800s by the like of Marc Isambard Brunel (Isambard Kingdom Brunel's father), and at the Bridgewater Foundry.

Interchangeable parts further pushed the process forward in the early-19th century. Steam-powered conveyor belts were also developed in the latter quarter of the 1800s.

But probably the most significant developed was the advent of the moving assembly line. Developed for the Ford Model T and began operation in 1913, at the Highland Park Ford Plant, it continued to evolve after that, using time and motion study.

Today, assembly lines are the core of any factory and are used to assemble anything from automobiles to household consumer goods. Human workers have, for a long time, also been progressively replaced with automated machines and robots, wherever possible.

These 27+ inventions are either still in use today or paved the way for considerable advances in industries around the world. Have we missed any critical inventions?

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By Carmen Nigro, Milstein Division of United States History, Local History and Genealogy, Stephen A. Schwarzman Building

New York is not the only city with tenement buildings, but these particularly crowded multi-family dwellings have had a significant effect on New York City's character and history.

Tenement homes are part of the city's history, architectural look, and sociology, as well as the lifestyles of its current residents. The imprint and influence of the New York tenement are layered upon the city much like the apartments themselves are layered atop each other.

Tenement Defined and Legislated

The Oxford English Dictionary's primary definition of tenement is "a room or a set of rooms forming a separate residence within a house or block of apartments." It's a fairly all-inclusive definition that speaks to the historic definitions of tenement as well as its modern and colloquial connotations, which the dictionary also addresses with this: "a house divided into and rented out as separate residences, especially one that is run-down and overcrowded."
The term itself is legally neutral, but most people-especially in New York City-apply the connotation of run-down and overcrowded when using it.

In New York City, rapid growth and the imposition of the New York City street grid both played major roles in the look, density, and availability of housing for New Yorkers. In A History of Housing in New York City (also in electronic format), author Richard Plunz states "the relationship between housing and social class quickly became institutionalized with exaggerated differences between the upper and lower ends of the social spectrum."
Plunz explains that New York housing problems date back to the mid-19th century, and that "the horrors of the tenement were perfected in New York, but most reform legislation also originated there, as did most housing philanthropy." The legislation appeared as a series of "Tenement House Acts" in 1867, 1879, 1901, and 1919.

A tenement is legally defined in New York by the Tenement House Act of 1867 as "any house, building, or portion thereof, which is rented, leased, let or hired out to be occupied or is occupied, as the home or residence of more than three families living independently of one another and doing their own cooking upon the premises, or by more than two families upon a floor, so living and cooking and having a common right in the halls, stairways, yards, water-closets, or privies, or some of them." This definition applied to much of the available housing of the time, legally classifying those buildings as tenements.

General Timeline and History

Tenements originated from subdivided structures that originally had other purposes, such as single-family homes, with the usually substandard and small living quarters leased to the poor. In the 19th century, the primary housing available to New York's low-income residents were those subdivided buildings and self-built shanties, clustered together in different areas of the city.
New houses were not often built for the poor, and the affluent mostly built single-family homes for themselves. Tenements built specifically for housing the poor originated at some time between 1820 and 1850, and even the new buildings were considered overcrowded and inadequate.

By the end of the Civil War, "tenement" was a term for housing for the urban poor, with well-established connotations for unsafe and unsanitary conditions. With the city's population nearing one million people at the time, there were more than 15,000 tenement buildings in New York City, not yet including the Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens, or Staten Island.
The Manhattan grid allowed for lots measuring 25 feet by 100 feet, and tenements tended to occupy about 90 percent of these lots, allowing little to no room for natural light or air shafts. Buildings that did not occupy the entire lots often had "rear tenements" built into the yards behind them, providing even worse conditions than rooms of the buildings that faced the streets. It was all very dense, very crowded, and unregulated-conditions that fostered disease and inhumane living conditions, which soon caught the eye of reformers.

In 1865, the " Report of the Council of hygiene and public health of the Citizens' Association of New York upon the sanitary condition of the city" (available digitally via Sabin Americana) was published. This thorough analysis of the housing conditions of the time contained extraordinary detail and classified more than 65 percent of the city's population as living in substandard housing conditions.
The report was followed by the city's first comprehensive housing law, the aforementioned Tenement House Act of 1867. The law famously required fire escapes on buildings and windows in each room, but was largely ineffective in improving the lives of tenement dwellers. Additional Tenement House Acts brought more reforms in 1879, 1901, and 1919, with the 1901 law considered a pivotal point. Tenement houses built before were called "old law tenements;" any built after were called "new law tenements." In 1903, the Tenement House Department was finally organized and took over inspection of the tenements from the variety of city departments that previously had to enforce different sections of the laws.

