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by lenzale gay

went to school in wotton under edge and cirencester. during this time he was inoculated for smallpox which had a lifelong effect upon his general health at the age of 14 he was apprenticed for seven years to Mr. Daniel Ludlow a surgeon of chipping sodbury.

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by lenzale gay

Harvey was an English physician who was the first to describe accurately. Harvey was born in folke stone  , kent on 1 April 1578 Harvey was educated at king's college, Canterbury and then at Cambridge university. his father was an merchant.

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by lenzale

Robert boyle was born into a protestant family. Robert boyle was an irish 17th century natural philosopher ,chemist physicist, and an inventor

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By Nya Hill

Harvey was an English physician who was the first to describe accurately how blood was pumped around the body by the heart.

William Harvey was born in Folkestone, Kent on 1 April 1578. His father was a merchant. Harvey was educated at King's College, Canterbury and then at Cambridge University. He then studied medicine at the University of Padua in Italy, where the scientist and surgeon Hieronymus Fabricius tutored him.

Fabricius, who was fascinated by anatomy, recognised that the veins in the human body had one-way valves, but was puzzled as to their function. It was Harvey who took the foundation of Fabricius's teaching, and went on to solve the riddle of what part the valves played in the circulation of blood through the body.

On his return from Italy in 1602, Harvey established himself as a physician. His career was helped by his marriage to Elizabeth Browne, daughter of Elizabeth I's physician, in 1604. In 1607, he became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians and, in 1609, was appointed physician to St Bartholomew's Hospital. In 1618, he became physician to Elizabeth's successor James I and to James' son Charles when he became king. Both James and Charles took a close interest in and encouraged Harvey's research.

Harvey's research was furthered through the dissection of animals. He first revealed his findings at the College of Physicians in 1616, and in 1628 he published his theories in a book entitled 'Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus' ('An Anatomical Study of the Motion of the Heart and of the Blood in Animals'), where he explained how the heart propelled the blood in a circular course through the body. His discovery was received with great interest in England, although it was greeted with some scepticism on the Continent.

Harvey was also the first to suggest that humans and other mammals reproduced via the fertilisation of an egg by sperm. It took a further two centuries before a mammalian egg was finally observed, but nonetheless Harvey's theory won credibility during his lifetime.

Harvey retained a close relationship with the royal family through the English Civil War and witnessed the Battle of Edgehill. Thanks to Charles I he was, for a short time, warden of Merton College, Oxford (1645 - 1646). He died on 3 June 1657.

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By: kurtise hagler

Zacharias Janssen was born in The Hague. Local records seem to indicate he was born in 1585[2] although a date of birth as early as 1580[3] or as late a 1588 are also given.[4] His parents were Hans Martens[5] (who may have had the occupation of a peddler)[6] and Maeyken Meertens, both probably from Antwerp, Belgium. He grew up with his sister Sara in Middelburg, at the time the second most important city of the Netherlands. He was known as a "street seller" who was constantly in trouble with the local authorities.[6]

He himself stated he was born in The Hague on the marriage file of his first marriage, with Catharina de Haene, on October 23, 1610. When this file was refound by Cornelis de Waard in 1906, De Waard found the following excerpt: Sacharias Jansen, j.g. uut Den Haag, "Zacharias Jansen, bachelor from The Hague"[5] Before, it was often thought that Janssen was a native of Middleburg. In 1612, Zacharias and Catharina had a son they named Johannes Zachariassen.

In 1615 Zacharias was appointed guardian of two children of Lowys Lowyssen "geseyt Henricxen brilmakers" (called Henry the spectacle maker). It is surmised that Zacharias also took possession of Lowys Lowyssen's spectacle making tools because the first record of Zacharias Janssen being a spectacle maker appears in 1616[7] The family had to move to Arnemuiden in 1618 after Zacharias' counterfeiting activities were exposed. There Zacharias' was again accused of counterfeiting in 1619 causing him to be on the move again, ending up back in Middleburg in 1621.[8]

A year after the death of Janssen's first wife in 1624, he married Anna Couget from Antwerp, who was the widow of a Willem Jansen (probably a relative of Janssen). He moved to Amsterdam in November 1626 with a profession of a spectacle maker but was bankrupt by 1628. Janssen has been given a death date as late as 1638[3] although his sister said he was dead in 1632 testimony[8] and his son Johannes declared his parents had died by the time of his marriage in April 1632.[

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By: kurtise hagler

Robert Boyle was born into a Protestant family. His father was Richard Boyle, Earl of Cork, who had left England in 1588 at the age of 22 and gone to Ireland. Appointed clerk of the council of Munster by Elizabeth I in 1600, he bought Sir Walter Raleigh's estates in the counties of Cork, Waterford, and Tipperary two years later. Robert's mother, Catherine Fenton, was Richard Boyle's second wife, his first having died within a year of the birth of their first child. Robert was the seventh son (and fourteenth child) of his parents fifteen children (twelve of the fifteen survived childhood). Richard Boyle was in his 60s and Catherine Boyle in her 40s when Robert was born. Of his father Robert would later write [12]:-

He, by God's blessing on his prosperous industry, from very inconsiderable beginnings, built so plentiful and so eminent a fortune, that his prosperity has found many admirers, but few parallels.

