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In your groups, look through the links given to you. Using those information, summarise the relevant information pertaining to risks and benefits of living in volcanic areas according to the following format:
Point (P) :
Elaboration (E):
Example (E):
Link (L):

You have 15 minutes to do so.

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P: Destruction by volcanic material
E: Ejected lava and pyroclastic flows during an eruption are of high temperatures, ranging from 500°C to 1400°C. Heated lava burns the area it flows through.
E: Volcanic bombs of heated rocks destroyed many homes and highways during the eruption of Kilauea in Hawaii.
L: Volcanic materials are dangerous as it can destroy buildings and infrastructure, as well as cause injury to those living nearby.

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AirGO | Better than anti pollution masks

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Causes of Volcanic Eruptions

Movement of tectonic plates: whether it is because one is pushed under another one or two tectonic plates are moved away from each other, this creates a massive movement on the layers of planet earth (changing the structures of magma, sediments and seawater) and cause a volcano to erupt.

Decreasing temperatures: the volume of magma changes when it crystalizes, so it can push away liquid magma and create a volcanic eruption.

Decrease in external pressure: this fact provokes an increase in the internal pressure of the volcano and causes and eruption if it is not capable of holding back the lava.

Buoyancy of the magma: if the density of the magma between the zone of its generation and the surface is less than that of the surrounding and overlying rocks, the magma reaches the surface and erupts.

Pressure from the exsolved gases: andesitic and rhyolitic magma compositions contain dissolved volatiles (gases) such as water, sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide. This gas bubbles are held by magma, but just like a carbonated drink, the bubbles of gas rise to the surface of the magma chamber creating a volcanic eruption.

Injection of a new batch of magma into an already filled magma chamber: this phenomenon causes some magma to move up and spill or even erupt at the surface.

Effects of Volcanic Eruptions

Negative effects: volcanic eruptions, which sometimes generate earthquakes, can destroy landscapes, natural resources, wildlife and human lives and their properties. This phenomenon can also discharge ashes very high into the atmosphere, having negative consequences on the ozone layer. Moreover, ash and mud can mix with rain and melting snow and create situations like lahars (also called mudflows) or acid rain. In other words, volcanic eruptions can destroy civilizations, like what happened to Pompeii.

Positive Effects: sometimes eruptions can leave an extraordinary beautiful and natural scenery, attacking tourists to the area. However, one of the most useful positive effects is that they often leave potential for geothermal energy, making life more easy for those around the area. Finally, some volcanic eruptions provide valuable nutrients for the soil, which are later used as fertile soils for agriculture.

Types of Volcanic Eruptions

Air Pollution of Volcanic Eruptions

Every volcanic eruption is different on impact, and therefore different on the quantity and a variety of pollutants emitted. On average the outgassed composition release is 79% water vapor (H 2 O), 11,6% carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), 6,5% sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) and 2,9% of other pollutants.

However, the range of pollutants released on a volcanic eruption include: carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ), hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), hydrogen (H₂), hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrogen chloride (HCl), bromide oxide (BrO) and carbon monoxide (CO). Highly exposure to these gases has detrimental impact on living organisms both terrestrial and marine.

What to do before, during and after a Volcanic Eruption

Before a Volcanic Eruption

There are several precautions you have to take into account before a volcanic eruption, and it is good to discuss them with your family members (including kids) before the event to prevent nerves and panic.

The first step is to have a household evacuation plan (that includes your pets). If you need guidance creating one you can find all you need to know and some templates .

Secondly, as during the volcanic eruption you might lose electric supply, you need to have a flashlight, a battery radio and extra batteries for both. It is important to keep yourself up to date. We will write about it below, but during the previous days stay informed about the governmental media, community's risk and response plans.

During a Volcanic Eruption

After a Volcanic Eruption

If you pass a volcanic eruption you will surely never forget it. There are some tips you should take into account to return to normality as soon as possible.

Emotional recovery can be difficult because you may see some astonishing images and receive some terrible news. Here is a to help you with this recovery.

Once you get there, take pictures of the damages caused by the volcano for insurance purposes. The next step is to start cleaning your house from ashes and other volcanic materia, starting by the roof and gutters, which can cause your house to collapse. To help you with this task, read the following for proper guidance.

Last Volcanic Eruption

Here comes an interesting fact about volcanic eruptions: any time there are several volcanoes on an eruption process. Volcanic activity is much more powerful and regular than we usually think. To know what volcanoes are erupting today, click the following .

Largest Volcanic Eruption

World's history has seen some supervolcano eruptions, often called big bangs on the earth, and science explains that these major catastrophes occurred before human life was born.

In the last 10.000 years there haven't been any VEI-8 volcanic eruptions, luckily for us, but on the following list we name some of the most recent major volcanic eruptions:

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Natural causes of air pollution: Volcanic Eruptions | AirGO

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Movement of tectonic plates: whether it is because one is pushed under another one or two tectonic plates are moved away from each other, this creates a massive movement on the layers of planet earth (changing the structures of magma, sediments and seawater) and cause a volcano to erupt.

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Volcanoes do more than pollute the air. In fact, volcanic activity may actually benefit the environment in some cases. While carbon dioxide gases from volcanoes join other carbon emissions in the atmosphere and contribute to global warming, the sulfur dioxide released by volcanoes can actually reverse this effect.

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Today, ongoing excavations of once-booming Pompeii offer the best look anywhere at ancient Roman life. Back then, Rome controlled the entire Mediterranean Sea and Pompeii was an important, big port town. Not rich, not poor, Pompeii was middle class. And because it was a port, it was a sailor's quarter, with lots of bars, public baths, brothels, restaurants and places of entertainment.