Through the latter half of the 19th century, a variety of commissions, exhibits, and published works pushed the conditions of the tenements into the popular conscience and spurred legislators into enacting reform.
Numerous publications appeared, such asThe tenement house problem, in which statistics, diagrams, photographs, and eyewitness reports were used as persuasive arguments for housing reform. In particular, Jacob Riis' use of photography in How the Other Half Lives was effective in presenting the housing conditions to a wider public. Riis' work can be explored more thoroughly in this anthology of his work on biblioboard, and his papers at the NYPL can also be accessed.
Tenement dwellers were educated about changes to the laws that would affect their housing conditions with publications such as " The tenants' manual; a handbook of information for dwellers in tenement and apartment houses and for settlement and other workers" (also available digitally), which advocated for awareness of sanitation methods, legal matters, and even available recreation opportunities. Social workers and newspapers also helped publicize this information.

The tenement laws were challenged in courts and amendments, and a new "Multiple Dwelling Law" took shape in 1929. The laws regarding apartment housing in New York are currently called the "Multiple Dwelling Law" and are currently in force. From the 1930s to the 1960s, the concept of "Slum Clearance," summarized in this article, was the dominant policy surrounding New York's tenement houses. Slum clearance initiatives often had the backing of federal funding, and, initially, little opposition. By the 1950s, the impact of this policy led to many of the tenement buildings being demolished.

Tenements in Manhattan near the Williamburg Bridge, from photographs taken by NYC Tenement House Department inspectors; NYPL Digital Collections, Image ID: 3984322

Researching New York's Tenement Housing History

The New York Public Library holds multitudes of materials on our city's history. The scope ranges from the built environment to social conditions, from natural history to scientific discovery, and the amount of material available to research a cornerstone issue such as tenement housing is vast.
Our collections, primary and secondary sources, archives and monographs, digital and print, text and visual, are embedded in collections across the research libraries. These tremendous holdings are always available for researchers to access.

Tenements and elevated train tracks, Broadway at 13th St., Manhattan, from photographs taken by NYC Tenement House Department inspectors.

NYPL Digital Collections, Image ID: 3984413

Tenement Conditions Documented in Photographs

Photographs are terrific primary sources and, in the context of tenement house history, are particularly potent because of their use in the reform movement and the slum clearance programs. Some of the Library's digitized tenement photos include:

A rear tenement room in NYC, from photographs concerning labor, housing and social conditions in the United States by Lewis Hine.

NYPL Digital Collections, Image ID: 416558

A collection of photographic negatives taken by inspectors of the New York City Tenement House Department from 1902 to 1914 (just a few are featured in this post). It is comprised of roughly 8,000 glass plate negatives and 249 mounted plates, which were used by the Tenement House Department for exhibition purposes.
The collection includes exterior views of buildings, domestic interiors, backyards, and plumbing and sanitary facilities, as well as images of street scenes and local residents.
The New York Tenement House Department was created in 1901 to enforce new building standards and document safety and health violations in New York City's overcrowded multi-family dwellings. Inspectors, including staff photographers, surveyed and documented the living conditions of the occupants, including information pertaining to light and ventilation, fire safety, sanitation, and interior layout.

A collection gifted to NYPL by the New York City Department of Housing and Buildings in 1942. The original nitrate negatives (4,198 images) were microfilmed on four 35mm reels before being destroyed. A representative selection of images (roughly 1,100 in number) was preserved with interpositives and contact prints.
The collection includes exterior and interior shots of buildings, as well as images of street scenes, storefronts, fire report cards, and various employees of the Tenement House Department. It provides a visual documentation of over one thousand photographs of tenement conditions, and includes some striking images.

Hine was an American sociologist and photographer who used his images as a tool for social reform, documenting conditions of inadequate housing and child labor. Among Hine's wide scope of photographs are some particularly of tenement conditions.

These can be found in the larger collection called Photographic views of New York City, 1870's-1970's

Using Pamphlets as Primary Source Documents

The Library holds a substantial collection of pamphlet volumes, smaller booklets of usually fewer than 50 pages, that have been bound together and contain related subject matter.