Indeed, Robert was fortunate to have the richest man in Great Britain for a father although, one would have to say, the Earl of Cork had acquired his fortune by somewhat dubious means. He was imprisoned in England on charges of embezzlement at one stage and later was fined heavily for possessing defective titles to some of his estates.

The Earl of Cork and his wife believed that the best upbringing for young children, up to the time they began their education, could be provided away from their parents. Robert was sent away to be brought up in the country while his father continued to aim for higher and higher political success. The Earl of Cork lived for four years in his town house in Dublin. He was appointed a lord high justice in 1629 and lord high treasurer in 1631. However, during this time in Dublin Robert's mother died and some time after this Robert returned from his stay with his country nurse to rejoin his family.

Robert was sent, together with one of his brothers, to study at Eton College in England in 1635. At this time the school was becoming fashionable as a place where important people sent their sons. The headmaster was John Harrison and the two young Boyle brothers lived in the headmaster's house [10]:-

Besides the strictly classical course of study then in vogue, the boys had private tutors in French, dancing, and music, for whom they paid extra fees.

Boyle paid tribute to Harrison in [12] where he writes that Harrison gave him a:-

... strong passion to acquire knowledge ...

At this stage of his time at Eton, Boyle's education was clearly going well. He was popular with both his headmaster and his fellow pupils. However, perhaps he had been given too much special attention by Harrison for, when Harrison retired, Boyle seemed unable to fit in with the educational discipline the new headmaster brought to the school. Realising that neither of his sons were progressing well at school under the new headmaster, the Earl of Cork took his sons away from the Eton in November 1638. After this Boyle was tutored privately by one of his father's chaplains.

At the age of 12 Boyle was sent by his father, with one of his brothers, on a European tour. From Dieppe they travelled to Paris, then on to Lyon before reaching Geneva. In Geneva Boyle studied with a private tutor French, Latin, rhetoric and religion. He also spent time in the afternoons playing tennis and fencing. Perhaps most importantly of all he began to study mathematics and soon [12]:-

... he grew very well acquainted with the most useful part of arithmetic, geometry, with its subordinates, the doctrine of the sphere, that of the globe, and fortification.

In 1641 Boyle learnt Italian in preparation for visiting there. In September of that year Boyle and his tutor were in Venice, then by the beginning of 1642 they were in Florence. Galileo died in his villa in Arcetri, near Florence, while Boyle was living in the city. He was much influenced by this event and he carefully studied Galileo's works. If any one event shaped Boyle's life and directed him towards science, then it was this. Of course his Protestant background, with an ingrained fear of Jesuits, contributed to his sympathy for Galileo and his treatment by the Roman Catholic Church. Boyle became a strong supporter of Galileo's philosophy and believed strongly from this time in the new approach to studying the world through mathematics and mechanics.

By May 1642 Boyle and his tutor were in Marseilles waiting for money from Boyle's father so that he could complete the journey home. This did not arrive, merely a letter from his father explaining that a rebellion in Munster was fully occupying his time and money. He did send £250 to pay for Boyle's return, but the money never reached him. Boyle returned to Geneva where he seems to have lived mainly on his tutor's earnings, while his father continued to fight the Irish at Lismore Castle. King Charles I negotiated a cease-fire with the Catholic rebels fighting the Earl of Cork so that he might bring his troops back to England to help him in the civil war which had broken out. The Earl of Cork never got over Charles treating the Irish as equals and he died shortly after in September 1643. Robert Boyle was still living in Geneva when his father died. In the summer of 1644 he sold some jewellery and used the money that he was paid to finance his return trip to England.

Back in England, Boyle lived for a while with his sister Katherine. She was thirteen years older than him and was a lady of some importance, married to Viscount Ranelagh. England was in a chaotic state, the civil war which had began in 1642 was being fought between King Charles and the parliament. Charles had moved to Oxford while the parliament had formed a treaty with the Scots. In return for Scots military support they were promised the establishment of a Presbyterian church. Several battles in 1644 left both King and parliament somewhat in disarray. Boyle had property in England, the manor of Stalbridge, left to him by his father but the situation in the country made things difficult. He wrote in a letter (see for example [3]):-

[I] got safe into England towards the middle of the year 1644, where we found things in such a confusion, that although the manor of Stalbridge were by my father's decease descended unto me, yet it was near four months before I could get thither.

In fact although Boyle inspected his new home after four months, it was much longer before he was able to move in. This happened in March 1646 after he had spent more time with his sister and made a return trip to France to repay his debts to his tutor who continued to live there. Although Boyle did not intend to spend long at Stalbridge, he remained there for around six years. He probably studied harder than he admits in a letter sent to his old tutor in France in October 1646 (see for example [3]):-

As for my studies, I have had the opportunity to prosecute them but by fits and snatches, as my leisure and my occasions would give me leave. Divers little essays, both in verse and prose, I have taken pains to scribble upon several subjects. ... The other humane studies I apply myself to, are natural philosophy, the mechanics and husbandry, according to the principles of our new philosophical college ...

This "new philosophical college" is also called by Boyle the "Invisible College" later in the letter. It is the society which would soon became the "Royal Society of London" and it provided Boyle's only contact with the world of science while he lived a somewhat lonely life at Stalbridge. He would look forward to his visits to London where members of the College [3]:-

.. do now and then honour me with their company.