The best way to understand Pompeii is to walk the site; the entry fee is $15 (for a free audio tour of the site, see www.ricksteves.com/audioeurope). In good Roman style, the city was well organized, contained by its walls with a grid street plan. Back in antiquity, most of Pompeii's streets would have been lined with stalls and jammed with customers from sunup to sundown. Chariots vied with shoppers for street space.

There were no posh neighborhoods in Pompeii. The well-off and not-so-well-off mixed it up as elegant houses existed side by side with simpler homes. Pompeii's best-preserved dwelling is the House of the Vetti, the home of a wealthy merchant.

If it's open, step into its atrium for a peek at the typical layout of a mansion. Richly frescoed entertainment rooms ring the central courtyard, where a formal garden surrounds a pool with water, meant to bring a feeling of freshness.

One of Pompeii's most impressive aspects is how abundant water was. In this well-plumbed city, lead pipes funneled water from an aqueduct-fed reservoir at the high end of town directly to neighborhood water tanks.

With the tanks installed just below the level of the reservoir, gravity did the work - and ensured good water pressure. Fountains provided a social center at street intersections, and a steady stream of water flushed the chariot-rutted streets clean. Pompeii's citizens enjoyed relaxing at its impressive public baths.

For archaeologists, Pompeii was a shake-and-bake windfall. They first got to work at the site back in the 1700s - before Italy was united. The local king who ruled from Naples demanded, "Bring me the best of whatever you find!" That's why, as impressive as the ancient city is, the finest art and artifacts of Pompeii ended up back in Naples, at the National Museum of Archaeology.

For lovers of antiquity, this museum by itself makes Naples a worthwhile stop. Considering how important the collection is, it's remarkable how ramshackle the displays are. But look past the dust bunnies - the museum offers the best possible peek into the art of Pompeii.

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Pompeii, Mount Vesuvius remain popular Italian tourist attractions

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Today, ongoing excavations of once-booming Pompeii offer the best look anywhere at ancient Roman life. Back then, Rome controlled the entire Mediterranean Sea and Pompeii was an important, big port town. Not rich, not poor, Pompeii was middle class.

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There is some concern that Mount Fuji is showing signs of eruption in the near future, but as things stand, Japan's most-active volcano is Mount Aso, in Aso Kujū national park on the southern island of Kyushu. It has one of the largest calderas in the world, offering myriad viewpoints over its twisted, pitted landscape. Aso town can be reached by train (one hour from Kumamoto, two from Beppu, fares between £6 and £12). There are two cable car lines, called ropeways, from which to explore the Aso area. Aso Nishi (west) cable car station is a short bus ride from Aso station (£3 each way). Aso Higashi (east) cable car station can be reached by taking a local train to Miyaji station and then walking up the road to the cable car station. A toll road (about £3.50) goes right to the summit of the crater where there is a large car park. There is a lot to explore within the caldera but visitors must remember to check on accessibility before setting off: Aso is a gassy beast and its emissions often see areas of the caldera closed off.
More information at japan-guide.com. Live Aso activity updates at

At 321m, Whakaari is not much higher than Leith Hill in Surrey, and is only a couple of kilometres in diameter, but measured from its submarine base it rises to a respectable 1,600m above the sea floor. A convenient gap in the crater walls means visitors can disembark straight into the volcano without having to do any climbing. Whakaari, 49km off the North Island coast, last erupted in 2013 but it is fully suitable for guided tours, thanks to its relatively stable nature and intense monitoring, although its current branding by scientists is "restless". Visitors can expect to see fumaroles expelling steam and hot gases (masks provided), hot rocks and springs, an acid pool, bubbling mud ... and a lot of seabirds.
White Island Tours provides a daily launch from Whakatane for a six-hour trip (adults £94, kids under 15 £61). Live Whakaari activity updates at volcanodiscovery.com

Etna dominates the city of Catania and eastern Sicily. Lacking competing peaks, it draws the eye: imagine two Ben Nevises on top of each other close to the sea. Despite the constant volcanic activity, it is still possible to make it to Etna's highest-allowable point of 2,920m and back in an afternoon. Visitors will see solidified lava flows from down the centuries reaching right into towns and villages, and craters at all levels of the mountain. It is these side fissures that still pose the biggest risk to Catania - which was destroyed by an eruption in 1669 - and nearby villages. The best route up is on the south side via the Catania suburb of Nicolosi. From here, drive, cycle or take the twice daily AST bus (which starts in Catania) up to the Rifugio Sapienza (at 1,923m), where tickets can be bought for the combined cable car and 4x4 bus trip, Funivia dell'Etna (€60pp), to the highest-possible level. The ticket price also includes a guided tour around a large, smoking crater next to an observatory. A more sedate way of exploring the volcano's environs is by train. The scenic Circumetnea Railway travels around the base of Etna from Catania Borgo to Riposto and costs about €8pp, taking three hours.
Live Etna activity updates at volcanodiscovery.com

