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Features some activities to do in the classroom involving petroleum and other things.

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Shell is pleased to provide energy curriculum, to be used in classrooms and at home.

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https://www.usgs.gov/science-support/osqi/yes/resources-teachers/lesson-plans-activities-9-12

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USGS Kids- Activities
Activities, games, coloring pages, projects, and stories that teach younger children about animals, climate change, bee population declines, wild birds, and more.

Wildlife and Contaminants- Lessons
A series of lessons targeted to high school students that introduces the topic of ecotoxicology and guides students through the scientific process of gathering raw data and drawing conclusions about the impact of contaminants on wildlife.

Become a Phenology Observer- Activity
The National Phenology Network (sponsored by the USGS) is looking for volunteers to help monitor plant and animal species found across the United States. Learn how to monitor plant and animal phenology and sign up to contribute new observations to the national phenology database. Make this a classroom project!

Lessons on the Lake: An Educator's Guide to the Pontchartrain Basin- Lessons
Louisiana's Lake Pontchartrain Basin is home to 1.5 million people and an estuary ecosystem with enormous biodiversity. Activities in the educator's guide help students in grades 5-12 gain an understanding and appreciation of the Basin and teaches them the skills to identify environmental concerns, make changes, and solve problems.

Land and People- Activity
Students look at interactions between people and the environment in three regions of the United States: Cape Cod, Los Angeles, and the Everglades. Targeted to grades 7-12.

Interactive San Francisco Bay Data- Activity
Look at plots of data collected from the water of San Francisco Bay, then generate your own plots using real data. How does a change in light penetration compare to water temperature? Does a change in salinity correspond with a change in chlorophyll?

Topographic Map Resources for Teachers - Lessons and Activities
This directory level site includes links to various resources on topographic maps, how to obtain them, read them, their history, and map projections and includes links to various teaching activities and modules. It is the one-stop shop for learning about, using, and teaching topographic map concepts.

I ntroduction to Soils - Lessons
A series of lessons teaching high school students about soils and linking them to climate, vegetation, and geology.

Exploring Maps- Lesson
Exploring Maps is an interdisciplinary set of materials on mapping for grades 7-12. Students will learn basic mapmaking and map-reading skills and will see how maps can answer fundamental geographic questions. The map images and activities in this packet can be used in various courses, including geography, history, math, art, English, and the sciences.

Constructing a 3D Topographic Map- Activity
This exercise uses clear plastic take-out lids, each marked with a different elevation line, and stacked to produce a 3D topographic map. It includes a base map of Angel Island (San Francisco Bay) but can be adapted to any local topographic feature.

27 Ideas for Teaching with Topographic Maps- Activity
Contains 27 ideas for teaching with the approximately 57,000 topographic maps that the USGS offers.

Map Mysteries- Lesson
Sample questions to use with USGS topographic and thematic maps as starting points to uncover mysteries about the cultural and physical geography of the Earth.

Corn Maze Geography- Activity
Visit a corn maze and use these activities to learn about maps and geography.

How to Use a Compass with a USGS Topographic Map- Activity
Learn to navigate using a topographic map and a compass.

Map-It: Form-based Simple Map Generator- Activity
Enter the longitude and latitude of points to plot on a simple map. Download a postscript version of the resulting map. Satellite Imagery

Tracking Change over Time- Activity
Enhance students' learning of geography, map reading, earth science, and problem solving through landscape changes recorded by satellites in space.

AmericaView- Lessons
USGS is a partner in AmericaView, which has lesson plans and other education resources for working with satellite imagery. Mostly targeted to grades 6-12.

AmericaView- Lesson
USGS is a partner in AmericaView, which has lesson plans and other education resources for working with satellite imagery. Mostly targeted to grades 6-12.

Journey Along a Field Line- Activity
A sixteen-page comic book about the Earth's magnetic field. Travel down through the interior of the earth then back up into the ionosphere to learn how the magnetic field works.

Antarctic Ice Sheet- Lessons and Activities
This report illustrates, through a paper model, why there are changes on the ice sheet that covers the Antarctica continent. By studying the paper model, students will better understand the evolution of the Antarctic ice sheet. Animations mentioned in the Educator Guides are no longer available.

Chicxulub Impact Event- Lessons and Activities
This report illustrates, by means of two paper models, how dinosaurs may have become extinct as a result of an asteroid impact. By studying the paper models, students will better understand the mass extinctions that have been part of the Earth's history. Animations mentioned in the Educator Guides are no longer available.