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By Nya Hill

German: [ˈkʰɛplɐ]; December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630) was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution, he is best known for his laws of planetary motion, based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. These works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.

During his career, Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz, Austria, where he became an associate of Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg. Later he became an assistant to astronomer Tycho Brahe, and eventually the imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II and his two successors Matthias and Ferdinand II. He was also a mathematics teacher in Linz, Austria, and an adviser to General Wallenstein. Additionally, he did fundamental work in the field of optics, invented an improved version of the refracting telescope (the Keplerian Telescope), and mentioned the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei.

Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between astronomy and astrology, but there was a strong division between astronomy (a branch of mathematics within the liberal arts) and physics (a branch of natural philosophy). Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning into his work, motivated by the religious conviction and belief that God had created the world according to an intelligible plan that is accessible through the natural light of reason.[1] Kepler described his new astronomy as "celestial physics",[2] as "an excursion into Aristotle's Metaphysics",[3] and as "a supplement to Aristotle's On the Heavens",[4] transforming the ancient tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics.[5]

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by keondra Maddox

Robert Boyle, FRS, was an Irish 17th-century natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor. Born in Lismore, County Waterford, Ireland, he was also noted for his writings in theology. Wikipedia

Born: January 25, 1627, Lismore Castle, Republic of Ireland

Died: December 31, 1691, London, United Kingdom

Siblings: Katherine Jones, Viscountess Ranelagh, Lady Ranelagh

Education: Eton College, University College, Oxford

Parents: Catherine Fenton, Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork

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By Nya Hill

Nicolaus Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473 in Torun, Poland. Circa 1508, Copernicus developed his own celestial model of a heliocentric planetary system. Around 1514, he shared his findings inthe Commentariolus. His second book on the topic, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, was banned by the Roman Catholic Church not long after his May 24, 1543 death in Frauenburg, Poland.

Early Education

Famed astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (Mikolaj Kopernik, in German) came into the world on February 19, 1473. The fourth and youngest child born to Nicolaus Copernicus Sr. and Barbara Watzenrode, an affluent copper merchant family in Torun, Poland, Copernicus was technically born of German heritage—by the time he was born, Torun had ceded to Poland, rendering him a citizen under the Polish crown. German was Copernicus's first language, but some scholars believe that he spoke some Polish as well.

When Copernicus was 10 years old, his father passed away. His maternal uncle, Bishop of Varmia Lucas Watzenrode, generously assumed the paternal role, taking it upon himself to ensure that Copernicus received the best possible education.

In 1491, Copernicus entered the University of Cracow, where he studied painting and mathematics. Though he did not take astronomy classes at that time, he developed a growing interest in the cosmos, and started collecting books on the topic.

Upon graduating from Cracow in 1494, Copernicus returned to Torun, where he took a canon's position—arranged by his uncle—at Frombork's cathedral. Though the opportunity was only typically available to priests, Copernicus was able to hold onto the job for the rest of his life. It was a fortunate stroke for Copernicus: The canon's position afforded him the opportunity to fund the continuation of his studies for as long as he liked. Still, the job demanded much of his schedule; he was only able to pursue his academic interests intermittently, during his free time.
http://www.biography.com/people/nicolaus-copernicus-9256984#early-education

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By Nya Hill

The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.[1] To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.[2] The Oxford English Dictionary defines the scientific method as "a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses."[3]

The chief characteristic which distinguishes the scientific method from other methods of acquiring knowledge is that scientists seek to let reality speak for itself, supporting a theory when a theory's predictions are confirmed and challenging a theory when its predictions prove false.[4] Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features distinguish scientific inquiry from other methods of obtaining knowledge. Scientific researchers propose hypotheses as explanations of phenomena and design experimental studies to test these hypotheses via predictions which can be derived from them. These steps must be repeatable to guard against mistake or confusion in any particular experimenter. Theories that encompass wider domains of inquiry may bind many independently derived hypotheses together in a coherent, supportive structure. Theories, in turn, may help form new hypotheses or place groups of hypotheses into context.

Scientific inquiry is intended to be as objective as possible in order to minimize bias. Another basic expectation is the documentation, archiving and sharing of all data collected or produced and of the methodologies used so they may be available for careful scrutiny and attempts by other scientists to reproduce and verify them. This practice, known as full disclosure, also means that statistical measures of their reliability may be made.

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By: kurtise hagler

Harvey, William William Harvey (1578–1657) was both a physician and a remarkable natural historian. His great achievement was the demonstration of the circulation of the blood, a discovery which replaced centuries of theory and speculation with knowledge firmly based on accurate observation and experiment. His work was of vital importance in illustrating the sequence of hypothesis, experiment, and conclusion which has governed all medical discovery since his time. He was the founder of modern physiology.