Possibly the world's most famous volcano - though it hasn't erupted since 1944 - and the most touristy, too. So much so that serene contemplation of nature's ferocity might not be possible given the crowds who ascend each day. At 1,281m it would only be the fifth highest mountain in the UK but its squat form lurks sinisterly over Naples. From the car park at 1,000m visitors climb the remaining 200m (about 30 minutes, tickets €10). The most popular path goes to the edge of the main crater where guides are on hand. Steam can be seen rising from parts of the crater and, as with nearly all volcanoes, there is a strong smell of sulphur. There are no public toilets or a visitors' centre (although there is the historic museum observatory halfway up the road from Ercolano) but the views are spectacular and the sense of history profound. The nearest railway station is Ercolano Scavi, from which minibuses and taxis take you up the mountain car park in about 25 minutes.
Vesuvio Express bus costs about €20 including admission to the trails and crater. From Pompeii there are timetabled buses to Vesuvius

This is a 924m volcano with near-constant explosive activity. Although it's a modest size, it is a tough climb to the summit, but climbing skills are not necessary. Factor in up to six hours: three hours up, one hour to view the crater, and 1½ hours down. Use of a guide is obligatory above a point at 400m called the Sciara del Fuoco. Even from here any belch of magma at the summit should be visible. In any case, mild explosions - appearing at dusk like giant roman candles - happen on Stromboli, sometimes every half hour. Guided trips to the summit crater from the Sciara leave late in the day so the fireworks can be appreciated in full. The attractive trail to the Sciara starts in Piscità, about 2km west of Stromboli's port. Organised treks to the crater depart daily, timed to reach the summit at sunset and to allow 45 minutes to observe the crater's fireworks.
runs guided trips along the whole trail from Stromboli village (€28 adults, €25 kids under 14). Stromboli is accessible by boat from Milazzo, Palermo, Naples and by excursions from Cefalu and Taormina. Live Stromboli activity updates at volcanodiscovery.com

Kīlauea is the daddy of accessible active volcanoes and receives nearly three million visitors a year. At 1,247m it's not even the tallest volcano on Hawaii (it's dwarfed by the 4,169m Mauna Loa) but it has been belching out huge quantities of deep crimson, slow-moving lava almost continuously since 1983. Fortunately for visitors, catastrophic explosions are not Kīlauea's style - beautiful lava fountains are. There is no public transport within the area, a national park, so the choice for exploring rests between car hire and private excursions. The Kīlauea Visitor Center and Jaggar museum offer extraordinary views of the lava lake within the Halema'uma'u crater. After dark the scene takes on another complexion, literally, as the glow of magma illuminates the clouds and landscape.
Entry to the national park is $10 a vehicle, $5 for individuals on foot or bike, and lasts for seven days. Information on route and viewpoint closures at

A three-hour drive from the capital, San José, this is an explosive cone admired, like Japan's Mount Fuji, for its aesthetic qualities. But its beauty can be brutal: in 1968 it erupted unexpectedly, having been dormant for centuries, destroying the small town of Tabacón. Arenal is set with its own national park, within which there are numerous trails from which to explore the area's fauna and flora. Trails cross lava fields from previous eruptions and take visitors through bird, butterfly and snake-filled rainforest. There are several operators offering guided tours in the area. Anywhere Costa Rica has a one-day tour taking in hot springs, waterfalls and the scars of the 1968 eruption. Food and drink, park entrance fee and transport are included for £124 adults, kids £95. The best accommodation for viewing the volcano is the Observatory Lodge and Spa (doubles from US$79 B&B), a couple of miles from the mountain. From here, daily guided walks set out.

An active 1,717m volcano that's a moderate 2½-hour climb near the town of Kintamani and one hour and 20 minutes' drive north from popular Ubud. The mountain has "mild-to-moderate explosive activity" and lava flows, although during 2015 it has entered a quiet period. The best route up the hill is from the village of Toya Bungkah because from here much of the climb is through shady forest. The village is also, handily, HQ to the Association of Mount Batur Trekking Guides (open 3am-1pm). The entire area is volcanic and the higher Mount Agung dominates the south-eastern horizon. The view of forest, volcanoes and lakes is superb but often clouds build up during the afternoon, obscuring the view. For this reason - and to catch the sunrise from behind Agung volcano, the guided trips set off at about 3am. Although the climb is relatively easy, trips are best undertaken with a guide (about £20 from Toya Bungkah). Some travellers have reported over-aggressive touts offering trips up the mountain, but whatever the logistical irritations, the views over Lake Batur and the various live craters should make it worthwhile.
Bali Trekking Tours offers excursions to Batur from several locations in Bali from US$65pp including transport, guides and breakfast. Live Batur activity updates at volcanodiscovery.com

This is the least well-known, and least-active, volcano in our top 10. It is on Nisyros island in the Dodecanese between Kos and Tilos. It may not make headlines for its pyrotechnics (it last erupted in 1888), but magma is rising beneath the island, seismic activity has been increasing and the temperature of vent emissions is on the up. Only 8km in diameter, the island is dotted with villages. It has a 3km-wide caldera with active fumaroles, hot gases bubbling up through mud, and hot springs. The island is reached by ferry from Kos, Piraeus, Tilos and Leros. Boats (ferries and charters) from Kos leave from Kardamena (shorter transit time of one hour, from €24) and Kos Town (from €9). There is a frequent, short, €2 bus journey to the crater from the port of Mandraki.
nisyros.co.uk

An incredibly active 2,632m French volcano - who knew? The reason you might not have known is that it's on Réunion, a French department in the Indian Ocean. But it's worth including because, as with Kīlauea, it regularly gives amazing lava and light shows and there are roads and paths linking the various active and dormant craters. Access to the very active caldera is intermittent, for obvious reasons, but there is a good forestry road connecting the Highway of the Plains to the Pas de Bellecombe where there is a car park, a gîte and snack bar, plus views across part of one of the calderas. There is no public transport to the main volcanic area. From Pas de Bellecombe well-signed paths lead to craters through superb subtropical scenery.
Live information on which paths are open is available at fournaise.info. Guided trips to points within the Piton zone start from €50 (kids €35). Rainbow Tours offers a nine-day walking holiday in Réunion from £1,980 including flights

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There is some concern that Mount Fuji is showing signs of eruption in the near future, but as things stand, Japan's most-active volcano is Mount Aso, in Aso Kujū national park on the southern island of Kyushu. It has one of the largest calderas in the world, offering myriad viewpoints over its twisted, pitted landscape.