Crinoids- Lessons and Activities
This report illustrates, through the use of a paper model, how crinoids lived and became fossilized. By studying the paper model, students will better understand the flower-like animal that is referred to as a "sea lily" and its ocean-floor environment. Animations mentioned in the Educator Guides are no longer available.

How to Construct Four Paper Models that Describe Island Coral Reefs- Activity
This report contains instructions and patterns for preparing a set of four, three-dimensional paper models that schematically illustrate the development of island coral.

Make Your Own Paper Fossils- Lessons and Activities
This report illustrates, by means of paper models, how two organisms, a trilobite and a nautiloid, became fossils. The report is intended to help students and others visualize the size and shape of a trilobite and a nautiloid, the environment in which they lived, and the circumstances of their fossilization and subsequent discovery. Animations mentioned in the Educator Guides are no longer available.

I ntroduction to Soils - Lessons
A series of lessons teaching high school students about soils and linking them to climate, vegetation, and geology.

Make Your Own Paper Model of a Volcano- Lessons and Activities

This report contains instructions and a pattern for making a three-dimensional paper model of a volcano. This model is intended to help students and others to visualize a stratovolcano (inside and out) and to learn some of the terms used by geologists in describing it.

Paper Model Showing Motion on the San Andreas Fault- Activity
This report contains instructions and patterns for preparing a three-dimensional model that schematically illustrates the fault motion that occurred during the Loma Prieta earthquake of October 17, 1989, in California. The model is intended to help students and others visualize the process of fault slip during earthquakes.

Sand Dunes- Lessons and Activities
This report illustrates, through computer animations and paper models, why sand dunes can develop different forms. By studying the animations and the paper models, students will better understand the evolution of sand dunes.

How to construct 7 paper models that describe faulting of the Earth- Activity
This report contains instructions and patterns for preparing seven three-dimensional paper models that schematically illustrate common earth faults and associated landforms.

2 Paper Models Showing the Effects of Glacial Ice on a Mountain Valley- Activity
This report contains instructions and templates for preparing three-dimensional paper models of two features a mountain valley partly filled by a glacier and the same valley after the glacier has melted. Included are brief descriptions of how such glaciers form, how they erode the landscape, and what kinds of physiographic features they produce.

Earthquake Effects- Lessons and Activities
The report is intended to help students and others visualize what causes earthquake shaking and some of the possible results of the shaking. Animations mentioned in the Educator Guides are no longer available.

Landslide Effects- Lessons and Activities
This report illustrates how four different types of landslides (slide, slump, flow, and rockfall) occur and what type of damage may result. The report is intended to help students and others visualize what causes landslides and some of the possible result of the landslides. Animations mentioned in the Educator Guides are no longer available.

Plate Tectonics Tennis Ball Globe- Activity
Create a mini globe that shows the major plate boundaries of the world (scroll to page 15).

This Dynamic Planet Teaching Companion Packet- Lessons and Activities
This Teaching Companion is intended to assist teachers to teach plate tectonics, primarily for grades 6-14.

Schoolyard Geology- Activities
Structured activities use man-made features that are found in a typical schoolyard to demonstrate geologic principles.

The Lifecycle of a Mineral Deposit- Activities
A teacher's guide for hands-on mineral education activities. Designed to meet the National Science Standards, this product includes 10 activity-based learning exercises that educate students on basic geologic concepts; the processes of finding, identifying, and extracting the resources from a mineral deposit; and the uses of minerals. Geared for fifth through eighth grade science teachers.

Collecting Rocks- Activity
Learn about different types of rocks and how to identify and collect them.

What's in My Soil?- Activity
Students separate, examine and identify the major components of soil to better understand how these components give soil its unique physical characteristics.

Introduction to Soils- Lesson
This complete lesson plan teaches students how soils develop and provides links between soils, climate, vegetation, and geology. Includes materials for both teachers and students (handout, puzzle, field and lab sheets).

Graded Bedding- Activity
Students are introduced to the concept of graded bedding, in which particles are sorted by size as they settle out of suspension. Students will discover that water is a good medium to separate and sort particles, and that particles have different behaviors in water and air.

Geologic Age- Activity
Students investigate radioactivity as a tool for measuring geologic time.

Greenhouse Gases- Activity
Students observe and contrast thermal properties of three major greenhouse changes over time for dry air, water-saturated air, carbon dioxide, and methane.