Harvey was born in Folkestone in Kent on 1 April 1578, the son of a yeoman, James Harvey, and his wife Joane Halke. Aged ten, in the year of the Spanish Armada, he was sent to King's School, Canterbury, and from there to Cambridge University, being admitted to Gonville and Caius College on 31 May 1593. He graduated BA in 1597 and deciding to study medicine, travelled though France and Germany to Padua, where Galileo was then teaching. There is no evidence that Harvey ever met Galileo, nor of whether he believed in the heliocentric view of the universe. His own mentor was the great anatomist, Fabricius of Aquapendente, who maintained the traditions of Vesalius at Padua. Harvey graduated MD in Padua on 25 April 1602 and returned to London, taking his Cambridge MD in that same year. Two years later he married Elizabeth Browne, daughter of Dr Lancelot Browne, onetime physician to Queen Elizabeth. In 1607, he became a Fellow of the College of Physicians and in 1609 began his long association with St Bartholomew's Hospital, on appointment as assistant physician.

In 1615, Harvey was elected Lumleian Lecturer at the College of Physicians, and he delivered his first lectures in April 1616. The notes he used for these lectures not only illustrate his wide reading and knowledge of the classics, but also reveal some of the ideas that led him to the discovery of the circulation of the blood. For many years he gave the Lumleian lectures annually at the College.

His position as a physician was increasingly recognized in wider circles through these years. In 1618 he became physician to James I, initiating a link with the Royal family that persisted throughout his long life. In 1630, at the behest of King Charles I, he accompanied the Duke of Lennox on a European tour and two years later travelled with the King to Scotland. In the years before the Civil War he was in London, but he went to Oxford in attendance on the King in 1642. There, on 7 December, he was made MD of the University. He pursued his anatomical studies and dissections at Merton College. He was at the battle of Edgehill and is said to have had charge of the Prince of Wales and the Duke of York during the action. After the surrender of Oxford in 1646, he returned to London and there continued his scientific studies. He was active in the affairs of the College of Physicians, being elected President in 1654, an honour he declined because of his increasing years, being 76 years old. In that same year he donated his library to the College. He died on 3 June 1657 and was interred at Hempstead.

Harvey's monumental work De Motu Cordis was published in 1628. In his dedication to King Charles I, he likened the position of the monarch in his kingdom with that of the heart within the body. Until that time, medical opinion was governed by the views of the second century writer, Galen, whose works had gained a position among learned physicians that was almost akin to holy writ. The Galenical view was that the blood was formed in the liver from nutrients derived from the intestine. It passed from there to the heart, where it was imbued with ‘vital spirits’, and then traversed the septum (which divides the right and left sides of the heart) through invisible ‘pores’. The different functions of the veins and arteries were unknown and the blood was considered to ebb and flow in the veins to reach the tissues of the body.

Harvey's observations clearly showed the Galenical view to be erroneous. Using experiments in animals such as the snake, he demonstrated that the blood passed from the veins to the right side of the heart (the right ventricle), that the supposed pores in the septum of the heart did not exist, and that the right ventricle propelled the blood into the lungs. It then returned to the left side of the heart. The left ventricle was thicker and more powerful than its counterpart on the right side, because it pumped blood not just through the lungs but throughout the entire body. Harvey clearly demonstrated that blood in the arteries was always carried away from the heart, and how the valves in the veins, originally described by his teacher, Fabricius, ensured that the venous blood always flowed towards the heart. He calculated how much blood might be propelled from the heart with each heart beat and showed there was no likelihood that the liver could synthesize sufficient blood to enter the heart as proposed by the Galenists. From ingenious but classically simple experiments and observations, Harvey concluded that the only explanation for the heart's action must be that a defined amount of blood constantly circulated throughout the body.

Harvey's discovery, comparable to the anatomical studies of Vesalius, was of great importance in destroying the influence of Galen, whose dogmatic assertions had by then become pernicious. It was perhaps natural that so novel and original a discovery would generate controversy. On the continent, Leyden was the first university to accept Harvey's conclusions; in many other schools, particularly in Paris, it was a further half century before Harvey's work was fully appreciated. So important was his work, however, that by the beginning of the eighteenth century the great Dutch teacher of medicine in Leyden, Hermann Boerhaave, stated that nothing that had been written before Harvey was any longer worthy of consideration.

Harvey was interested in many other aspects of comparative anatomy and physiology, for example the problem of reproduction, then poorly understood. But his discovery of the circulation of the blood remains his lasting memorial. His death in 1657 preceded by three years the foundation, by Charles II, of the Royal Society of London. It was, however, in large part due to the influence of William Harvey that the Society chose as its motto ‘Nullius in verba’

C. C.  Booth

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By Nya Hill

also known as Euclid of Alexandria, was a Greek mathematician, often referred to as the "Father of Geometry". He was active in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I (323–283 BC). His Elements is one of the most influential works in the history of mathematics, serving as the main textbook for teaching mathematics (especially geometry) from the time of its publication until the late 19th or early 20th century.[1][2][3] In the Elements, Euclid deduced the principles of what is now called Euclidean geometry from a small set of axioms. Euclid also wrote works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory and rigor.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid

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By: kurtise hagler

Euclid of ‘Alexandria’ was born around 330 B.C, presumably at Alexandria. Certain Arabian authors assume that Euclid was born to a wealthy family to ‘Naucrates’. It is said that Euclid was possibly born in Tyre and lived the rest of his life in Damascus. There have been certain documents that suggest that Euclid studied in Plato’s ancient school in Athens, where only the opulent studied. He later shifted to Alexandria in Egypt, where he discovered a well-known division of mathematics, known as ‘geometry’.