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Volcanic landscape on the Reykjanes Peninsula in Iceland.

Credit: Reykjanes Peninsula image via Shutterstock

It's not every day that scientists can study a volcano up close, but researchers investigating the feasibility of volcano-powered electricity successfully drilled into the core of one in Iceland.

Scientists studied the volcanic system at Reykjanes Peninsula in Iceland, which has been dormant for more than 700 years, according to a hazard assessment by Verkis Consulting Engineers for Invest in Inceland.

The depths of Reykjanes' geothermal field - an area with high heat flow - had never been explored, researchers with the Iceland Deep Drilling Project (IDDP) said in a statement. Beginning in August 2016, the IDDP spent 168 days drilling into the volcanic belly of Reykjanes. This well was completed on Jan. 25, reaching a record-breaking depth of nearly 3 miles (4.8 kilometers). [ The 11 Biggest Volcanic Eruptions in History]

At this depth, the hole does not enter the magma chamber but does penetrate the rock surrounding it, which the researchers measured to be about 800 degrees Fahrenheit (427 degrees Celsius).

Geothermal energy uses the heat trapped beneath the Earth's surface to generate electricity. Conventional geothermal energy utilizes steam from natural sources such as geysers, or by drawing water from the hot, high-pressue depths of the Earth. The hot vapors are then used to drive electric turbines.

In the case of volcanic geothermal energy, the heat comes from "supercritical water." The researchers explained that energy from so-called supercritical water is much higher than conventional geothermal steam. When molten rock and water meet, the extreme heat and pressure bring water to a "supercritical" state, where it is neither liquid nor gas. In this form, the water can carry more energy than normal steam, which could create up to 10 timesthe power output of other geothermal sources.

Research will continue through 2018 to explore how the volcano's thermal energy could be used, including as a form of alternative energy, according to IDDP scientists.

"If deep supercritical wells, here and elsewhere in the world, can produce more power than conventional geothermal wells, fewer wells would be needed to produce the same power output, leading to less environmental impact and improved economics," IDDP researchers said in the statement.

Geothermal energy is a major source of energy in Iceland, with about 25 percent of the country's electricity generated from tapping the Earth's heat, according to the National Energy Authority of Iceland. About 90 percent of Icelandic households are heated with geothermal energy.

In its 2016 power production report, the Geothermal Energy Association (GEA) found that only 6 to 7 percent of global geothermal power potential has been tapped. However, production is on the rise and the GEA predicts global geothermal energy production will more than double by 2030.

Original article on Live Science.

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Magma Power: Scientists Drill into Volcano to Harness its Energy

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It's not every day that scientists can study a volcano up close, but researchers investigating the feasibility of volcano-powered electricity successfully drilled into the core of one in Iceland. Scientists studied the volcanic system at Reykjanes Peninsula in Iceland, which has been dormant for more than 700 years, according to a hazard assessment by Verkis Consulting Engineers for Invest in Inceland.

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Volcanic eruptions are one of the most awesome - and terrifying - displays of nature's fury. They can spew clouds of hot ash, streams of molten lava, and even generate giant tornadoes of fire.

But that ferocious power can be harnessed to help push us into a golden age of renewable energy.

Costa Rica made headlines earlier this year when it announced that it had operated for more than two months on 100% renewable energy. Geothermal energy siphoned from active volcanoes made up a good chunk of that figure.

Although Costa Rica probably can't maintain its renewable model long-term, it's still a huge achievement and demonstrates that converting to renewables is possible on a grand scale.

Now Hawaii is positioning itself to create a 100% renewable-sourced electrical grid - something no US state has achieved. Unlike Costa Rica, however, Hawaii plans to put the infrastructure and safeguards in place to make the milestone permanent.

Governor David Ige signed a bill on June 8 pledging that Hawaii will become completely energy self-sustaining by 2045. If the government follows through, geothermal energy from volcanoes will play a big role.

Hawaii's energy crunch

The state has 30 years to pull off its plan. About half of Hawaiians think their government can achieve its goal, Dawn Lippert, director of the Energy Excelerator in Hawaii, told Tech Insider. The other half isn't so sure.

Either way, Hawaii has a big motivation to adopt renewables: it has no significant reserves of coal, oil, natural gas, or other fossil fuels. In fact, according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, it costs the state about $5 billion per year to import enough oil from to meet its citizens' energy demands. This ends up costing Hawaiians two to three times the national average for electricity.

The good news is that Hawaii has an abundance of natural energy sources. It has access to solar, wind, flowing water, ocean waves, and - of course - volcanoes. Based on data from 2015, right now Hawaii already gets close to one-quarter of its energy from renewable sources.

Tapping into volcanoes

The secret to getting that number up to 100% may be inside the state's five active volcanoes.

Engineers can tap these hot spots for geothermal energy by sucking up hot briney groundwater, converting it to steam to power turbines, and then delivering the resulting electricity to the main power grid.

