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"Just a story" from Poliakoff's "Shooting the Past" - Part 1

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Scanography: Cameraless Pictures With Your Scanner

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If you’re into photography but don’t have a great camera, or maybe if you just fancy something different, then scanography is a great technique to try. Scanner art, or scanography, is a fun...

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Recently I’ve been reading Man Ray’s 1963 autobiography, Self Portrait, as research for my fiction. It’s an interesting read on many levels. The child of poor Russian Jewish immig…

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website

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For most people visiting a famous landmark, there is a quintessential angle to capture to get that perfect, iconic Instagram.

Photographer Oliver Curtis, however, has turned his back on that idea, and has spent the last four years taking pictures of what lies behind famous sites. From the Statue of Liberty to Christ the Redeemer, Curtis captures lesser-known views.

His work will be on display at the Royal Geographic Society in London from September 19 to October 14. The exhibition is called "Volte-face," after a Latin phrase meaning to turning around to face the opposite direction in movement or attitude.

We talked with Curtis about his work, and his travels.

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A photographer captures the unexpected views that lie behind famous landmarks

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For most people visiting a famous landmark, there is a quintessential angle to capture to get that perfect, iconic Instagram. Photographer Oliver Curtis, however, has turned his back on that idea, and has spent the last four years taking pictures of what lies behind famous sites.

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Holly Street Voids, 1997-1998

The empty tower block stands as a symbol of a paradigm failure in UK social policy: the Dystopia and ultimate waste of castle-in-the-air housing projects which were scrapped and abandoned. They are all the more poignant a choice for imaging, given that tower blocks were originally meant to be a dream (Utopian) solution to the issue of 'decent' housing.

Concurrently, and in contemporary art terms, this series evinces something of 'the uncanny': that Freud-coined sensation whereby one feels, oddly enough, as if somebody had just left the room. In other words, that universal experience of recognising things as having been touched by the human hand in some way (in this case designed, built, 'lived-in') ... yet, paradoxically, sensing the distinct lack of any human presence (or the failure of human effort).

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Holly Street Voids, 1997-1998 The empty tower block stands as a symbol of a paradigm failure in UK social policy: the Dystopia and ultimate waste of castle-in-the-air housing projects which were scrapped and abandoned. They are all the more poignant a choice for imaging, given that tower blocks were originally meant to be a dream (Utopian) solution to the issue of 'decent' housing.

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Walker Evans - Let us now praise famous men

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Walker Evans - Let us now praise famous men

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1941

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Palacio dos Arcos - Luisa Lambri

Shooting Space photographer makes herself comfortable in other people's homes - then photographs the results
Though she never appears in them, Luisa Lambri's photographs are, in a way, a form of self-portraiture. The Italian born, Los Angeles-based artist's photographs of iconic residences by the likes of John Lautner, Richard Neutra and Louis Barragan, focus on the overlooked elements of a building's interior (rarely the exterior). In her photo series you'll see the passing of the day marked, not so much by Lambri's finger on the shutter, but by her hand on the items within a space, as evidenced by the opening of a door here, a tightened window blind there.

By subliminally bringing her pysche to bear on a space, Lambri encourages us to think about the concept of the ideal home and how it is different or, in some way, similar for all of us. By doing so she truly represents the artistic response to a space, something that's key of course to our new book Shooting Space and the current exhibition at the Barbican, London, Constructing Worlds - both of which boast work by her.

"The truth is that I'm very much an outsider," she told us when we caught up with her at the Barbican, recently, "especially as far as architecture is concerned."

"I don't come from an architecture background and I'm completely self-taught as far as photography is concerned, so I approach it intuitively and personally. Mine is more a diagonal approach. I think of architecture purely as homes and private residences of which I photograph the interiors. It's that specific and it has a lot to do with notions of identity and travel more than architecture and photography. So it's very much part of my personal, rather than an architectural, history."

Lambri considers herself lucky that her family allowed her to travel alone from a young age. She always took a camera with her. "For many years when I was visiting these houses that I'd seen in books and liked so much I photographed them but didn't even process the film, I just wanted to go there and take pictures."

For Lambri, her photographs are manifestations of an imaginative process in which she believes she has moved into the house in question, lives in it or maybe even owns it. The photographs she makes are her ways of making the space her own. Along this rather particular journey the standard architectural definition of 'the ideal home' is analysed, questioned and occasionally stretched way beyond any recognisable shape.