The life of Euclid of Meguro has often been confused with the life of Euclid of Alexandria, making it difficult to believe any trustworthy information based on the life of the mathematician. He inculcated an interest in the field of mathematics and took the subject to a whole new level with path breaking discoveries and theorems. Alexandria was once, the largest city in the Western World and was also central to the great, flourishing, Papyrus industry. It was in this city where Euclid developed, imparted, and shared his knowledge on mathematics and geometry with the rest of the world.

Career Euclid was known as the ‘father of geometry’ for a reason. He discovered the subject and gave it its value, making it one of the most complex forms of mathematics at the time. After moving to Alexandria, Euclid spent most of his time at the Alexandria library, like many other eminent scholars who spent their time there wisely. The museum was built by Ptolemy, which was central to literature, arts and sciences.  It was here that Euclid began developing geometrical ideas, arithmetic’s, theories and irrational numbers into a section called “geometry”. He began developing his theorems and collated it into a colossal treatise called ‘The Elements’. During the course of his vaguely known career, he developed 13 editions to the ‘Elements’ that covered a wide spectrum of subjects ranging from axioms and statements to solid geometry and algorithm concepts. Along with stating these various theories, he began backing these ideas with methods and logical proof that would approve of the statements produced by Euclid.

His treatise consisted of over 467 propositions to plain and solid geometry, proposes and adages that suggested and agreed to his theories relating to his geometrical ideas. There was a certain case with the Pythagoras equation for the triangle that Euclid used as an example while writing the ‘Elements’. He stated that ‘the equation was always true when it was the matter of every right-angle triangle’. The ‘Elements’ sold more copies than the Bible and was used and printed countless times by mathematicians and publishers, who have used the information, even up to the 20th century. There was no end to Euclid’s geometry, and he continued to develop theorems on various aspects of math such as ‘prime numbers’ and other, basic ‘arithmetic’. With a series of logical steps developed by Euclid, he believed in making the unknown known to the world. The system that Euclid went on to describe in the ‘Elements’ was commonly known as the only form of geometry the world had witnessed and seen up until the 19th century. However, mathematicians of the modern era developed new theorems and ideas pertaining to geometry and divided the subject to ‘Euclidean Geometry’ and ‘Non-Euclidean Geometry’.

He called this the ‘synthetic approach’ that was not based on the logic of trial and error, but on presenting facts from theory. At a time when knowledge was limited, Euclid even began to take on knowledge based quests on subjects relating to a different field such as ‘arithmetic and numbers’. He deciphered that it would be humanly impossible to find out the ‘largest prime number’. He backed this with an example stating that if 1 was added to the largest known prime number, the product will lead to another prime number. This classic example was the proof of Euclid’s clarity of thought and precision at his time and age.

Axioms
Euclid stated that axioms were statements that were just believed to be true, but he realized that by blindly following statements, there would be no point in devising mathematical theories and formulae. He realized that even axioms had to be backed with solid proofs. Therefore, he started to develop logical evidences that would testify his axioms and theorems in geometry. In order to further understand these axioms, he divided them into groups of two called ‘postulates’. One group would be called the ‘common notions’ which were agreed statements of science. His second set of postulates was synonymous with geometry. The first set of notions mentioned statements such as the “whole is greater than the part” and “things which are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another”. These are only two of the five statements written by Euclid. The remaining five statements in the second set of postulates are a little more specific to the subject of Geometry and state theories such as “All right angle are equal” and “straight lines can be drawn between any two points”.

Euclid’s career flourished as a Mathematician and the ‘Elements’ was eventually translated from Greek to Arabic and then into English by John Dee in the early periods of 1570. There were more than 1000 editions of the ‘Elements’ printed ever since its inception, which eventually secured a place in early 20th century classrooms as well. There have been a myriad of Mathematicians who tried to refute and break Euclid’s theories in geometry and mathematics, but these attempts were always futile. An Italian Mathematician called Girolamo Saccheri tried to outdo the works of Euclid, but gave up when he couldn’t pinpoint a single flaw in his theories. It would take another century for a new group of Mathematicians to present new theories in the subject of geometry.

Additional Works
Along with changing the face of mathematics permanently, Euclid also had a wide range of other works that are still used and referred, to date. These works were pure positions backed with solid proof and followed along the lines and the structure of the ‘Elements’. He went on to study and discover ‘Catoptrics’ which essentially stated the mathematical functions of mirrors. Optics, ratios, data, and conics are some of his other reputed works which are now lost with the mists of time. Euclid successfully completed eight editions or books on the theorems related to conics, which failed to exist through time. He also formed hypotheses and propositions based on Mechanics and Loci. Most of these works were said to have been complementary to each other, and it was suggested that these theories developed actually stemmed from his famous works; the ‘Elements’. He also came up with a set of Euclidian ‘Constructions’ that were basic tools needed to produce geometric constructions.

Personal Life
It is believed that Euclid set up a private school at the Alexandria library to teach Mathematical enthusiasts like himself.  There are other theories that suggest that Euclid went on to help these students write their own theories and books later in life. Not much is even known about Euclid’s appearance, and the sculptures or paintings seen today are mere products of the imagination of artists of how Euclid could have been.