The Big Island alone gets about 50% of its energy from a mixture of renewable sources. A lot of that is thanks to the state's only geothermal plant - Puna Geothermal Venture - which sits on the eastern rift zone of the Kilauea Volcano.

The Puna plant generates about 38 megawatts, according to the Hawaii Electric Light Co. That's enough to power up to 4,400 typical Hawaiian homes every month.

Some researchers estimate the Big Island could get more than 50% of its total energy from geothermal power alone. The eastern part of the island has a lot of geothermal activity, thanks to Kilauea Volcano. You can see active lava flows in the southeastern edge of this geological map as dark lines and puffs of smoke:

NASA/NOAA

Yes, building a power plant by a volcano is risky

Geothermal sounds like the perfect solution: a natural, nearly inexhaustible power source that's always switched on (unlike solar or wind). But if a power plant sitting on the rim of an unpredictable volcano sounds dangerous, that's because it can be.

Fortunately, Kilauea is relatively safe; the likelihood of a catastrophy is low. A huge chunk of the crater would have to collapse and sink nearly 2,000 feet to trigger a major eruption. Volcanologists would see plenty of signs before such an event occured, sound the alarms, and evacuate everyone in the danger zone.

Drilling wells to feed new geothermal plants poses a more likely problem. If a drill rig unexpectedly hits an extremely hot- and high-pressure steam zone, the well can explode in a blowout. Steam blowouts sound like a jet airplane taking off, and they can spew harmful gases like hydrogen sulfide. (The Puna plant operated incident-free for 22 years until March 2015, when a major blowout released toxic gas into the air.)

Still, when geothermal is done right, it's an incredible resource - especially for a volcanically active place like Hawaii. Renewable energy companies are eager to tap into Mauna Loa, a giant volcano in the center of the Big Island that's near several volcanic hot spots:

USGS

Some native Hawaiians oppose this idea because they believe volcanoes are home to deities.

When Tech Insider visited Kilauea Volcano in June, a group of natives sang an ancient Hawaiian song in front of the volcano and left behind a lei as a token for the gods:

Kelly Dickerson/Business Insider

That's because some Hawaiians believe Mauna Loa is home to the deity Pele, and say it shouldn't be disturbed. Others argue that the free energy source is Pele's gift to Hawaii, and the island should take advantage of it.

For now opponents have stalled the construction of a new geothermal plant by Mauna Loa. There are also plans, however, to expand the aforementioned Puna plant.

Hawaii will need to use a mix of renewables to hit its 2045 goal, but geothermal energy may be one of the most efficient and bountiful sources.

Ultimately, Lippert said Hawaii's success will depend on one critical factor: innovation. The state not only needs to invest in making renewables safer and more efficient, but also innovate its communication and collaboration practices if it hopes to go 100% renewable.

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Hawaii is chasing 100% renewable energy - with active volcanoes

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Volcanic eruptions are one of the most awesome - and terrifying - displays of nature's fury. They can spew clouds of hot ash, streams of molten lava, and even generate giant tornadoes of fire. But that ferocious power can be harnessed to help push us into a golden age of renewable energy.

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Hawaii's Kilauea volcano has been fiercely erupting for well over a month. Now, residents are finding little green gems that have fallen out of the sky during Kilauea's eruption.

The green gems are olivine crystals, a common mineral found in Hawaii's lava. At jewelry quality, the mineral is called peridot. As the volcano erupts, it blasts apart molten lava, allowing for green olivine minerals to be separated from the rest of the melt and fall as tiny gemstones.

There are several places in Hawaii that the beaches are a green color, this is due to a high concentration of olivine that has weathered out of the mafic lava (basalt). In fact, olivine is one of the most common minerals below Earth's surface but it is quite hard to find it separated from the parent rock and even harder to find it of gem quality.

Olivine is so common that experts estimate over 50 percent of Earth's upper mantle is composed of olivine or variations of the mineral. While it is a common mineral, little crystals of olivine falling out of the sky are quite unusual.

Friends of mine live in Hawaii, right next to the area impacted by the most recent lava flows. In the midst of the destruction nearby & stress of the unknown, they woke up to this - tiny pieces of olivine all over the ground. It is literally raining gems. Nature is truly amazing. pic.twitter.com/inJWxOp66t

- Erin Jordan (@ErinJordan_WX) June 11, 2018

Hawaii's volcanoes are hotspots, where the mantle magma continually upwells and burns a hole through Earth's oceanic crust. Oceanic crust, in composition, is very similar to what we would find in the upper mantle with high olivine concentrations.

This means the true composition of the upper mantle is not significantly altered when erupted on Hawaii's surface as basalt. The reason we get a variety of other rocks on continents is largely due to magma traveling through the varied geology that underlies each continent. This adds and removes chemicals/minerals and alters the original composition of the magma from basalt to a unique blend of minerals.

Some olivines that popped out of an a'a flow. Kilauea's little gems. #hawaii #kilauea #olivine #lovevolcanoes https://t.co/1X2ACcWu7n pic.twitter.com/8UaA1IrKEd

- GEOetc (@GEOetc2) June 10, 2018

Olivine can be found throughout the island, typically as a mineral within the basalt rock. However, from the continuous pounding of waves or construction, the minerals can be broken away from the surrounding basalt.

Typically, olivine erupts with the calm oozing of basalt lava on Hawaii, locking it away within the rock fabric. However, in this instance the sudden ejection of lava into the air rapidly cools and separates the melt, allowing the olivine to lithify as a separate crystal.