I ntroduction to Soils - Lessons
A series of lessons teaching high school students about soils and linking them to climate, vegetation, and geology.

Evaluating Glacier and Landscape Change- Lesson
In this lesson students interpret USGS data in multiple formats and draw conclusions based on the data presented.

Tabletop Earthquakes- Activity
Construct a simple earthquake machine to demonstrate the principles of seismology. Includes supporting instructional material.

Size and Occurrence of Floods- Activity
Students use macaroni or beans to calculate the statistics of floor recurrence (see back side of poster).

Living with a Volcano in your Backyard- Activities
A three-unit guide that provides science content and inquiry-based activities about volcanoes of the Cascade Range for middle-school students, with an emphasis on Mount Ranier. Includes more than 30 activities, a field guide, glossary, and supplementary information.

Predict an Eruption!- Activities
This highly interactive site uses animations, illustrations, activities, and quizzes to show how eruptions at Mount St. Helens were accurately predicted by USGS scientists, then allows students to predict an actual eruption using real data.

The Fragile Fringe: A Guide for Teaching about Coastal Wetlands- Background Information and Activities
Material to use for developing a comprehensive study of coastal wetlands. Includes background information, suggested activities, glossary, references, and reading list. Activities can be demonstrated by the teacher or performed by students. Emphasis is on Gulf Coast wetlands.

Hands-on Experiments to Test for Acid Mine Drainage- Activities
Fourteen very basic exercises use home-made litmus paper and household items to test creek water for acid mine drainage and to look at plants, bacteria, and insects living in the water.

Ask a River to Text You with a WaterAlert- Activity
Incorporate real-time data in the classroom by receiving instant, customized updates about water conditions at a specific river through WaterAlert.

Outreach Notebook for Groundwater- Lessons
Five groundwater-related lesson plans for grades 6-8, complete with forms, diagrams, and supporting information. Although these were designed to be taught by an instructor and a water professional working together, a thoughtful educator could easily handle the lessons on their own.

Size and Occurrence of Floods- Activity
Students use macaroni or beans to calculate the statistics of floor recurrence (see back side of poster).

I ntroduction to Soils - Lessons
A series of lessons teaching high school students about soils and linking them to climate, vegetation, and geology.

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USGS Kids- ActivitiesActivities, games, coloring pages, projects, and stories that teach younger children about animals, climate change, bee population declines, wild birds, and more. Wildlife and Contaminants- LessonsA series of lessons targeted to high school students that introduces the topic of ecotoxicology and guides students through the scientific process of gathering raw data and drawing conclusions about the impact of contaminants on wildlife.

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https://authoring.concord.org/sequences/501/activities/9699/pages/124941/582979c8-ff80-4169-9821-2a79be1947ed

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GPS data, along with earthquake and volcano data, allowed scientists to make a model of what Earth looked like in the past. The maps below illustrate the locations of Earth's continents and oceans over hundreds of millions of years. There are 15 maps representing Earth from today (0 millions of years ago) to 514 million years ago (Ma or mya).

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https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/?encyclopedia=petroluem-oil&gclid=CjwKCAiA17P9BRB2EiwAMvwNyIhvif5RjwlgFcdUZrAzUoelJxJejF12QaMmrY5gtytLbDKB7jrHyhoCseQQAvD_BwE

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Geologists tell us crude oil is the product of prehistoric organic material subjected to compression and heating over geological time. Once produced, crude oil undergoes refining to create such widely-used products as gasoline, diesel, and heating oil.

Due to its high energy density, easy transportability, and relative abundance, oil has been the world's leading source of energy since the mid-1950s. Much like coal's contribution to the Industrial Revolution, oil's transformation into useful products brought incredible advancements in personal transportation and the portable application of energy to the vastness of America first, and then to the world.

Today, oil meets 36 percent of US energy demand [i], with 71 percent directed to fuels used in transportation - gasoline, diesel and jet fuel. Another 24 percent is used in industry and manufacturing, almost 5 percent is used in the commercial and residential sectors, and less than 1 percent is used to generate electricity. [ii]Petroleum is the main mover of our nation's commerce and its use for transportation has made our world more intimate. It is the transportation fuel, as almost all of our nation's transportation is dependent upon its concentrated liquid form.