Pamphlets were not always collected by libraries, so they can be difficult for researchers to find, and their ephemeral nature means that some are in quite poor condition. But contemporary publications pertaining to tenement reform were frequently distributed as pamphlets, so access to them is valuable to those seeking primary sources. Highlights from the Library's holdings include:

Maps

Those researching housing conditions can use maps to track building by building growth in an area. Maps were also produced by city agencies and reformers to illustrate conditions in ways that text could not convey.

Fire insurance maps give detailed building-specific data for a city. By comparing fire insurance maps of a specific area of the city over time, one can see the changes in development of an area: height of the buildings, how much lot they occupy, from which materials they are constructed, how many are on a block, etc.

Sanitary and social chart of the Fourth Ward of the City of New York, to accompany a report of the 4th Sanitary Inspection District, made to the Council of Hygiene of the Citizens' Association; NYPL Digital Collections, Image ID: 5056960

In the News

The word "tenement" appears in some of our earliest digitized newspapers, in advertisements for rentals and sales.
The ProQuest New York Times (1851-2013) database has more than 106,000 results for the word "tenement," which included reporting on the Health Officer's account to the Common Council about increases of deaths in the city, and how some of those increases could be attributed to overcrowded dwellings and the rental of cellars as housing.

Additional digitized historical newspapers can be found on the Library's database menu.

New York Times article dated Jan 21, 1852

In the Archives

How the Other Half Lives, page 1, from the Jacob Riis papers.

NYPL Digital Collections, Image ID: 1654566

In addition to the Jacob Riis papers, other collections in the Library's Manuscripts and Archives Division provide powerful primary source documentation of tenement building and the housing reform movement in New York.

Among the useful materials:

Tenement House Building Company minutes

Letters written for the New York Tenement House Commission that are part of the Richard Watson Gilder papers

People's Institute records, featuring the work of Charles Sprague Smith, to teach the theory and practice of government and social philosophy to workers and recent immigrants in New York City. It sponsored lectures, classes, concerts, and other community activities principally on Manhattan's Lower East Side.

Lillian D. Wald papers; Wald was a public health nurse and social worker on New York City's Lower East Side, a pioneer in American social work and public health

The American Institute of Social Service Exhibition, Photographs exhibition of American social conditions in 1900s, which show the character of tenements and other buildings

Committee for Slum Clearance, 1954-1959, part of the Robert Moses papers.

Modern influence

In many ways, New York City remains defined by its density, a characteristic brought about by compact living. Slum clearance policies did not eliminate tenements from New York-the buildings still populate our blocks in various states of repair and are still homes for thousands of New Yorkers.

The Tenement Museum is a powerful public history example of the influence and impact of New York's tenement housing. It has been a significant catalyst for researchers, who have produced a number of scholarly works and other publications including the museum's own newspaper, The Tenement Times.

Tenement Museum Reading List:

Eighth Avenue and 46th Street, 1997, from the Bill Barvin Location Photograph Archive; NYPL Digital Collections, Image ID: 5210097

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Tenement Homes: The Outsized Legacy of New York's Notoriously Cramped Apartments | The New York Public Library

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The influence of the New York City tenement is layered upon the city much like the apartments themselves are layered atop each other.

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Child Labor - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com

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Find out more about the history of Child Labor, including videos, interesting articles, pictures, historical features and more. Get all the facts on HISTORY.com

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The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire | History

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Monopolies that dominated public services, or used services and obstructed the free flow pricing mechanism were considered bad monopolies. New laws were put forth to stop firms that were bad monopolies, while encouraging firms that were good. The firms that were bad monopolies included the railroad holding companies. Roosevelt knew that the only way to put them in line was to shield businesses from trade unions. Back then, military power was used to disperse the striking mobs. Roosevelt brought an end to this practice.

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It is said that it was Theodore Roosevelt's Square Deal that helped him win the 1904 election against Democrat Alton Parker. So what was this Square Deal all about, and how did it bring about a change in the United States?

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U.S. War Department authorizes Chemical Warfare Service

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How long did World War I last? Who fought whom? Journey through the story of the Great War with our Interactive WWI Timeline, covering the world events of 1914‑1920.

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December 24, 2017
On a frosty, starlit night, a miracle took place. In 1914, a melody drifted over the darkness of No Man's Land. First "O, Holy Night," then "God Save the King."