Need another reason to travel to Hawaii? How about tiny gemstones falling out of the sky? This is just another reason why Hawaii is a magical and unique place unlike any other on Earth. Only time will tell how the uniquely prolonged eruption plays out and what next will dazzle us from Hawaii's Kilauea volcano.

While it may seem like a perfect excuse to buy a ticket to Hawaii and collect some gems, please note that removing rocks, minerals, or sand from Hawaii is not only in poor taste, it is illegal. So please make sure to enjoy them in the moment, take photos, but leave the beauty on the island for others to enjoy in the future.

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Hawaii's Volcano Is Literally Erupting Gems

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Hawaii's Kilauea volcano has been fiercely erupting for well over a month. Now, residents are finding little green gems that have fallen out of the sky during Kilauea's eruption. The green gems are olivine crystals, a common mineral found in Hawaii's lava. At jewelry quality, the mineral is called peridot.

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Kilauea has been erupting for five weeks, forcing evacuations and evaporating Hawaii's largest freshwater lake in a matter of hours.

Now residents are reporting a new side effect from the volcano: Small green rocks falling from the sky and appearing near lava flows.

It may sound odd, but it's just nature at work.

More olivine please!

"It's literally raining gems," Erin Jordan, a meteorologist based out of Tuscon, Arizona tweeted. The photos in the tweet were sent to her from friends in Hawaii, explaining that they woke up to find small green rocks all over the ground.

Those small green rocks are actually part of the rock-forming mineral group olivine, though you may recognize it more by its gemstone, peridot.

"The lava that is erupting now is very crystal-rich and it is quite possible that residents might be finding olivine," Cheryl Gansecki, a geologist at the University of Hawaii-Hilo who studies the composition of Kilauea's lava, told Mashable.

More like flowing out than raining down

However, several geologists said not to get too excited about these gemstones raining down from up above. They say the gems are rooted inside lava that flows out of fissures around Kilauea and aren't technically falling from the sky. University of Hawaii geologist Cheryl Gansecki said the olivine that people have found could even be from older lava flows, reports CBS News.

"There's not olivine raining from the sky, except in clumps of lava," Gansecki said. "I think this is pretty much a nonstory, unfortunately. What we're seeing are tiny and they do no separate from the lava themselves. You'd have to crush the lava to get them out and find them."

What is olivine?

Olivine is commonly found in Hawaii, which is a volcanic archipelago. Olivine is a magnesium iron silicate, or rock-forming mineral, and is often seen in igneous rock. For those who may not remember science class, igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and firming of magma or lava. Thus, olivine is found in plenty of rocks around Hawaii and is also in the state's roads. In fact, it's possible to go to Papakōlea Beach in Hawaii to experience one of the few green sand beaches in the world. The sand is olivine.

Additionally, the olivine may be released from the igneous rocks in other ways, either by simple time and erosion or, as U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) scientist Wendy Stovall explained to Mashable, "lava can erupt through ocean water in steamy, explosive events, breaking the lava into smaller pieces and fast-tracking the separation process."

Olivine minerals can often be found on igneous rocks. (Photo: underworld/Shutterstock)

"It can be carried in the pumice [rapidly cooled lava] pieces that have been rained all over the area," Ganescki said. It may also be what remains when weaker rocks are destroyed by cars or foot traffic.

What some people in Hawaii are seeing is olivine rocks that "just kind of fall out" as lava is spewed into the air, according to Stovall. The process is simply sped up.

"The olivine crystals folks are finding on the ground scattered about are from violently ejected basalt [a type of lava] blobs wherein the embedded, earlier-formed olivine crystals are freed from their surrounding pahoehoe [syrupy lava] basalt liquid," Stanley Mertzman, a volcanologist at Franklin and Marshall College, told Mashable.

It's good, however, that the olivine found so far has been relatively small. Olivine is usually slightly harder than glass, so it's not something you want in large sizes raining down on your head.
Editor's note: This article has been updated since it was originally published in June 2018.

What are those green gems in Kilauea's lava?

Olivine, a green type of mineral, is found inside lava erupting from fissures.

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What are those green gems in Kilauea's lava?

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Kilauea has been erupting for five weeks, forcing evacuations and evaporating Hawaii's largest freshwater lake in a matter of hours. Now residents are reporting a new side effect from the volcano: Small green rocks falling from the sky and appearing near lava flows. It may sound odd, but it's just nature at work.

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Read through the following items

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Mount Agung in Bali is currently on the verge of eruption, and more than 100,000 people have been evacuated. However, one of us (Dian) is preparing to go into the area when it erupts, to collect the ash.

This eruption is likely to be catastrophic, spewing lava and ashes at temperatures up to 1,250℃, posing serious risk to humans and their livelihoods. Ash ejected from volcano not only affects aviation and tourism, but can also affect life and cause much nuisance to farmers, burying agricultural land and damaging crops. However, in the long term, the ash will create world's most productive soils.

Read more: Bali's Mount Agung threatens to erupt for the first time in more than 50 years

While volcanic soils only cover 1% of the world's land surface, they can support 10% of the world's population, including some areas with the highest population densities.

The ring of fire

Indonesia is situated on the Pacific Ring of Fire, a chain of volcanoes that stretches from Sumatra through Java and Bali to Timor, and constitutes the most dangerous of the world's tectonic interfaces.

Throughout history, Indonesia's volcanic eruptions have affected the world's climate, notably the volcano of Lake Toba with its super-eruption around 74,000 years ago, which caused a six-year volcanic winter. Mount Tambora is known for its violent eruption in 1815 causing a year without summer in Europe, and the Krakatau explosion in 1883 also cooled the world.