"I very often take sequences of pictures in a way so that the images reflect my position in the space, or the movement, or my actions. For example I may open windows to establish a relationship with them or to relate to the space. It's a physical thing, It's a simple, beautiful thing to open a window and let some light in, and that very simple gesture is enough to somehow really make the place you like look more like you. So it's about this relationship and dialogue with the images with architecture, with people, and with myself."

"For me it's about finding home somewhere else, finding an ideal home," she says. "I saw all these houses in books (as a student) and I knew that I wanted to go there. So my work is a dialogue between images and reproductions and how they can affect you and how you might find your own place there. It's my history meeting the architect's history, meeting the owner's history. I really appreciate those histories coming together on so many levels and becoming one. To me the ideal home is abstract, distant, far away but also somehow very close to you."

Check out our other Shooting Space interviews with author Elias Redstone, Iwaan Ban, Nadav Kander, Bas Princen, Hélène Binet and Nicolas Grospierre and take a look at Shooting Space in the store.

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luisa lambri shooting space iconic architecture photogaphy contstructing worlds ideal home windows relationship travel

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Luisa Lambri opens a window into her soul

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Shooting Space photographer makes herself comfortable in other people's homes - then photographs the results Though she never appears in them, Luisa Lambri's photographs are, in a way, a form of self-portraiture. The Italian born, Los Angeles-based artist's photographs of iconic residences by the likes of John Lautner, Richard Neutra and Louis Barragan, focus on the overlooked elements of a building's interior (rarely the exterior).

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Stephen Shore - Uncommon Places (1973-8)

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Stephen Shore - Uncommon Places (1973-8)

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Dazzling swimming pools, skies of unflinching blue, the angular petrol station, the endless dusty road, the Cadillac, the clapboard house, the unpalatable nude of a motel eiderdown. Today, these elements of life in America have become its first language - the established shorthand to denote a world of languor and sun-bleached space, so familiar that it seems to have been that way forever. Yet these vignettes and the social constructs that have built up around them come in part from the craftsmanship of the photographers and filmmakers who, in the late '60s and early '70s, started to cultivate an appreciation for the beauty in banality. Foremost of these was Stephen Shore, a protégée of Warhol, whose 1982 photobook Uncommon Places represented a radical new perspective not only on the American landscape but also in the use of colour in photography. As he celebrates the release of a new, definitive edition of the iconic work, we present some of our favourite facts about this pioneering artist.

1. Shore was determined from the start - in 1961, the director of MoMA's Department of Photography Edward Steichen got a phone call from a 14-year-old Shore. "I think I didn't know any better," Shore recalled to Aaron Schuman, "I didn't know that you weren't supposed to do this. So I just called him up and said, 'I'd like to show you my work.'... He bought three!"

2. Shore was already an emerging member of New York's art scene when he met Andy Warhol in 1965. Warhol was so impressed by Shore's enthusiasm and work ethic that he issued an open invitation to the Factory.

3. Over the course of 1965 to 1967, Shore was at the Factory nearly every day, compiling an extraordinary intimate record of the workings of the Warhol's studio and the people who came, went and socialised within.

4. The overflow from Factory parties sometimes came back to Shore's parents' apartment for after-parties - a famous picture of his from the time shows Nico sat at his breakfast table.

5. In 1971, at 24 years old, Shore became only the second living photographer to have a one-man show at the Met - something which is rarely mentioned because this was while he was still working in black and white.

6. While they are commonly considered to be on opposite sides of the spectrum when it comes to their work, Shore adores the work of Garry Winogrand. "That's what I hang on my wall," he told The New Republic.

7. Shore's famous and revolutionary project, American Surfaces, saw him travel the extent of America with only the most basic of cameras, relentlessly photographing "almost every meal I ate, every person I met...every bed I slept in, every toilet I used." On his return to New York, in order to stay faithful to the project, rather than develop them himself, he sent his films - like most of the tourists of the day - to be processed at the Kodak factories in New Jersey.

8. A key experience for Shore was a dinner he went to in the mid-1970s, where Ansel Adams was also a guest. Shore told Phaidon, Adams drank "six tall glasses of straight vodka" and then, after dessert, he observed, "I had a creative hot streak in the 1940s and since then I've been pot boiling." This encounter reaffirmed for Shore the importance of addressing new issues and challenges in his work, never standing still.

9. "I have to be reminded, 'It's your son's birthday party. Bring a camera,'" Shore told The New Republic. "And then, when I'm there, 'Take a picture,' because it doesn't occur to me to use it as this memorialising thing."

