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10/26: prepare for the FRQ & multiple choice test

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10/26: prepare for the FRQ & multiple choice test

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sensation: how we interpret feelings (touch, taste, smell, hearing, sight)
perception: how we interpret those sensations

cochlear implants:
negatives: invasive; don't want to be different/divisions between people;
positives: clear, understandable speech/language skills;

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*Olfactory:
-Receptor cells sends info to Olfactory Bulb to Limbic System (Amygdala then to Hippocampus)
--> Why is olfactory sense strongly correlated wih memory? Direct connection with Limbic System
NOT to Thalamus like other senses

*Gustation(taste):
Different from flavor=sensory interaction
Taste Buds=Papillae (receptor cells for taste)
5 Tastes: salty, sour, bitter, sweet, and umami
Items that reduce taste: cigarettes, alcohol, and texture

*Skin senses: cutaneous sensations- pressure, temperature, and pain
-The Brain is most sensitive to unexpected stimulation; certain areas of body have more concentrated tactile nerve endings(fingertips; nose, lips)

-Kinesthesis: sense of body parts &positions (involved with PNS)
-Vestibular Sense: monitors head position and movement (Balance)
How does this sense work?
Semicircular Canals(balance), vestibular sacs, connects canals w/cochlea (fluid) (spin=dizzy)

Pain: No one specific receptor or stimulus
Athletes: mindset can effect reactions
Cultures: do people from the same culture react the same to pain
Cognition: it doesn't hurt
Physiological: who's the stronger sex? Women?
What effect does your memory have on your reaction to pain? IT depends on the person

-Gate Control Theory: Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall
"neurological gate" in the spinal cord controls the transmission of pain to the brain
ex. what neurotransmitters is associated w pain? endorphin
what drugs is associated with relieving pain? Morphine
-other options for pain control: acupuncture, reading, yoga, medication, surgery, massages

Pain:  How people respond to pain (Daniel Kahneman)
If you want a positive experience and less pain, taper down even longer...no immediate cut off
Phantom Limb- misinterpretation
--> Demonstration: candle technique vs walking over the coals

*Touch:
Skin Sensations:
Pressure(only skin sensation with identifiable receptors), warmth, cold, pain

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-Pinna: outer ear
-Ear Canal: auditory canal
-Eardrum: protected by ear wax; very sensitive
-3 smallest bones: Hammer, Anvil, Stirrup vibrate against eardrum
air vibrates w bones(ossicles)
-vibration of stirrup hitting oval window allows it yo open sound you hear is transmitted from air to liquid goes to cochlea
-cochlea: vestibular organ in inner ear
-Basilar membrane: has hair cells that vibrate in liquid form
from cochlea into auditory nerve reaching the temporal lobe where hearing is processed.
-Vestibular sacs helps us stay balanced.
-From ear canal there is a eustician tube that connect ear to the throat.
-Everything in the ear is based on vibrations. Sound waves enter the outer ear and travel to the eardrum, causing it to vibrate. The vibration cause the hammer, anvil, and stirrup of the middle ear to hit each other and carry the vibrations to the oval window. Then on to the fluid in the snail-shaped cochlea of the inner ear. This causes hairs(cilia) in the basilar membrane to move which sends neurons to the organ of corti. Message is then sent to the auditory nerve. Message is relayed to the Thalamus and then to the temporal lobe

3 Hearing Theories:

1) Place Theory:
-Originally suggested by Helmholtz
-Discovered by Georg von Bekesy- Nobel Prize (1961)
-Ability to hear different pitches of sound is due to location of neurons activity on Basilar Membrane in Cochlea(caused by frequency (pitch) of sound wave)
How does it work?
Higher Frequency, Short Wavelength, Higher Pitch, Neuron activity closer to the base of basilar membrane, *Plus of theory explains high pitch
Problem: can't explain lower tones.
Why? Area in rest of snail of cochlea is too similar, no differential so we need another theory...

2) Frequency Theory:
-Vibration triggers nerual impulses to brain at saem rate as sound wave (brain reads pitch from frequency)
How does it work?
Lower freqeuencies=fewer nerual impulses
higher frequencies=larger amount of neural impulses
Plus it explains low pitches
Problem: problem with pitches above 1,000 Hertz
Why? Pitches above 1,000 Hertz are too fast to be read by numbers of impulses. We need another theory...