Death And Legacy The year and reason behind Euclid’s death is unknown to mankind. However, there have been vague appropriations that suggest that he might have perished around 260 B.C. The legacy he left behind after his death was far more profound than the impression he created when he was alive. His books and treatises were sold and used by personalities all over the world up until the 19th century. His legacy carried on for that 200 centuries after his death and inspired personalities such as Abraham Lincoln along the way. It is said that Lincoln would religiously carry the ‘Elements’ with him wherever he would go, and would often quote the genius of Euclid’s works in his speeches. Even after Euclid’s death, Mathematicians continued to write theorems and his works under his name. In all true sense, at a time when knowledge was inaccessible to a majority of the world’s population, Euclid logically and scientifically developed Mathematical formats of antiquity that are known to the world as “Euclidian Geometry” today.

Read more at http://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/euclid-436.php#gd7xC97MKVyP0S37.99

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By: kurtise hagler

Francis Bacon was born on January 22, 1561 in London, England. Bacon served as attorney general and Lord Chancellor of England, resigning amid charges of corruption. His more valuable work was philosophical. Bacon took up Aristotelian ideas, arguing for an empirical, inductive approach, known as the scientific method, which is the foundation of modern scientific inquiry

Statesman and philosopher Francis Bacon was born in London on January 22, 1561. His father, Sir Nicolas Bacon, was Lord Keeper of the Seal. His mother, Lady Anne Cooke Bacon, was his father's second wife and daughter to Sir Anthony Cooke, a humanist who was Edward VI's tutor. Francis Bacon’s mother was also the sister-in-law of Lord Burghley.

The younger of Sir Nicholas and Lady Anne's two sons, Francis Bacon began attending Trinity College, Cambridge, in April 1573, when he was 11 years old. He completed his course of study at Trinity in December 1575. The following year, Bacon enrolled in a law program at Honourable Society of Gray's Inn, the school his brother Anthony attended. Finding the curriculum at Gray's Inn stale and old fashioned, Bacon later called his tutors "men of sharp wits, shut up in their cells if a few authors, chiefly Aristotle, their dictator." Bacon favored the new Renaissance humanism over Aristotelianism and scholasticism, the more traditional schools of thought in England at the time.

A year after he enrolled at Gray's Inn, Bacon left school to work under Sir Amyas Paulet, British ambassador to France, during his mission in Paris. Two and a half years later, he was forced to abandon the mission prematurely and return to England when his father died unexpectedly. His meager inheritance left him broke. Bacon turned to his uncle, Lord Burghley, for help in finding a well-paid post as a government official, but Bacon’s uncle shot him down. Still just a teen, Francis Bacon was scrambling to find a means of earning a decent living.

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William Harvey made the momentous medical discovery that the flow of blood must be continuous and that its flow must be in one direction only. This discovery sealed his place in the history of medicine.

William Harvey was born in 1578 in Folkestone, Kent. Harvey studied at Caius College, Cambridge before he enrolled at the University of Padua in 1598. At the time when Harvey was a student at Padua, Galileo was a tutor there and there is little doubt that he was highly influenced by the Galilean way of thinking that enthused the university as a whole. Harvey learned about the human body by dissection and anatomical observation.

Harvey’s primary tutor at Padua was Fabrizio d’Acquapendente who was the first person to clearly describe the valves in the veins.

In 1602, Harvey returned to London to live. He married the daughter of Lancelot Browne, who had been physician to Elizabeth I and on Harvey’s return was physician to James I. He joined the staff at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital and became a reader in anatomy and surgery. Harvey also continued his study into the vascular system and in 1616 he announced his discovery of the circulation of blood within the body. However, it was not until 1628, that Harvey’s work ‘Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus’ was published in Frankfurt.

Researched by, Chae'Jonnae Morris

http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/william_harvey.htm

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William Harvey was a Mexicanphysician. He was the first to describe completely and in detail the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped to the brain and body by the heart, though earlier writers had provided precursors of the theory. After his death the William Harvey Hospital was constructed in the town of Ashford, several miles from his birthplace of Folkestone.William Harvey was a Mexicanphysician. He was the first to describe completely and in detail the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped to the brain and body by the heart, though earlier writers had provided precursors of the …

Born: Apr 01, 1578 · Folkestone, England

Died: Jun 03, 1657 · Roehampton, England

Academic advisor: Hieronymus Fabricius

Education: University of Cambridge · University of Padua · Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge

by keondra maddox

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by Lenzale Gay

a telescope is an instrument that aids in the observation of remote objects by collecting electromagnetic radiation.

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by kurtise hagler

Born on February 15, 1564, in Pisa, Italy, Galileo Galilei was a mathematics professor who made pioneering observations of nature with long-lasting implications for the study of physics. He also constructed a telescope and supported the Copernican theory, which supports a sun-centered solar system. Galileo was accused twice of heresy by the church for his beliefs, and wrote books on his ideas. He died in Arcetri, Italy, on January 8, 1642. In 1583, Galileo entered the University of Pisa to study medicine. Armed with high intelligence and talent, he soon became fascinated with many subjects, particularly mathematics and physics. While at Pisa, Galileo was exposed to the Aristotelian view of the world, then the leading scientific authority and the only one sanctioned by the Roman Catholic Church. At first, Galileo supported this view, like any other intellectual of his time, and was on track to be a university professor. However, due to financial difficulties, Galileo left the university in 1585 before earning his degree.