10. Almost all the work he has done in the past five years has been with a digital camera, and this summer he started up his instagram account, which features the range of imagery that you would expect to find on Instagram - food pictures, pet pictures, tourist snaps and sky vistas - as well as the sun-soaked dusty roads, electricity lines and inimitable mastery of light that he is so well known for.
Stephen Shore: Uncommon Places The Complete Works is out on October 27, published by Thames & Hudson. Further Reading: 20 Brilliant Andy Warhol Quotes.

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Ten Things You Might Not Know About Stephen Shore

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Dazzling swimming pools, skies of unflinching blue, the angular petrol station, the endless dusty road, the Cadillac, the clapboard house, the unpalatable nude of a motel eiderdown. Today, these elements of life in America have become its first language - the established shorthand to denote a world of languor and sun-bleached space, so familiar that it seems to have been that way forever.

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MARC AUGE

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Cindy Sherman

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Cindy Sherman - Nobody's Here But Me (1994)

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How-To: Develop Film with Coffee and Vitamin C (Caffenol)

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Making a pinhole Camera with a film canister

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Making a pinhole Camera with a film canister

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Basic Pinhole Camera Construction: 35mm Film Cassette

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Crewdson, Peter Garfield, Boudin, Sherman, David LaChapelle

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Vogue Italia, 2004

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Archival coated pigment print

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C-type print

A c-type print, usually made from a colour negative, is a colour print in which the print material has at least three emulsion layers of light sensitive silver salts. Each layer is sensitised to a different primary colour - either red, blue or green - and so records different information about the colour make-up of the image. During printing, chemicals are added which form dyes of the appropriate colour in the emulsion layers. It is the most common type of colour photograph.

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Tim Hetherington, Don McCullin,

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Diane Arbus, Seydou Keita, Richard Billingham, Matt Writtle, Julia Cameron WhiteDayanita Singh, Cuny Janssen

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Rinko Kawauchi, Sam Taylor Wood, Man Ray, Karl Blossfeldt,Bernd & Hilla,

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Steven Meisel, Annie Liebovitz, Tim Walker, David LaChapelle, Guy Boudin

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Cindy Sherman, Rinko Kawauchi, Peter Fraser

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Tom Hunter, Francesca Woodman, Walker Evans, Alec Soth, Jeff Wall, Andreas Gursky

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JR has the largest art gallery in the world. Thanks to his photographic collage technique, he exhibits his work on the walls of the whole world, attracting the attention of those who do not usually go to museums.

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This site is an online portfolio of work by artist photographer Martin Newth. It features work made since 1999 when he graduated from the slade school of art. it includes images of photographic work, gallery installations, description of images, a cv and contact information.

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Shadow Catchers: Camera-less Photography - Floris Neusüss (subtitled)

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This is one of the five short films commissioned by the V&A as part of the 'Shadow Catchers: Camera-less Photography' exhibition on display at the V&A from October 2010 to February 2011.

Each film features one of the five international artists featured in the exhibition, showing their studios and places that inspire them. This is a revealing and evocative look at their working environments and an insight into their creative ideas.

Transcript:

If we look at art and I do look at art there is art that speaks to me and art that does not speak to me.

First of all one has to be interested visually, and then with a lot of art nowdays, you need to know the background.

The house here is now a museum and it says such a lot about Fox Talbot’s life and if you look around today you can understand everything he himself developed and tried out. You really could believe that Talbot had just been working here.

An important aspect of my work was more conditioned by the medium itself: I carried the photogram out of the laboratory, that is out of the studio, and took it to the objects. And the very first photo I made outside the studio, the first photogram, was of this window.

I don’t particularly consider myself to be a pioneer, I use this technique because I find it to be a medium that is suitable for purpose,  and because, and this is the important thing, I am interested in what they used to do with this technique before my time, which is why we are sitting here today.

A very important aspect of a photogram is this contact, how do I put it…a photogram is not a reproduced print, it is a contact picture. You sense that the object was originally in contact with the picture. 

The question is, and this possible with photograms, how to get away from the purely documentary aspect and make a picture of the window about the window.

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Shadow Catchers: Camera-less Photography - Susan Derges

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This is one of the five short films commissioned by the V&A as part of the 'Shadow Catchers: Camera-less Photography' exhibition on display at the V&A from October 2010 to February 2011.

Each film features one of the five international artists featured in the exhibition, showing their studios and places that inspire them. This is a revealing and evocative look at their working environments and an insight into their creative ideas.