Read more: Explainer: why volcanoes erupt

The eruption of Tambora, on the island of Sumbawa in 1815 ejected an estimated 160 cubic kilometres of ashes into the atmosphere. This catastrophic event affected population in nearby islands, including Bali. Agriculture was destroyed by ash deposits and shortage of sunlight. It was estimated that the misery lasted 10-15 years before the ashes turned into fertile soils.

The 1963-64 eruption of Mt Agung released 0.95 cubic km of solid volcanic material and lava. Some 1,580 people were reportedly killed by the rapid lava flows and accompanying poisonous gases.

But if a comparable eruption occurred tomorrow, the death toll would be greatly lessened by the warning systems now in place.

Implications for neighbouring countries

Among the constant eruptions of Indonesia's many volcanoes (66 currently being monitored, and among those 50-60 are considered "active"), huge ones will arrive.

They will be enormously destructive to Indonesia, will impact the world's climate, and will challenge neighbouring countries such as Australia in manage without air traffic while assisting millions of displaced Indonesians to survive and recover.

Read more: The world's five deadliest volcanoes ... and why they're so dangerous

Even the moderate ones that are likely to occur every decade, causing dislocations to hundreds of thousands, need to be prepared for in a systematic way.

Volcanoes and population density

In the past decade, volcanoes in various parts of Indonesia have been quite active and erupted, notably Merapi (2010) in Central Java, Sinabung (2014) in North Sumatra, and Kelud (2014) in East Java.

Despite the danger posed by these volcanoes, areas with high volcanic activity also have some of the world's most fertile farmlands due to release of plant nutrients such as potassium and phosphorus.

Dutch scientist E.C.J. Mohr observed in 1938 that the region near Mount Merapi has higher population densities in areas with soils derived from volcanic ash.

These soils are most probably the reason that Java can sustain high human population densities, estimated at more than 1,100 people per square km. Several years after Mt Galunggung in West Java erupted in April 1982, crop productivity in the local area of Tasikmalaya were boosted.

Volcanic ash, the fertilizer reserve

Dian Fiantis from University of Andalas in Padang is a volcanic ash hunter. She sees volcanic eruptions as an opportunity to study the beginning of how soils formed, a process that could take thousands and even millions of years. She has collected and studied ashes immediately after volcanoes have erupted in Sumatra.

Tephra (the scientific name of volcanic ash) contains primary minerals which have abundance of nutrients. Over time, chemical and biological weathering, the ashes will release the nutrients and the ash will increase its surface area, enable them to hold more nutrients and water.

In addition, it has the capacity to sequester a high amount of carbon (taking carbon out of the atmosphere and put it in the soil).

On January 28, 2014, Mount Sinabung erupted with pyroclastic flow and "mud rain". Ashes covered most of the Sigarang Garang village, which is located northeast of the foot of volcano. The ashes contains a high amount of nutrients, notably calcium, magnesium, potassium, and phosphate.

It was estimated that the region received 250 million tonnes of ash - the equivalent of up to 10 million tonnes of fertiliser.

Reuters/YT Haryono

When we visited the village in January 2017, we saw some of the ashes were already colonised by lichens, and some even with grasses growing on them. These areas have already accumulated substantial organic matter, up to 4% of organic carbon, meaning they can soak up a large amount of carbon from the atmosphere through plants.

Mohr postulated that Indonesia can sustain such as high population density due to the presence of active volcanoes. But the regular eruptions throughout the country have also caused devastation to the people living around the volcanoes.

This natural phenomenon renews the soil, but it takes time for the ashes to be weathered. We need to work on solutions that will hasten the rate of soil formation. It is a challenge to convince local farmers that the eruption is a blessing in disguise, and that this natural phenomenon ultimately keeps Indonesia's soils fertile.

We also hope the Australian government will devote its capacity to modelling and preparing for the appropriate response to a major disaster, which is far more likely on a longer time frame.

Cooperation between military and emergency services between Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and East Timor must begin before the disaster occurs, to establish trust, communication lines, and strategies.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How Mount Agung's eruption can create the world's most fertile soil

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Mount Agung in Bali is currently on the verge of eruption, and more than 100,000 people have been evacuated. However, one of us (Dian) is preparing to go into the area when it erupts, to collect the ash. This eruption is likely to be catastrophic, spewing lava and ashes at temperatures up to 1,250℃, posing serious risk to humans and their livelihoods.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Mount Agung in Bali is currently on the verge of eruption, and more than 100,000 people have been evacuated. However, one of us (Dian) is preparing to go into the area when it erupts, to collect the ash.

This eruption is likely to be catastrophic, spewing lava and ashes at temperatures up to 1,250℃, posing serious risk to humans and their livelihoods. Ash ejected from volcano not only affects aviation and tourism, but can also affect life and cause much nuisance to farmers, burying agricultural land and damaging crops. However, in the long term, the ash will create world's most productive soils.

Read more: Bali's Mount Agung threatens to erupt for the first time in more than 50 years

While volcanic soils only cover 1% of the world's land surface, they can support 10% of the world's population, including some areas with the highest population densities.

The ring of fire

Indonesia is situated on the Pacific Ring of Fire, a chain of volcanoes that stretches from Sumatra through Java and Bali to Timor, and constitutes the most dangerous of the world's tectonic interfaces.