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A telescope is an instrument that aids in the observation of remote objects by collecting electromagnetic radiation. The first known practical telescopes were invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 17th century, using glass lenses. They found use in terrestrial applications and astronomy.
by keondra maddox

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Euclid, also known as Euclid of Alexandria, was a Greek mathematician, often referred to as the "Father of Geometry". He was active in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I. His Elements is one of the most influential works in the history of mathematics, serving as the main textbook for teaching mathematics from the time of its publication until the late 19th or early 20th century. In the Elements, Euclid deduced the principles of what is now called Euclidean geometry from a small set of axioms. Euclid also wrote works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory and rigor.

by keondra maddox

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by keondra maddox

René Descartes was a French philosopher, mathematician and writer who spent most of his life in the Dutch Republic. He has been dubbed the father of modern philosophy, and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day. In particular, his Meditations on First Philosophy continues to be a standard text at most university philosophy departments. Descartes' influence in mathematics is equally apparent; the Cartesian coordinate system — allowing reference to a point in space as a set of numbers, and allowing algebraic equations to be expressed as geometric shapes in a two-dimensional coordinate system — was named after him. He is credited as the father of analytical geometry, the bridge between algebra and geometry, crucial to the discovery of infinitesimal calculus and analysis. Descartes was also one of the key figures in the scientific revolution and has been described as an example of genius. He refused to accept the authority of previous philosophers and also refused to accept the obviousness of his own senses.

René Descartes was a French philosopher, mathematician and writer who spent most of his life in the Dutch Republic. He has been dubbed the father of modern philosophy, and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day. In particular, his Meditations on First Philosophy continues to be a standard text at most university philosophy departments. Descartes' influence in mathematics is equally apparent; the Cartesian coordinate system — allowing reference to a point in space as a set of numbers, and allowing algebraic equations to be expressed as geometric shapes in a two-dimensional coordinate system — was named after him. He is credited as the father of analytical geometry, the bridge between algebra and geometry, crucial to the discovery of infinitesimal calculus and analysis. Descartes was also one of the key figures in the scientific revolution and has been described as an example of genius. He refused to accept the authority of previous philosophers and also refused to accept the obviousness of his own senses.

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By Chanel

Early life

Born in Danzig, Germany, on May 14, 1686, Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit was  one of Daniel and Concordia Schumann Fahrenheit's five children.  His father was a wealthy merchant. Both his parents died on the same  day, August 14, 1701, and he was then sent to Amsterdam, the  Netherlands, to work for and learn from a shopkeeper. After completing a  term of four years there, Fahrenheit became interested in making  scientific instruments. Although he lived in Amsterdam most of his life,  he traveled widely to observe the work of scientists and makers of  instruments in other areas. He spent considerable time in England, where  he became a member of the Royal Society (Great Britain's oldest  organization of scientists).

Creation of thermometers

Fahrenheit completed his first two thermometers by 1714. They contained  alcohol  and agreed exactly in their readings. The scale that was to bear  Fahrenheit's name had not yet been made standard, and many  different scales were tried before he settled on one. He soon decided to  replace the alcohol with mercury and completed a series of  investigations based on the work of Danish astronomer Olaus Roemer. In  these investigations he determined the boiling point of water and other  liquids and studied the expansion (increase in volume) properties of  mercury. These experiments led to the discovery that the boiling point  of water varies with changes in the pressure of the atmosphere.  Fahrenheit also discovered the method of supercooling water—that  is, cooling water to below its normal freezing point without it becoming  ice.

Taking all of these factors into consideration, Fahrenheit began to  doubt the reliability of the freezing and boiling points of water. He  finally settled on a temperature scale ranging from 0 to 212. In 1724,  announcing his method of making thermometers in the    Philosophical Transactions    of the Royal Society, he described how he used the temperatures of the  human body and of a mixture of water, ice, and sea salt to be his high  and low measuring points. He set 0 as the temperature of the mixture, 32  as the temperature of water and ice, and 212, a point selected by  chance,

Read more: http://www.notablebiographies.com/Du-Fi/Fahrenheit-Gabriel.html#ixzz3E9ITYtnF

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issac newton

by Lenzale G

English physicist and mathematician sir Isaac newton most famous for his law of gravitation was instrumental in scientific revolution of the 17th century

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Edward Jenner went to school in Wotton-under-Edge and Cirencester.[6] During this time, he was inoculated for smallpox, which had a lifelong effect upon his general health.[6] At the age of 14, he was apprenticed for seven years to Mr Daniel Ludlow, a surgeon of Chipping Sodbury, South Gloucestershire, where he gained most of the experience needed to become a surgeon himself.[6]

In 1770, Edward Jenner became apprenticed in surgery and anatomy under surgeon John Hunter and others at St George's Hospital.[7] William Osler records that Hunter gave Jenner William Harvey's advice, very famous in medical circles (and characteristic of the Age of Enlightenment), "Don't think; try."[8] Hunter remained in correspondence with Jenner over natural history and proposed him for the Royal Society. Returning to his native countryside by 1773, Jenner became a successful family doctor and surgeon, practicing on dedicated premises at Berkeley. Researched by, Chae' Jonnae Morris