Transcript:

What brought me in to making images like I do is very much to do with sense of place and when I first moved to Devon, I moved to a place that was a little bit like this and I’d been working with a camera before then in the studio doing a lot of staged photography. I’d only been living in this one place for a short while when I started to look at things outside and I remember one of the first things that triggered a print was seeing a still pond with a cluster of newly laid frogspawn. The sun was passing through the spawn and it was printing this image on to the bottom of the pond. And I just thought, “wow” that’s a print, it’s a sun print.

Water’s absolutely key to everything that happens internally to us and externally, and it is the most fantastic metaphor for how everything operates. It can stand for a stream of thoughts, cascades of neural activity in your mind, it can stand for the idea of a circulatory system in landscape or in the body interchangeably.  It seems to be something that kind of connects everything and maybe the underlying desire to make images in the first place was to talk about what underlies the visible rather than to just show the visible.

The plate’s going to be on the line that the water is running at.
Susans Assistant: Slightly diagonal
I think even a bit more, maybe it’s running slightly off centre. 

A lot of the early work was a lot to do with the birth end of the scale. So it was working a lot with the kind of creative aspect of using water to talk about birth and things coming into being and things developing and forming and actually a lot of work that I’ve been dealing with in this place over the last five years has been to do with things dissolving and dissolving out of a form in a way. 

Photography is kind of tied up with death in many respects in terms of you’re looking at absent moments; they’re no longer there. So it is quite a lot I think to do with loss as well as holding and showing.

Nothing is all in the state of coming into being, or in the state of dissolution out of being it’s always on the move, and I think that’s my sense of trying  to deal with how it feels to be… there but in the process of change.

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Floris Neusüss

Floris Neusüss (born Lennep, Germany, 1937) has dedicated his whole career to extending the practice, study and teaching of the photogram. Alongside his work as an artist, he is known as an influential writer and teacher on camera-less photography.

Neusüss brought renewed ambition to the photogram process, in both scale and visual treatment, with the Körperfotogramms (or whole-body photograms) that he first exhibited in the 1960s. Since that time, he has consistently explored the photogram's numerous technical, conceptual and visual possibilities.

His works often deal in opposites: black and white, shadow and light, movement and stillness, presence and absence, and in the translation of three dimensions into two. By removing objects from their physical context, Neusüss encourages the viewer to contemplate the essence of form. He creates a feeling of surreal detachment, a sense of disengagement from time and the physical world. Collectively, his images explore themes of mythology, history, nature and the subconscious.

Video: Floris Neusüss

At Lacock Abbey in Wiltshire, England, Floris Neusüss reveals his preparations to make a picture without a camera - a 'photogram' - of the window that formed the subject of William Henry Fox Talbot's first photographic negative, made there in 1835. In the Abbey's grounds Neusüss also demonstrates the creation of 'cyanotype' photograms using fern leaves, recreating the methods of the very first photographs.
View transcript of video

Pierre Cordier

Pierre Cordier (born Brussels, Belgium, 1933) discovered the 'chemigram' process in 1956. Over many years, he has explored the potential of the chemigram like an experimental scientist.

Working more like a painter or printmaker than a photographer, Cordier replaces the canvas or printing plate with photographic paper. He applies photographic developer to the paper to create dark areas and fixer for lighter tones. Further changes to shape and pattern are made by 'localising' products such as varnish, wax, glue, oil, egg and syrup. These protect the surface of the photographic emulsion or can be incised to create a drawing, graphic motif or written text. Entrancing chemical and physical reactions can then be made by repeatedly dipping the paper in photographic developer and fixer. This method allows him to create images impossible to realise by any other means. The process has become the artwork and his style is his technique.

Video: Pierre Cordier

Cordier is seen here in his Brussels studio. Working more like a painter or printmaker than a photographer, he replaces the canvas or printing plate with photographic paper. Using photographic chemicals - as well as varnish, wax, glue, oil, egg and syrup - he creates enigmatic images that are impossible to realize by any other means. In Cordier's work, the process itself becomes the artwork and his style is his technique.
View transcript of video

Garry Fabian Miller

In 1984 Garry Fabian Miller (born Bristol, England, 1957) discovered a method of using a photographic enlarger that allowed a direct translation between plants and the photographic print. Later, in 1992, he turned to making abstract images in the darkroom, using only glass vessels filled with liquids, or cut-paper forms to cast shadows and filter light.