Peeking over their trenches for what must have been the first time in weeks, British soldiers were surprised to see Christmas trees lit with candles on the parapets of the enemy's trenches.

Then a shout: "You no shoot, we no shoot!"
Listen to this story on "Retropod": For more forgotten stories from history, listen online or subscribe: Apple Podcasts | Google Podcasts | Stitcher | More options
The Christmas Truce was a brief, spontaneous cease-fire that spread up and down the Western Front in the first year of World War I. It's also a symbol of the peace on Earth and goodwill toward humans so often lacking not just on the battlefront but in our everyday lives.

In that spirit, the National World War I Museum and Memorial in Kansas City has published an online gallery of hundreds of accounts of such Christmas truces - letters home from soldiers that were published in British papers.
[A lost battalion. A war hero. And a heartbreaking suicide.]
Here, a sampling of these letters shows the variety and wonder of the Christmas Truce:

"This has been the most wonderful Christmas I have ever struck. We were in the trenches on Christmas Eve, and about 8.30 the firing was almost at a stand still. Then the Germans started shouting across to us, 'a happy Christmas' and commenced putting up lots of Christmas trees with hundreds of candles on the parapets of their trenches." - Cpl. Leon Harris, 13th Battalion, London Regiment (Kensington)

"At 2 am on Christmas morning a German band played a couple of German tunes and then 'Home, Sweet Home' very touchingly which made some fellows think a bit. After they played 'God Save The King' and we all cheered." - Pvt. H. Dixon, Royal Warwickshire Regiment

"We would sing a song or a carol first and then they would sing one and I tell you they can harmonise all right." - Pvt. G. Layton, A Company, 1st Royal Warwickshire Regiment

"Half-way they were met by four Germans, who said they would not shoot on Christmas Day if we did not. They gave our fellows cigars and a bottle of wine and were given a cake and cigarettes. When they came back I went out with some more of our fellows and we were met by about 30 Germans, who seemed to be very nice fellows. I got one of them to write his name and address on a postcard as a souvenir. All through the night we sang carols to them and they sang to us and one played 'God Save the King' on a mouth organ." - Rifleman C.H. Brazier, Queen's Westminsters of Bishop's Stortford

"We soon came up to them. About 30 could speak English. One fellow wanted a letter posted to his sweetheart in London." - Gunner Masterton

"Between the trenches there were a lot of dead Germans whom we helped to bury. In one place where the trenches are only 25 yards apart we could see dead Germans half-buried, their legs and gloved hands sticking out of the ground. The trenches in this position are so close that they are called 'The Death Trap', as hundreds have been killed there." - A junior officer
[How a painting of George Washington crossing the Delaware on Christmas went 19th-century viral]
"On Christmas Day we were out of the trenches along with the Germans, some of whom had a song and dance, while two of our platoons had a game of football. It was surprising to see the German soldiers - some appeared old, others were boys, and others wore glasses . . . A number of our fellows have got addresses from the Germans and are going to try and meet one another after the war." - Pvt. Farnden, Rifle Brigade

"On our right was a regiment of Prussian Guards and on our left was a Saxon regiment. On Christmas morning some of our fellows shouted across to them saying that if they would not fire our chaps would meet them half-way between the trenches and spend Christmas as friends. They consented to do so. Our chaps at once went out and when in the open Prussians fired on our men killing two and wounding several more. The Saxons, who behaved like gentlemen, threatened the Prussians if they did the same trick again. Well, during Christmas Day our fellows and the Saxons fixed up a table between the two trenches and they spent a happy time together, and exchanged souvenirs and presented one another with little keepsakes." - A British soldier

"One of our men was given a bottle of wine in which to drink the King's health. The regiment actually had a football match with the Germans who beat them 3-2." - A British officer

"You said I should probably hardly know it was Christmas Day, but far from it; we had a most extraordinary day and quite different from others. . . . Lots of English and Germans met between the two lines and had talks . . . there were bicycle races on bikes without tyres found in the ruins of the house." - A British officer

"A hundred yards or so in the rear of our trenches there were houses that had been shelled. These were explored with some of the regulars and we found old bicycles, top-hats, straw hats, umbrellas etc. We dressed ourselves up in these and went over to the Germans. It seemed so comical to see fellows walking about in top-hats and with umbrellas up. Some rode the bicycles backwards. We had some fine sport and made the Germans laugh." - Brazier