Throughout history, Indonesia's volcanic eruptions have affected the world's climate, notably the volcano of Lake Toba with its super-eruption around 74,000 years ago, which caused a six-year volcanic winter. Mount Tambora is known for its violent eruption in 1815 causing a year without summer in Europe, and the Krakatau explosion in 1883 also cooled the world.

Read more: Explainer: why volcanoes erupt

The eruption of Tambora, on the island of Sumbawa in 1815 ejected an estimated 160 cubic kilometres of ashes into the atmosphere. This catastrophic event affected population in nearby islands, including Bali. Agriculture was destroyed by ash deposits and shortage of sunlight. It was estimated that the misery lasted 10-15 years before the ashes turned into fertile soils.

The 1963-64 eruption of Mt Agung released 0.95 cubic km of solid volcanic material and lava. Some 1,580 people were reportedly killed by the rapid lava flows and accompanying poisonous gases.

But if a comparable eruption occurred tomorrow, the death toll would be greatly lessened by the warning systems now in place.

Implications for neighbouring countries

Among the constant eruptions of Indonesia's many volcanoes (66 currently being monitored, and among those 50-60 are considered "active"), huge ones will arrive.

They will be enormously destructive to Indonesia, will impact the world's climate, and will challenge neighbouring countries such as Australia in manage without air traffic while assisting millions of displaced Indonesians to survive and recover.

Read more: The world's five deadliest volcanoes ... and why they're so dangerous

Even the moderate ones that are likely to occur every decade, causing dislocations to hundreds of thousands, need to be prepared for in a systematic way.

Volcanoes and population density

In the past decade, volcanoes in various parts of Indonesia have been quite active and erupted, notably Merapi (2010) in Central Java, Sinabung (2014) in North Sumatra, and Kelud (2014) in East Java.

Despite the danger posed by these volcanoes, areas with high volcanic activity also have some of the world's most fertile farmlands due to release of plant nutrients such as potassium and phosphorus.

Dutch scientist E.C.J. Mohr observed in 1938 that the region near Mount Merapi has higher population densities in areas with soils derived from volcanic ash.

These soils are most probably the reason that Java can sustain high human population densities, estimated at more than 1,100 people per square km. Several years after Mt Galunggung in West Java erupted in April 1982, crop productivity in the local area of Tasikmalaya were boosted.

Volcanic ash, the fertilizer reserve

Dian Fiantis from University of Andalas in Padang is a volcanic ash hunter. She sees volcanic eruptions as an opportunity to study the beginning of how soils formed, a process that could take thousands and even millions of years. She has collected and studied ashes immediately after volcanoes have erupted in Sumatra.

Tephra (the scientific name of volcanic ash) contains primary minerals which have abundance of nutrients. Over time, chemical and biological weathering, the ashes will release the nutrients and the ash will increase its surface area, enable them to hold more nutrients and water.

In addition, it has the capacity to sequester a high amount of carbon (taking carbon out of the atmosphere and put it in the soil).

On January 28, 2014, Mount Sinabung erupted with pyroclastic flow and "mud rain". Ashes covered most of the Sigarang Garang village, which is located northeast of the foot of volcano. The ashes contains a high amount of nutrients, notably calcium, magnesium, potassium, and phosphate.

It was estimated that the region received 250 million tonnes of ash - the equivalent of up to 10 million tonnes of fertiliser.

Reuters/YT Haryono

When we visited the village in January 2017, we saw some of the ashes were already colonised by lichens, and some even with grasses growing on them. These areas have already accumulated substantial organic matter, up to 4% of organic carbon, meaning they can soak up a large amount of carbon from the atmosphere through plants.

Mohr postulated that Indonesia can sustain such as high population density due to the presence of active volcanoes. But the regular eruptions throughout the country have also caused devastation to the people living around the volcanoes.

This natural phenomenon renews the soil, but it takes time for the ashes to be weathered. We need to work on solutions that will hasten the rate of soil formation. It is a challenge to convince local farmers that the eruption is a blessing in disguise, and that this natural phenomenon ultimately keeps Indonesia's soils fertile.

We also hope the Australian government will devote its capacity to modelling and preparing for the appropriate response to a major disaster, which is far more likely on a longer time frame.

Cooperation between military and emergency services between Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and East Timor must begin before the disaster occurs, to establish trust, communication lines, and strategies.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How Mount Agung's eruption can create the world's most fertile soil

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Mount Agung in Bali is currently on the verge of eruption, and more than 100,000 people have been evacuated. However, one of us (Dian) is preparing to go into the area when it erupts, to collect the ash. This eruption is likely to be catastrophic, spewing lava and ashes at temperatures up to 1,250℃, posing serious risk to humans and their livelihoods.

# data[].attributes.body
P: Living in volcanic areas is a risk to survival.
E: When volcanoes erupt the eject out the lava fragments, rocks, ash and other harmful gases.
E: Throughout history, Indonesia’s volcanic eruptions have affected the world’s climate, notably the volcano of Lake Toba with its super-eruption around 74,000 years ago, which caused a six-year volcanic winter. Mount Tambora is known for its violent eruption in 1815 causing a year without summer in Europe, and the Krakatau explosion in 1883 also cooled the world.
L: Thus living in volcanic areas are a trap to human society

# data[].attributes.body
P: Volcanic gases pollute the atmosphere.
E: Theses gases may travel 10 kilometers into the air more, then blow 100s and 1000s of kilometers away from the  side of the volcano to affect air quality.
E: People exposed to these gases may suffer from irritated eyes, skin or lungs. Acid rain which is formed by these gases not only damages properties like car but also pollue water.