Many of his works explore the cycle of time over a day, month or year, through controlled experiments with varying durations of light exposure. His works are enriched by being seen in sequences that explore and develop a single motif and colour-range. Often, the images are conceived as remembered landscapes and natural light phenomena.

At the heart of Fabian Miller's vision is a belief in the contemplative existence of the artist, whose practice and life outside metropolitan culture are intertwined. The works he creates are simple, yet multi-layered - tranquil yet energised.

Video: Garry Fabian Miller

Garry Fabian Miller creates glowing abstract photographs by casting shadows, or blocking and filtering light on photographic paper in the darkroom. He often walks on Dartmoor for inspiration, the location of his home and studio in south-west England. This film shows the dramatic landscape and the artist at work, discussing the symbolism of his powerful imagery.
View transcript of video

Susan Derges

Susan Derges (born London, England, 1955) studied painting at Chelsea School of Art and the Slade School of Fine Art, London. She then lived in Japan for six years, before returning to the UK in 1986. Her images reveal the hidden forces of nature, from the patterns of sound waves to the flow of rivers.

During the 1990s, Derges became well known for her photograms of water. To make these works, she used the landscape at night as her darkroom, submerging large sheets of photographic paper in rivers and using the moon and flashlight to create the exposure.

Within seeming chaos, Derges conveys a sense of wonder at the underlying orderliness. She examines the threshold between two interconnected worlds: an internal, imaginative or contemplative space and the external, dynamic, magical world of nature. Her works can be seen as alchemical, transformative acts that test the threshold between matter and spirit.

Video: Susan Derges

Susan Derges uses the landscape at night as her darkroom, submerging large sheets of photographic paper in rivers and using the moon and flashlight to create the exposure. This film shows her working in her studio, preparing to make a photogram outdoors, and discussing her use of water as a metaphor for transformation.
View transcript of video

Adam Fuss

Adam Fuss (born London, England, 1961) grew up moving between rural Sussex in the South of England and Australia before settling to work in New York in 1982. He made his first photogram in 1986.

His work concerns the discovery of the unseen: it deals with time and energy rather than material form. As well as mastering numerous historic and modern photographic techniques, Fuss has developed an array of symbolic or emblematic motifs.

Drawing upon his childhood memories and personal experiences, his works are conceived as visual elegies centred around the universal themes of life and death. Through outward sensory vision, they explore metaphysical ideas of non-sensory insight.

Video: Adam Fuss

Conceived as visual elegies, Adam Fuss's work is about the discovery of the unseen, the expression of the ephemeral and the universal themes of life and death. Working in his darkroom, he creates a series of 'daguerreotype' photograms of butterflies. Now a largely obsolete photographic medium, the daguerreotype was first used in the 1840s. Fuss also uses live snakes in his studio, making images that explore the animal's symbolic and metaphorical meanings.
View transcript of video
This text was originally written to accompany the exhibition Shadow Catchers: Camera-less Photography, on display at the V&A South Kensington between 13 October 2010 and 20 February 2011.

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The V&A commissioned a short film on each of five international artists (featured in the 'Shadow Catchers: Camera-less Photography' exhibition), showing their studios and the places that inspire them. This is a revealing and evocative look at their working environments and an insight into their creative ideas.

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The albumen print was invented in 1850 and was the most common type of print for the next 40 years. It produced a clearer image than its predecessor, the salted paper print. An albumen print was made by coating paper with a layer of egg white and salt to create a smooth surface. The paper was then coated with a layer of silver nitrate. The salt and silver nitrate combined to form light sensitive silver salts. This double coated paper could then be placed in contact with a negative and exposed to the sun to produce a print.

Autochromes were the first really practicable colour photographs and were made by a process patented in 1904. An autochrome was a coloured, transparent image on glass, similar to a slide. The colour came from a layer of translucent granules of potato starch, each dyed red, blue or green to create a coloured mosaic on the glass plate. During exposure, light travelled through these granules to reach a light sensitive layer below; red granules would only allow red light to travel through, and so on. The light sensitive layer was therefore selectively exposed by colour. When the autochrome was held up to the light, the coloured granules were viewed in combination with the black and white image behind to create a colour photograph.

A c-type print, usually made from a colour negative, is a colour print in which the print material has at least three emulsion layers of light sensitive silver salts. Each layer is sensitised to a different primary colour - either red, blue or green - and so records different information about the colour make-up of the image. During printing, chemicals are added that form dyes of the appropriate colour in the emulsion layers. It is the most common type of colour photograph.