"I daresay you will be surprised at me writing a letter on such paper as this, but you will be more surprised when I tell you that it contained cake given to one of our men by a German officer on Christmas Day, and that I was given some of it . . . We were able to bury our dead, some of whom had been lying there for six weeks or more. We are still on speaking terms with them, so that we have not fired a shot at them up to now (Dec. 29), neither have they, so that the snipers on each side have had a rest." - Pvt. Alfred Smith, 1st Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment

"Really you would hardly have thought we were at war. Here we were, enemy talking to enemy. They like ourselves with mothers, with sweethearts, with wives waiting to welcome us home again. And to think within a few hours we shall be firing at each other again." - Masterson
Read more Retropolis: Gen. George Patton's wife put a Hawaiian curse on his ex-mistress. She was dead within days. The Harlem Hellfighters were captured in a famous photo. Now a retired archivist has uncovered their stories. A young photographer took this harrowing image of the Vietnam War. He didn't live to see it published. As a vote on entering World War I approached, the only woman in Congress faced an agonizing choice They were smoke jumpers when the CIA sent them to Laos. They came back in caskets. The savage fight for Guadalcanal: Jungle, crocodiles and snipers during World War II

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The Christmas Truce miracle: Soldiers put down their guns to sing carols and drink wine

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December 24, 2017 On a frosty, starlit night, a miracle took place. In 1914, a melody drifted over the darkness of No Man's Land. First "O, Holy Night," then "God Save the King." Peeking over their trenches for what must have been the first time in weeks, British soldiers were surprised to see Christmas trees lit with candles on the parapets of the enemy's trenches.

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Newsela | Ida Tarbell: The woman who dared to take on the rich oil tycoon

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Standard Oil was no match for a determined Ida Tarbell.

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It is perhaps not so surprising to hear that the problem of "fake news" - media outlets adopting sensationalism to the point of fantasy - is nothing new. Although, as Robert Darnton explained in the NYRB recently, the peddling of public lies for political gain (or simply financial profit) can be found in most periods of history dating back to antiquity, it is in the late 19th-century phenomenon of "Yellow Journalism" that it first seems to reach the widespread outcry and fever pitch of scandal familiar today. Why yellow? The reasons are not totally clear. Some sources point to the yellow ink the publications would sometimes use, though it more likely stems from the popular Yellow Kid cartoon that first ran in Joseph Pulitzer's New York World, and later William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal, the two newspapers engaged in the circulation war at the heart of the furore.

Although these days his name is somewhat synonymous with journalism of the highest standards, through association with the Pulitzer Prize established by provisions in his will, Joseph Pulitzer had a very different reputation while alive. After purchasing The New York World in 1884 and rapidly increasing circulation through the publication of sensationalist stories he earned the dubious honour of being the pioneer of tabloid journalism. He soon had a competitor in the field when his rival William Randolph Hearst acquired the The New York Journal in 1885 (originally begun by Joseph's brother Albert). The rivalry was fierce, each trying to out do each other with ever more sensational and salacious stories. At a meeting of prominent journalists in 1889 Florida Daily Citizen editor Lorettus Metcalf claimed that due to their competition "the evil grew until publishers all over the country began to think that perhaps at heart the public might really prefer vulgarity".

The phenomenon can be seen to reach its most rampant heights, and most exemplary period, in the lead up to the Spanish-American War - a conflict that some dubbed " The Journal's War" due to Hearst's immense influence in stoking the fires of anti-Spanish sentiment in the U.S. Much of the coverage by both The New York World and The New York Journal was tainted by unsubstantiated claims, sensationalist propaganda, and outright factual errors. When the USS Maine exploded and sank in Havana Harbor on the evening of 15 February 1898, huge headlines in the Journal blamed Spain with no evidence at all. The phrase, "remember the Maine, to Hell with Spain", became a populist rousing call to action. The Spanish-American War began later that year.

As we've witnessed over recent weeks, from certain mouths the use of the term "fake news" has strayed from simply describing factually incorrect reporting. Likewise would those in power paste the label of "yellow journalism" on factually correct reporting which didn't quite paint the picture they'd like? Yes, indeed. As Timeline reports, in 1925 a certain Benito Mussolini derided reports of his ill health as being lies by the "yellow press", saying the papers were "ready to stop at nothing to increase circulation and to make more money". The reports, however, turned out to be factually accurate. He'd go onto rule the country for another eighteen years.