Today, the EIA estimates U.S. proven oil reserves to be about 39.9 billion barrels. [iii] States leading American oil production are, in order of their volume: Texas, North Dakota, California, Alaska, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming and Louisiana.[iv] However, only Texas produces more oil than produced in the Federal offshore.

The U.S. had become increasingly dependent on foreign oil to meet its growing energy needs, until recently, as the share of imported oil on a net basis has dropped from 60% in 2005 to 24% in 2015. Major sources of imported oil are Canada, Mexico, and OPEC, particularly Saudi Arabia, and include 16 percent coming from the Persian Gulf on a gross basis.[v]

The United States' dependence on foreign sources of energy was intensified by federal government restrictions on oil and natural gas production in certain energy-rich locations here at home. Since 1982, these policies have closed about half the waters in the Gulf of Mexico to oil and gas exploration. Most of the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) on the East and West coasts was off limits to energy exploration, and lack of infrastructure and opposition to Alaska's OCS has forestalled access to the area's enormous energy potential.

However, Congress allowed the moratoria to most of the offshore areas to expire on September 30, 2008, providing an estimated resource of 18 billion barrels of additional crude oil. This estimate is considered extremely conservative by most petroleum experts because, historically, oil discoveries are not made until one is allowed to look. The issue, however, is far from over, particularly since the Obama Administration put a moratorium on offshore drilling after the BP oil spill from the Macondo well in the Gulf of Mexico in April 2010. While the moratorium has been rescinded, the pace of oil drilling permits approved by the Department of Interior has been extremely slow and the new offshore areas that were to be opened based on Congressional action in 2008 have essentially been put on hold. They are not included in the Department of Interior's offshore lease plan for 2012 to 2017. Similarly, an estimated 10.4 billion barrels of oil in a small portion of Alaska's Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) has been placed off limits to energy production until US government policy allows it. While the offshore lease plan for 2017-2022 had some new OCS areas proposed, the Obama administration has modified the plan to remove the Atlantic coast OCS. [vi]
American Energy Potential
Contrary to the notion that we are "running out" of oil, the U.S. continues to be rich in petroleum potential. Certain sources of oil have been too expensive to produce in the past, but are now economic. Shale oil, for instance, has undergone the same renaissance as shale gas due to hydraulic fracturing and directional drilling. The increased production of oil has taken place primarily on private and state lands. Oil production on public lands has been declining primarily due to actions by the Obama administration that have increased the processing time for permits and restricted access to public lands rich in petroleum. Oil on these lands and waters can be accessed with new technologies and remain abundant, awaiting only government approval and/or private investment to become additional sources of new domestic energy.

One massive potential American energy resource is known as oil shale. In fact, no other nation in the world is as rich in oil shale as the U.S. The largest deposits of American oil shale are located in Colorado, Utah, New Mexico and Wyoming. And though extraction poses some technical challenges, US oil shale in-place resources contain the energy equivalent of over 2 trillion barrels of oil.

To put this figure in perspective, the world has used slightly more than 1 trillion barrels of oil since the first oil well was successfully drilled in Pennsylvania in 1859. As such, the United States' 2.6 trillion barrels of oil shale is a potentially huge new source of oil, and must be central to any discussion of our continental energy security. Shale and other new sources of oil, like oil sands currently being developed in Canada, offer important new North American energy supply options.

[i] Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, March 2016, http://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/pdf/sec1_7.pdf.

[ii] Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, March 2016, http://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/#petroleum .

[iii] Energy Information Administration, http://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_crd_cplc_dcu_NUS_a.htm

[iv] Energy Information Administration, http://www.eia.gov/state/state-energy-rankings.cfm?keyid=28&orderid=1

[v] Energy Information Administration, http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_
ep00_im0_mbblpd_a.htm .

[vi] Institute for Energy Research, https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/analysis/europeans-award-oil-exploration-licenses-obama-limits-opportunities-u-s/

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Geologists tell us crude oil is the product of prehistoric organic material subjected to compression and heating over geological time. Once produced, crude oil undergoes refining to create such widely-used products as gasoline, diesel, and heating oil. Due to its high energy density, easy transportability, and relative abundance, oil has been the world's leading source of energy since the mid-1950s.

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https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/petroleum.asp#:~:text=Petroleum%20is%20a%20fossil%20fuel,to%20intense%20heat%20and%20pressure.

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What Is Petroleum?

Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid found beneath the earth's surface that can be refined into fuel. Petroleum is a fossil fuel, meaning that it has been created by the decomposition of organic matter over millions of years. Petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms-primarily zooplankton and algae-underneath sedimentary rock are subjected to intense heat and pressure.

Petroleum is used as fuel to power vehicles, heating units, and machines, as well as being converted into plastics and other materials. Because the majority of the world relies on petroleum for many goods and services, the petroleum industry is extremely powerful and is a major influence on world politics and the global economy.

Understanding Petroleum

The extraction and processing of petroleum, and thus, its availability, is a major driver of the world's economy and geopolitics. Some of the largest companies in the world are involved in the extraction and processing of petroleum, and many other companies create products that are petroleum-based, including plastics, fertilizers, automobiles, and airplanes, for example. Asphalt, which is used to pave highways, is made from petroleum. Vehicles that drive on highways are made of materials derived from petroleum and run on fuels that are derived from petroleum.

Petroleum is recovered by oil drilling. After it has been recovered, it is refined and separated. It is most commonly refined into different types of fuels. Petroleum contains hydrocarbons of different molecular weights. In general, the denser the petroleum the more difficult it is to process and the less valuable it is.

In the petroleum industry, petroleum companies are divided into upstream, midstream and downstream. This refers to an oil and gas company's position in the supply chain. Upstream oil and gas companies identify, extract, or produce raw materials. Downstream oil companies engage in business related to the post-production of crude oil and natural gas. Midstream oil and gas companies connect downstream and upstream companies, typically by participating in the storage and transportation of oil and other refined products.

Disadvantages of Petroleum

Petroleums are a part of our everyday lives. However, the extraction process and the byproducts of the use of petroleum is toxic to the environment. Underwater drilling causes leaks, extraction from oil sands strips the earth and uses precious water, and fracking destroys the water table. Transporting petroleum through pipelines has the potential to destroy the local environment and shipping petroleum risks spills and uses energy.

Global petroleum use has had a negative impact on the wider environment because the carbon released into the atmosphere increases temperatures and is associated with global warming. Many products created with petroleum derivatives do not biodegrade quickly, and the overuse of fertilizers has damaged water supplies.

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Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid found beneath the earth's surface that can be refined into fuel. Petroleum is a fossil fuel, meaning that it has been created by the decomposition of organic matter over millions of years. Petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms-primarily zooplankton and algae-underneath sedimentary rock are subjected to intense heat and pressure.

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https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/ngmdb/ngmdb_home.html

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USGS (U.S. Geological Survey) National Geologic Map Database

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How to Find Oil and Methods of Extraction

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How to Find Oil and Methods of Extraction

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https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/energy/oil-drilling.htm

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In 2008 alone, the United States produced an estimated 4.9 million barrels of crude oil per day and imported 9.8 million barrels per day from other countries [source: U.S. Energy Information Administration]. This oil gets refined into gasoline, kerosene, heating oil and other products. To keep up with our consumption, oil companies must constantly look for new sources of petroleum, as well as improve the production of existing wells.

How does a company go about finding oil and pumping it from the ground? You may have seen images of black crude oil gushing out of the ground, or seen an oil well in movies and television shows like "Giant," "Oklahoma Crude," "Armageddon" and "Beverly Hillbillies." But modern oil production is quite different from the way it's portrayed in the movies.

In this article, we'll examine how modern oil exploration and drilling works. We'll discuss how oil is formed, found and extracted from the ground.

Oil is a fossil fuel found in many countries around the world. On the next page, we'll discuss how oil is formed and how geologists find it.

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In 2008 alone, the United States produced an estimated 4.9 million barrels of crude oil per day and imported 9.8 million barrels per day from other countries [source: U.S. Energy Information Administration]. This oil gets refined into gasoline, kerosene, heating oil and other products.

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https://www.shell.com/energy-and-innovation/overcoming-technology-challenges/finding-oil-and-gas.html

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Finding oil and gas reservoirs is a long and complex process. It can take years of research, survey work and exploration drilling before a single drop of oil or cubic meter of natural gas is produced.

We use a range of survey methods to find the best places to drill exploratory wells. These tools help us to look quickly, safely and cost-effectively for the geological formations that are most likely to contain energy resources.

Making the invisible visible

As the era of easy-to-find oil and gas comes to an end, we are developing new technologies that can detect reservoirs that were previously invisible. These reservoirs can be at depths of more than 3,000 metres, or hidden under thick layers of salt deep below the seabed, or trapped in geological faults where the rock is folded into complex structures.