William Henry Fox Talbot patented the Calotype process in 1841. It is the direct ancestor of modern photography because it used a negative permitting multiple positive prints to be made from the negative and development of the latent image. The negative was a sheet of high quality writing paper which had been made light-sensitive with chemicals. Because the image was contained in the fabric of the paper rather than on a surface coating, the paper fibres tended to show through in the prints making them mottled and relatively 'sketchy'.

Carbon printing was introduced from 1864. A sheet of paper was coated with a layer of light-sensitive gelatin which contained a permanent pigment (often carbon). It was then exposed to daylight under a negative. Carbon prints have a matt finish and can be produced in a variety of colours, ranging from rich sepia tones to cooler shades of grey and blue. Because of their resistance to fading they were much used in the 1870s and 1880s for book illustration and commercial editions of photographs.

Chemigrams are made by directly manipulating the surface of photographic paper, often with varnishes or oils and photographic chemicals. They are produced in full light and rely on the maker's skill in harnessing chance for creative effect. Documented experiments are often an important part of the process.

Collage (from the French 'coller' - to stick) involves combining fragments of different materials, which are not necessarily photographic. There is normally no attempt to conceal the edges of the pieces and the artist might add pencil, pen or brush work onto the surface. Montage (from the French 'monter' - to mount) involves combining diverse photographic images to produce a new work. This is often achieved by rephotographing the mounted elements or by multiple exposures.

Cliché-verreis a photograph made from a hand-drawn negative. The design is either drawn or painted on to a sheet of glass, or, alternatively, scratched on to a piece of glass that has been made opaque by being painted over or blackened with smoke. The sheet of glass is then placed on a sheet of sensitized paper and exposed to light. The blackened area of the glass acts as a stencil, creating an image on the paper below only where light was able to pass through the glass.

A sheet of glass hand-coated with a thin film of collodion (guncotton dissolved in ether). This contains potassium iodide and is sensitised on location with silver nitrate. For maximum sensitivity, the plate had to be exposed while still wet and developed immediately. Introduced in 1851 by F. Scott Archer, the process gave a high resolution of detail. Dry collodion negatives, introduced later, were made by covering the collodion with a layer of albumen or gelatin.

Discover more about the wet collodion process.

The collotype process was used between about 1870 and 1920. A glass plate was coated with sensitised gelatin and exposed under a negative. Light passed through the negative would harden the gelatin on the glass plate. The unexposed gelatin would absorb the water when washed and the exposed gelatin would repel it. The washed glass plate would be coated with ink, adhering to the exposed gelatin and printed onto fine paper.

The cyanotype process for making prints was invented by Sir John Herschel in 1842 and came from his discovery of the light sensitivity of iron salts. A sheet of paper was brushed with iron salt solutions and dried in the dark. The object to be reproduced - a plant specimen, a drawing or a negative - was then placed on the sheet in direct sunlight. After about 15 minutes a white impression of the subject formed on a blue background. The paper was then washed in water where oxidation produced the brilliant blue - or cyan - that gave the process its name.

The invention of the daguerreotype process was announced by the Frenchman Louis Daguerre in 1839 and was widely acclaimed. The image produced had a startling clarity and made the daguerreotype hugely popular as a medium for portraiture until the middle of the 1850's. To create a daguerreotype, a silver plated sheet was given a light sensitive surface coating of iodine vapour. After a long exposure in the camera, the image was developed over heated mercury and fixed in a solution of common salt. As the image lies on the surface of a highly polished plate, it is best seen from an angle to minimise reflections.

Discover more about the daguerreotype process.

Digital images are created using a gridded mosaic of light sensitive picture elements, called pixels, embedded on a computer chip. The pixels emit electrical signals in proportion to the amount of light they receive and these signals are converted to numbers and then stored electromagnetically - in a computer or on a disc, for example. Digital images can be manipulated and altered by computer and regenerated in many ways: on computer or television screens, on film, printed or projected. The technology for producing digital images is evolving rapidly with new possibilities constantly emerging.

Dye destruction prints are made using print material which has at least three emulsion layers, each one sensitised to a different primary colour - red, blue or green - and each one containing a dye related to that colour. During exposure to a colour transparency, each layer records different information about the colour make-up of the image. During printing, the dyes are destroyed or preserved to form a full colour image in which the three emulsion layers are perceived as one. Dye destruction prints are characterised by vibrant colour. The process used to be called Cibachrome: it is now known as Ilfochrome.