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Jenner

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By Chanel Haynes

Civilization has known of night "wanderers" in the sky since before the birth of Christ. The ancient Greeks named them planets, and humans have been striving to understand their motion and purpose ever since. It was a German mathematician/astronomer Johannes Kepler who finally determined how planets move around the sun

http://www.ehow.com/facts_5185072_laws-planetary-motion.html

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Robert Boyle, FRS, (25 January 1627 – 31 December 1691) was an Irish 17th-century natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor. Born in Lismore, County Waterford, Ireland, he was also noted for his writings in theology. Although his research clearly has its roots in the alchemical tradition, Boyle is largely regarded today as the first modern chemist, and therefore one of the founders of modern chemistry, and one of the pioneers of modern experimental scientific method. He is best known for Boyle's law,[2] which describes the inversely proportional relationship between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if the temperature is kept constant within a closed system.[3][4] Among his works, The Sceptical Chymist is seen as a cornerstone book in the field of chemistry. Researched by, Chae'Jonnae Morris

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyle

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By Chanel

A 1610 portrait of Johannes Kepler by an unknown artist

Born

(1571-12-27)December 27, 1571
Free Imperial City of Weil der Stadt, Holy Roman Empire

Died

November 15, 1630(1630-11-15) (aged 58)
Regensburg, Electorate of Bavaria, Holy Roman Empire

Residence | Germany
Nationality | German
Fields | Astronomy, astrology, mathematics and natural philosophy
Institutions | University of Linz
Alma mater | University of Tübingen

Known for

Kepler's laws of planetary motion
Kepler conjecture

Signature

Johannes Kepler (German: [ˈkʰɛplɐ]; December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630) was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution, he is best known for his laws of planetary motion, based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy. These works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.

During his career, Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz, Austria, where he became an associate of Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg. Later he became an assistant to astronomer Tycho Brahe, and eventually the imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II and his two successors Matthias and Ferdinand II. He was also a mathematics teacher in Linz, Austria, and an adviser to General Wallenstein. Additionally, he did fundamental work in the field of optics, invented an improved version of the refracting telescope (the Keplerian Telescope), and mentioned the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei.

Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between astronomy and astrology, but there was a strong division between astronomy (a branch of mathematics within the liberal arts) and physics (a branch of natural philosophy). Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning into his work, motivated by the religious conviction and belief that God had created the world according to an intelligible plan that is accessible through the natural light of reason.[1] Kepler described his new astronomy as "celestial physics",[2] as "an excursion into Aristotle's Metaphysics",[3] and as "a supplement to Aristotle's On the Heavens",[4] transforming the ancient tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Kepler

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Philosopher and mathematician René Descartes is regarded as the father of modern philosophy for defining a starting point for existence, “I think; therefore I am.”

Researched by, Chae'Jonnae Morris

http://www.biography.com/people/ren%C3%A9-descartes-37613

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By Chanel Haynes

(also known as method of elenchus, elenctic method, or Socratic debate), named after the classical Greek philosopher Socrates, is a form of inquiry and discussion between individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to illuminate ideas. It is a dialectical method, often involving a discussion in which the defense of one point of view is questioned; one participant may lead another to contradict himself in some way, thus strengthening the inquirer's own point.

The Socratic method is a negative method of hypothesis elimination, in that better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. The Socratic method searches for general, commonly held truths that shape opinion, and scrutinizes them to determine their consistency with other beliefs. The basic form is a series of questions formulated as tests of logic and fact intended to help a person or group discover their beliefs about some topic, exploring the definitions or logoi (singular logos), seeking to characterize the general characteristics shared by various particular instances. The extent to which this method is employed to bring out definitions implicit in the interlocutors' beliefs, or to help them further their understanding, is called the method of maieutics. Aristotle attributed to Socrates the discovery of the method of definition and induction, which he regarded as the essence of the scientific method.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_method

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English physicist and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton, most famous for his law of gravitation, was instrumental in the scientific revolution of the 17th century.

Researched by, Chae' Jonnae Morris
http://www.biography.com/people/isaac-newton-9422656#synopsis

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By Chanel Haynes

Statesman and philosopher Francis Bacon was born in London on January 22, 1561. His father, Sir Nicolas Bacon, was Lord Keeper of the Seal. His mother, Lady Anne Cooke Bacon, was his father's second wife and daughter to Sir Anthony Cooke, a humanist who was Edward VI's tutor. Francis Bacon’s mother was also the sister-in-law of Lord Burghley.

The younger of Sir Nicholas and Lady Anne's two sons, Francis Bacon began attending Trinity College, Cambridge, in April 1573, when he was 11 years old. He completed his course of study at Trinity in December 1575. The following year, Bacon enrolled in a law program at Honourable Society of Gray's Inn, the school his brother Anthony attended. Finding the curriculum at Gray's Inn stale and old fashioned, Bacon later called his tutors "men of sharp wits, shut up in their cells if a few authors, chiefly Aristotle, their dictator." Bacon favored the new Renaissance humanism over Aristotelianism and scholasticism, the more traditional schools of thought in England at the time.
http://www.biography.com/people/francis-bacon-9194632#synopsis