Featured below are a selection of illustrations from the wonderful Puck magazine commenting on the phenomenon, all found in the collection of the Library of Congress.

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Yellow Journalism: The "Fake News" of the 19th Century

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It is perhaps not so surprising to hear that the problem of "fake news" - media outlets adopting sensationalism to the point of fantasy - is nothing new.

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The Spanish-American War was a brief conflict between Spain and America occurring on April-July of 1898. This war was credited to the ending of Spain's worldwide empire and the gain of several new territories or "possessions" in the Caribbean and the Pacific for the U.S. The Spanish-American war was indirectly caused by Yellow Journalism.

In 1898, the newspapers provided the news for the public. At the time it was common for the editors to change the stories. This meant the papers reported the editor's interpretation of the news and not an objective stand point. This meant that the editors were able to affect the public opinion. The editor's then started to use the newspapers for their own personal gain. This is what is called yellow journalism which is indirectly the reason for the Spanish-American War. This is not to say however that the editors of the newspapers wanted a war just for the sake of it. The newspapers editor's wanted a war because it would mean that more of the public would want to know what is happening and therefore they would buy more newspapers. So the editor's newspapers had a drastic effect on the public opinion which the led to America going to war. (Yellow Journalism), (The "Yellow Fever" of Journalism)
One of the reasons that Yellow Journalism had such a large effect of the public was how it was organized. A big characteristic of yellow journalism was having scare headlines in huge print. The papers would put an event that would easily be able to gain the attention of the readers and would word the headline to create a reaction with the reader which would make them want to read more. The general public had no idea that what they were reading was untrue so they grew angry and started clamoring to go to war with Spain. An example of the newspapers using this tactic was when the New York Journal posted a paper which headlines read: CRISIS AT HAND cabinet in session, growing belief in SPANISH TREACHERY. The paper specifically put parts of the sentence in capitals so that someone who was just scanning the paper would get two lines, 1: CRISIS AT HAND and 2: SPANISH TREACHERY. This strategy had a large part in causing the Spanish-American war because of the affect that it had on the public. (The Spanish-American War)
Besides the title and front page format Newspapers were able to affect the public opinion in other ways. By having photos that showed terrible scenes such as the concentration camp in Cuba where they held the rebels to control the population were able to generate a lot of bad feelings toward Spain and started to convince America's public that they should go to war. The picture that had the biggest affect and really pushed America to go to war with Spain was the picture of the Maine gun boat being blown up. However it wasn't just the picture that set America's general public off but the caption and who they said was to blame. When The World (which was a newspaper at the time) came out with the article the caption read that the Maine explosion was not an accident it was actually the work of the Spanish. We now know that it was a problem with the ship itself however the newspaper still put this in there article with no real evidence to back their claim which a large part of what yellow journalism is. (Wikipedia for the photo) (The Spanish American War)
The Spanish-American war was mainly caused by the general public clamoring to go to war with Spain. However it was Yellow journalism that affected the opinions of the American people. By having large captions that weren't always truthful they were able to capture the public eye and then changed the public's view of Spain with picture and captions similar to propaganda against Spain. A quote that sums up yellow journalism and the part it played in the Spanish-American war is " You furnish the pictures and I'll furnish the war." by William Randolph Hearst.

Bibliography:
· http://library.thinkquest.org/C0111500/spanamer/yellow.htm
· http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_journalism#Origins:_Pulitzer_vs._Hearst
· http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/spring04/vance/yellowjournalism.html
· http://alt.tnt.tv/movies/tntoriginals/roughriders/war.home.html
· http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=%2byellow+journalism+headlines#focal=194543afbae851a6c705d896159a92af&furl=http%3A%2F%2Fupload.wikimedia.org%2Fwikipedia%2Fcommons%2Fe%2Fe8%2FWorld98.jpg
· http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaganda_of_the_Spanish%E2%80%93American_War
· http://www.smplanet.com/imperialism/remember.html

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Yellow Journalism: The Cause of the Spanish-American war? - The Quibbler

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The Spanish-American War was a brief conflict between Spain and America occurring on April-July of 1898. This war was credited to the ending of Spain's worldwide empire and the gain of several new territories or "possessions" in the Caribbean and the Pacific for the U.S. The Spanish-American war was indirectly caused by Yellow Journalism.