Dye transfer prints are prized for their rich colours and relative permanence. A dye transfer print is produced from three separate negatives made by photographing the original negative through red, green and blue filters. A mould is made from each of the three negatives which are transfered to a gelatin coated paper to produce a full colour image.

Gelatin silver prints are the most usual means of making black and white prints from negatives. They are papers coated with a layer of gelatin which contains light sensitive silver salts. They were developed in the 1870's and by 1895 had generally replaced albumen prints because they were more stable, did not turn yellow and were simpler to produce. Gelatin silver prints remain the standard black and white print type.

This type of printing, popular in the early twentieth century, allowed a high degree of control and artistic manipulation. The paper is brushed with a coating of gum arabic, water, pigment and potassium (or ammonium) bichromate, and usually exposed in contact with a negative. Brushing or washing the surface could dissolve areas of the coating hardened more or less by exposure, thus changing contrast and adding effects reminiscent of drawing or painting

Joseph Nicéphore Niépce invented this process in which he first coated a pewter plate with light-sensitive Bitumen of Judea (asphaltum). Taking an existing engraving on paper, he waxed it to make it translucent and placed it on the plate in the sun. Its rays hardened the bitumen under the light areas of the image. The plate was washed with a solvent, which removed the unexposed areas, and etched in acid. It was then ready for inking and printing. Recent technical analysis of the Niépce plates in the Victoria and Albert Museum has revealed the use of another light-solidified material, which resembles the resin obtained when heating lavender oil, and a range of levels of etching and hand-tooling over the plates. Niépce also experimented with the plates inside a camera, producing the earliest known surviving photograph made in a camera, View from the Window at Le Gras (1826 or 1827).

A variation of the photogram. In a luminogram, light falling directly on the paper forms the image. Objects placed between the light and the paper (but not touching the paper) will filter or block the light, depending on whether they are transparent or opaque.

Commercial photocopying was introduced by the Xerox company in 1959. Most current photocopiers rely on xerography technology, a dry process using electrostatic charges on a light-sensitive photoreceptor to first attract and then transfer toner powder onto paper in the form of an image. Heat, pressure or a combination of both is then used to fuse the toner onto the paper.

Photogenic drawing was William Henry Fox Talbot's name for the results of his first cameraless photographic process which he announced in 1839. In its simplest form a smooth high quality sheet of writing paper was immersed in a solution of table salt and then dried. Talbot brushed the paper with a solution of silver nitrate. This combined with the salt to produce silver chloride which is light sensitive. Small objects such as leaves and lace could then be placed on the paper and exposed to sunlight. This produced a light image of the object against a dark background; in other words, a negative image.

A photogram is a photograph made without a camera or a lens by placing an object or objects on top of a piece of paper or film coated with light-sensitive materials and then exposing the paper or film to light. Where the object covers the paper, the paper remains unexposed and light in tone: where it does not cover, the paper darkens. If the object is translucent, midtones appear. After exposure the paper is developed and fixed.

These are methods of photographically producing copper or steel printing plates that can then be used in a conventional press. The first was patented by William Henry Fox Talbot in 1852, and the second by him in 1858. At first, a copper or steel plate was coated with a gelatin solution made light-sensitive with potassium bichromate. The object to be depicted, such as a leaf or piece of fabric, was placed on top. Exposure to daylight hardened the areas not covered by the object. The unhardened areas were then washed off and the plate etched in acid. With etching complete, the gelatin was removed and the plate could then be printed. The addition of screens or other graining allowed Talbot to devise his second process, which had a much wider tonal range. A glass photographic positive was put over the sensitized plate and used to make the image. Nature made the faithful original photographic drawing, but, in the final prints, carbon-based ink relied on nothing light-sensitive and preserved the original image for posterity. This was the direct forerunner of the photogravure process.

Photogravure is a process for reproducing a photograph in large editions. It uses gelatin to transfer the image from a black and white negative to a copper printing plate. The gelatin carries the image because it hardens in proportion to its exposure to light. Areas of the gelatin not exposed stay soft and can be dissolved away in water. What remains is a gelatin version of the image which is then pressed onto a copper plate. The plate is placed in an acid bath. Where the gelatin is thick, the acid eats the metal away slowly, where the gelatin is thin or absent, the acid eats faster. Consequently, the plate is etched to different depths according to the tones of the original image. When inked for printing, the varying depths hold different amounts of ink.