3) Volley Principle:
-Neural cells can alternate firing and thereby achieve combines frequency for very average pitch
Solution all 3 theories
Why? Combination of both theories-Place for high pitch, frequency for low pitch, volley for middle pitch

Hearing Problems:
1) Conductive Deafness
Problems of conducting sound wabe to cochlea
Why? Ear Drum puncture/bones can't vibrate
Solution: Can be repaired with hearing aids
Why? Hearing aides amplify frequency
People are VERY sensitive to loud sounds, compressing sounds is a key!

2) Sensorineural Hearing Loss
Nerve deafness (hair cells)
What causes this type of deafness? Caused by LOUD noises, age, or genetics
Cochlea Implants may be helpful...

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Gestalt: as a whole
1) Figure Ground: perception
2) Proximity: group nearby figures together
3) Similarity: group similar figures together
-Muller-Lyer Illusion
4) Continuity: see smooth, continuous patterns
5) Connectedness: when linked, we see spots, lines, or areas as a single unit
-Depth Perception: 2 dimensions fall on retina; perceive as 3D; we estimate distance
--Visual Cliff: Eleanor Gibson & Richard Walk: test of depth perception, infants, and toddlers; Found out: by crawling age (6 months) they can see depth
-Visual Constancy: perceiving objects as unchanging despite chanfes in retinal images
-->5 Types of Perceptual Constancy:
*Color
*Shape
*Size
*Location
*Brightness
-Color Constancy: perception of familiar objects as having consistent colors, even if changing illumination
Ex. An apple is? Most would say red..But what about green?
-Perceptual Constancies: Tendency to perceive objects as relatively stable and unchanging
--Size Constancy: despite distance, objects don't change size
--Shape Constancy: see same shape despite its angle

-Monocular Cues: cues that require one eye
-Interposition: 1 object blocks view of another so often referred to as superposition
-Relative size: assumption that 2 objects are similar size) 1 closer has larger retinal image
-Relative Clarity aka Aerial Perspective: perception that Hazy objects are farther away than sharp objects
-Texture Gradient: coarse, distinct texture is closer than finer, indistinct texture
-Relative Height: objects higher in field of vision appear farther away (vertical dimensions appear longer than horizontal dimensions) ex. St Louis arch
-Relative Motion (motion parallex): movement of self causes stable item to appear to move, nearest objects appears to move faster
-Linear Perspective: parallel lines appear to converge in distance (people over estimate train's distance)
-Light and Shadow aka shadowing: nearby objects reflect MORE light into eyes (dimmer objects appear farther away)

--Binocular Cues: cues that require both eyes
-Retinal disparity: difference between sight/views of 2 eyes (ex. pen movement)
-Convergence: cue for perceiving depth; eyes converge inward towards object)
-Stereoscopic Vision: combine 2 retinal images to get a 3D perception

Motion Perception:
-Assumption: closer object gets larger
-Stroboscopic Movement: motion pictures ex. cartoon flip book
-Phi Phenomenon: illusion of lights (blinking on and off)
-Autokinetic illusion: perceived motion created by single stationary object (slight movement of eye muscles make object move)

Sound Localization:
-Monocular Cue: louder sound means closer sound
-Binocular Cues- sterophonic- stero: multi directional audio perspective

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10/14: Learn color theories & visual cues

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10/14: Learn color theories & visual cues

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Transduction: Signals are formed into neural impulses as light passes through retina
Parallel processing: processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously (color, form, and motion happen at the same time)
What is 1 example of Parallel Processing?
-->Hubel and Wiesel (cat experiment): identified feature detectors: specific neurons in visual cortex responsible for Shape/form, angle/depth, movement, color (Parallel Processing allows for all these to happen at the same time)
-Electromagnetic Spectrum:
--Wavelength: the distance from one peak to another (light/sound)
--->High Frequency, Short Wavelength: bluish colors, high pitched sounds
--->Low Frequency, Long Wavelength: reddish colors, low pitched sounds (LONG AND LOW, HIGH AND SHORT)
The heigh of the wave length
Large amp: tall wavelength, bright colors, loud sounds
small amp: short wavelength, dull colors, soft sounds
Theories fo Color vision:
1) Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory
-each cone is maximally sensitive to 1 of 3 colors (red, green, or blue)
---combines stimulation of these cones cause other colors by mixing light waves (red+green stimulation=yellow)
*Afterimage: when you stare at 1 or 2 colors, cones become saturated, then when you look at a white piece do paper you see the opposite colors due to saturation of cones
(Young-Helmholtz theory can't explain afterimages because with afterimage you see the opposite color)
-Colorblindness: partial or total inability to perceive hues
--Monochromatic (black & white)
--Dichromatic: (r/g, y/b)
--Trichromats: normal color visions explain by trichromatic theoryu
Young-Helmhotz can't explain color blindness since it involves 2 colors pairs not 1 single one.
2) Opponent-Process Theory (Hering)
3 kinds of cones that work in pairs
----Red & Green
----Blue & Yellow
----Black & White
-paired with opposites; if one is stimulated the other is inhibited
-How does this theory explains afterimages and colorblindness?