High-quality images of reservoirs are essential for teams making decisions about where to explore for, or produce, oil and gas. The main challenge for the industry is how to obtain the best images in the shortest time, more cost-effectively.

To find oil and gas resources we use a range of geophysical imaging technologies. Seismic reflection imaging remains the most widely-used geophysical technique in hydrocarbon exploration.

First, we capture echoes using advanced sensors as the waves pass through, or bounce off, the rock and sediment deep underground. We place many sensors over a wide area to record waves from different angles to provide the best picture from beneath the surface in the site we are surveying.

Second, we process the vast amounts of seismic data we have gathered with high-performance computers using advanced algorithms to produce an accurate geological map of the site we are investigating.

And third, we use our GEOSIGNS TM visualisation software to turn the data into images that can be analysed and interpreted by our scientists quickly and efficiently. This ability to visualise and interpret billions of signals lies behind our biggest successes in oil and gas exploration.
Geophysical imaging: Download our brochure to learn how we make invisible energy resources visible
Monitoring production

We also use these technologies to continuously monitor our oil and gas fields during production. Seismic sensors provide a constant flow of data on the pressure, temperature and fluids in the fields, so that we can adjust production to meet changing conditions and ensure field integrity. They help us to extract more energy from the reservoirs and to identify pockets of oil or gas that we may have overlooked.

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Finding oil and gas reservoirs is a long and complex process. It can take years of research, survey work and exploration drilling before a single drop of oil or cubic meter of natural gas is produced. We use a range of survey methods to find the best places to drill exploratory wells.

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http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2016/ph240/keller1/

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John Keller
December 5, 2016

Submitted as coursework for PH240, Stanford University, Fall 2016

Introduction

Fig. 1: The Los Angeles Oil Fields which used giant wells to access. (Source: Wikimedia Commons)

Today we use to power important aspects of our lives such transportation fuels, powering electricity and heating, as well as helping the formation of our roads themselves. The oil industry has been apart of the American economy for well over a century. After the discovery of the Spindletop geyser in southeastern Texas more than 1,500 oil companies had been chartered. Since then oil had been the dominant fuel source and have played a huge role in the American economy. Furthermore, after the Standard Oil company finalized the contract to drill in Saudi Arabia, the oil enterprise really took off. This industry is still running strong today by producing an average of 9.4 million barrels of crude oil per day.

Horizontal Drilling

One of the most common ways of abstracting this oil in a technique known as horizontal drilling. This method is used in cases where the source happens to run horizontally, this is most commonly seen in rock shales. Having a "J" shaped pattern, a horizontal drilling unit must first determine the initial depth to reach before going "horizontal". Once proper depth is determined the next step is finding an angle, which is necessary in order to have the proper angle to be able to abstract the oil deep in the ground. An example of this can be shown in figure one.

Hydraulic Fracturing

Another main drilling technique is called hydraulic fracturing, more commonly known as fracking. Fracking is the most widespread and controversial techniques of oil refining, comprising of 90% of the natural gas well in the US. This process entails pumping highly pressurized fluid (often including sand, chemicals and other coarse material) through previously drilled wellbores, such as horizontal drilling wells. Despite the success rate of this technique there has been a fair amount of backlash due to fracking's environmental hazards. For example, upwards of 90% of the fracking fluid remains in the ground after use. [1] The list of environmental and health concerns goes on and on. Heated debates on the high levels of water used, toxin exposure, groundwater and soil contamination, and decreased levels air quality are all topics of discussion that stimulate environmentalist conversation.

© John Keller. The author grants permission to copy, distribute and display this work in unaltered form, with attribution to the author, for noncommercial purposes only. All other rights, including commercial rights, are reserved to the author.

References

[1] F. M. Giger, L. H. Reiss, and A. P. Jourdan, "The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of Horizontal Drilling," One Petro SPE-13024-MS, 16 Sep 84.

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Fig. 1: The Los Angeles Oil Fields which used giant wells to access. (Source: Wikimedia Commons) Today we use to power important aspects of our lives such transportation fuels, powering electricity and heating, as well as helping the formation of our roads themselves.