This form of digital print is made via an inkjet printer. As a form of art reproduction, inkjet prints became more widely available in the 1980s, when digital printer technology improved and printers became less expensive. The first inkjet prints were created with Iris printers, developed by Iris Graphics, Inc., and are therefore sometimes known as Iris prints. High-quality versions are sometimes termed giclée prints. Some types of digital inkjet printing use pigments rather than ink or dyes. Pigment particles embed into the receiving paper and are therefore more permanent.

The process for making platinum prints was invented in 1873 by William Willis. The process depends on the light sensitivity of iron salts to create an image. Chemical reactions exploited during developing, however, dissolve out the iron salts and replace them with platinum. Platinum prints were popular until the 1920's when the price of platinum rose so steeply that they became too expensive. They were valued for their great range of subtle tonal variations, usually silvery greys, and their permanence. Recently platinum prints have enjoyed a revival for fine art photography.

An instant film, giving an almost immediate positive print.

Radiography is the imaging technique using X-rays that pass through an object and are captured directly behind it on photographic film, or, more recently, on digital sensors. The first X-ray images were made in Germany by Wilhelm Röntgen in late 1895.

Salt prints were the earliest positive prints and were invented by William Henry Fox Talbot in 1840, as a direct development from his earlier photogenic drawing process. A salt print was made by soaking a sheet of paper in salt solution and then coating one side with silver nitrate. This produced light sensitive silver chloride in the paper. After drying, the paper was put directly beneath a negative, under a sheet of glass, and exposed to sunlight for up to two hours. Salt prints were made until about 1860 having been gradually replaced by the albumen print which gave a clearer image although the process was sometimes revised later.

The process of directly capturing digitized images of objects uses a flatbed 'photo' scanner. Commercial flatbed colour scanners were intended to copy paper documents, but they became increasingly available and affordable in the 1990s and led to experimentation by artists. The scanner's limited depth of field means that three-dimensional objects placed on it only appear in focus about 12 mm from the surface, yet the image resolution is comparatively high compared with standard digital camera capture.

The Woodburytype was a form of photomechanical reproduction of a photograph patented in 1864 by Walter Bentley Woodbury. Despite the painstaking care required, it remained popular until about 1900 because of the very high quality of the final image. This image was formed in pigmented gelatin rather than ink, with thicker or thinner areas of gelatin giving darker or lighter tone. The result was a reproduced image that was very true to the original and highly luminous.

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The albumen print was invented in 1850 and was the most common type of print for the next 40 years. It produced a clearer image than its predecessor, the salted paper print. An albumen print was made by coating paper with a layer of egg white and salt to create a smooth surface.

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Summary of Man Ray

Man Ray's career is distinctive above all for the success he achieved in both the United States and Europe. First maturing in the center of American modernism in the 1910s, he made Paris his home in the 1920s and 1930s, and in the 1940s he crossed the Atlantic once again, spending periods in New York and Hollywood. His art spanned painting, sculpture, film, prints and poetry, and in his long career he worked in styles influenced by Cubism, Futurism, Dada and Surrealism. He also successfully navigated the worlds of commercial and fine art, and came to be a sought-after fashion photographer. He is perhaps most remembered for his photographs of the inter-war years, in particular the camera-less pictures he called 'Rayographs', but he always regarded himself first and foremost as a painter.

Accomplishments

Although he matured as an abstract painter, Man Ray eventually disregarded the traditional superiority painting held over photography and happily moved between different forms. Dada and Surrealism were important in encouraging this attitude; they also persuaded him that the idea motivating a work of art was more important than the work of art itself.

For Man Ray, photography often operated in the gap between art and life. It was a means of documenting sculptures that never had an independent life outside the photograph, and it was a means of capturing the activities of his avant-garde friends. His work as a commercial photographer encouraged him to create fine, carefully composed prints, but he would never aspire to be a fine art photographer in the manner of his early inspiration, Alfred Stieglitz.

André Breton once described Man Ray as a 'pre-Surrealist', something which accurately describes the artist's natural affinity for the style. Even before the movement had coalesced, in the mid 1920s, his work, influenced by Marcel Duchamp, had Surrealist undertones, and he would continue to draw on the movement's ideas throughout his life. His work has ultimately been very important in popularizing Surrealism.

Biography of Man Ray

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Man Ray's career is distinctive above all for the success he achieved in both the United States and Europe. First maturing in the center of American modernism in the 1910s, he made Paris his home in the 1920s and 1930s, and in the 1940s he crossed the Atlantic once again, spending periods in New York and Hollywood.

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Artist Talk with Joel-Peter Witkin (2008) Part 2

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LAND SCAPE by David LaChapelle (1/2) | Phase One