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https://www.nationaldriller.com/articles/90598-five-most-common-drilling-methods-used-in-oil-and-gas-exploration

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Oil and gas exploration makes use of several types of drilling methods and platforms based on the type of formations, geographic location, soil type and the like. Here are five of the most common drilling methods used in extracting oil and gas from beneath the earth:

Percussion or Cable Drilling

Percussion drilling is an oft-used manual drilling technique in which a hammering bit is attached to a long cable that is then lowered into a wide open hole. The technique is also known as cable drilling, wherein the driller uses a tripod to support the tools. By going back and forth with the bit, the action loosens the soil in the borehole, which is then extracted with the help of a bailer. At intervals, the bit is removed while the cuttings are suspended in water, which is then removed by pumping to the surface. A steel casing helps prevent the hole from collapsing down temporarily and also to protect the hole against contamination of groundwater. The temporary setting is to be removed after a permanent screen and casing are installed.

This type of drilling is perfect for unconsolidated and consolidated formations including sand, silt, sandstone and even gravel. Manual percussion can reach depths of about 25 meters.

Rotary Drilling

Rotary drilling is also one of the most common methods of drilling, especially for digging up exploratory and production wells, which boast of depths that exceed five miles below the ground.

In this method, lightweight drills are used to drill low-depth wells on land. Rotary mobile and floating drills of various sizes are then used for drilling exploration wells. The equipment is mounted on a platform with a 40-meter-high derrick, that consists of a rotary table, a handy engine, mud mixer and an efficient injector pump. It also includes a winch and 27-meter long pipe sections. The rotary table then directs the square kelly, which is connected to the drilling pipe. The mud swivel on the pipe is subsequently connected to blowout preventers. The pipe is known to rotate at a velocity of 40 to 250 rpm with the drill made of drag bits, sharp cutting edges or rolling cutters with strong teeth.

Cuttings are then removed by fluid circulation that gets inside the pipe. The penetration rate is faster when using air-based drilling fluids compared to the water-based ones. A drag bit is useful in this scenario to penetrate unconsolidated sediments, while the roller bit can drill through consolidated rock. The overall rotation speed of the drill can be increased or decreased depending on the hardness of formation material.

Dual-Wall Reverse-Circulation Drilling

Dual-wall reverse-circulation is a type of rotary drilling itself in which two concentric drill pipes are used to create a controlled flow. The drilling fluid is pumped through an outer swivel to reach the bottom of the bit, and then ricochets upward into the main pipe. All cuttings are carried upward through an internal pipe and with the help of surface swivel. The method also allows for geologic sample collection, with samples usually delivered through the cyclone created at the surface. The method is compatible with both rotary drilling and percussion drilling methods. The fluids are circulated within a controlled space and all cuttings can be recovered any time.

The method is applicable for all types of geologic formations and does not require surface casing, too.

Good sample recovery is one of the main strengths of this method. The method also allows for fast penetration in alluvial or fissured rock. Also, it does help in delivering an accurate estimate of aquifer yield from the depths of the formation.

Electro-Drilling

In this method, rotary tables, winches and the like are driven by electric motors, thus leading to better flexibility in operations along with remote-controlled drilling. These drills are new methods of oil and gas exploration, as they provide more direct power to the drill bit by connecting the motor above the bit, below the hole.

The electro-drilling system has been successful in complex geological conditions where there is use of weighted mud or mud mixtures. Electro-drilling has made its presence felt in various places including Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan and Ukraine, which are keen to implement electro-drilling widely to boost savings in energy and material usage.

Combining the advantages of rotary and hydraulic-motor methods, this method involves a big range of drill-bit rotational speeds. This method can also use different borehole cleaning agents. One can even implement controlled drilling of deviated boreholes with this method.

Directional Drilling

Directional drilling is actually an extension of the rotary drilling technique, which guides the drill on a curved path with the deepening of the hole. Directional drilling can help oil explorers reach deposits that cannot be extracted by vertical drilling. Reduced costs is the major driver, as several wells can be drilled in all directions on a single platform. This also allows one to tap into undersea reservoirs and now, by using computers to guide the automatic drilling machines, without connecting and disconnecting sections.

Some other drilling methods include abrasive drilling that makes use of an abrasive material for driving pressure to cut through the substrata, and explosive drilling and flame piercing, two more methods that are used in some drilling scenarios.

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Five Most Common Drilling Methods Used in Oil and Gas Exploration

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Oil and gas exploration makes use of several types of drilling methods and platforms based on the type of formations, geographic location, soil type and the like.

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This is a 15 minute video that shows the modern history of oil drilling and other oil and petroleum facts.

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Petroleum - Modern history of oil on a Map