Both theories are correct:
Individual cones: trichromatic theory
Opponent process: other layers of the retina

Surrounding context: if an item is viewed with other colors then the colors the object changes

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10/13: Eye-Accessory Structures & Understand the parts and paths of vision

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10/13: Eye-Accessory Structures & Understand the parts and paths of vision

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-myopia: near-sighted
-hyperopia: far-sighted
-Fova: place where rods are
-Optic Nerve
-blind spot: no visual receptors; no rods and cones
-cones: color
-rod: black white

-Cornea: transparent protector where light enters
-Pupil: adjustable opening in center of iris where light continues to enter
contracts in bright light and relaxes in dim light (reflexive response)
-Iris: colors part of eye protection from damage
-Lens: transparent part of eye inside the pupil that focuses light onto the retina (upside down) by changing its curvature
---accommodation: lens shape changes according to distance
(round=close, flat=far)
What if it is rigid? -->No focus or depth perception
-Retina: inner lining on the back of the eyeball that contains receptor cells sensitive to light
-Blind Spot: point where optic nerve leaves the eye; no visual receptors here
-Fovea: line of central focus, holds only cones (cones=color)
-Optic Nerve: carries visual information to the occipital lobe but 1st thalamus
-Optic Chiasm: spot where nerves cross each other (l-r, r-l)
-Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN): area in thalamus that interprets images, flips images to right side up
-Occipital Lobe
Visual Path: cornea, iris, pupil, lens, retina, optic nerve, optic chiasm, lgn, occipital lobe

cornea, aqeuous humor, iris, pupil, lens, vitreous humor, retina, fovea, optic nerve, optic chiasm, LGN, occipital lobe

light goes to the back first 3, 2, 1,each activating the other layer 1-2, 2-3..: activation; hits retina to changes to right side up and to the nerve

3 Layers of Retina:
1) Rods(b/w) and Cones(colors): receptor cells responsible fro vision; 20:1 rods out number; peripheral vision relies on rods
2) Bipolar cells: specialized neurons connect to rods and cones (1 axon/1 dendrite)
3) Ganglion Cells: axons of these cells, made of Optic Nerve and sends information to thalamus specifically the LGN and the visual cortex, allowing you to see
----2 kinds of Ganglion Cells:
-Magnocellular Cells (M cells) detect motion
-parvocellular cells; detect color/what item is
-Acuity: ability to distinguish fine details, SHARPNESS

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10/12: I can understand the difference between absolute, subliminal & difference thresholds

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10/12: I can understand the difference between absolute, subliminal & difference thresholds

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-Absolute Threshold: the minimum stimulation necessary to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
-Just Noticeable Difference(JND): the amount of something must be changed in order to detect it 50% of the time; AKA Weber's Law (Ernest Weber)
-a constant fraction/proportion of original stimulus. Varies among sense 8% of light 2% weight, 3% tone.
-increase intensity, increased amount of change necessary
-Bright color needs to have even brighter difference to be able to notice a different -->what about food you eat
-when stimuli are detectable less than 50% of the time (below ones absolute threshold) they are "subliminal"

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10/11: I can compare and contrast sensation and perception and understand how they relate to bottom-up and top-down processing

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10/11: I can compare and contrast sensation and perception and understand how they relate to bottom-up and top-down processing

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-Bottom-up Processing: use features to form a perception; converting physical energy into nerve impulses/neural signals
-Perception comes from TOP DOWN processing
-Sensation comes from BOTTOM UP processing
-How can top down processing change how features are perceived?
----You interpret it before you process/understand it

-Sensation: energy stimulates a receptor cell
-Selective Attention: focusing on one factor, ignoring other factors
-----> -Inattentional Blindness
-Change blindness

Perception: the process of creating meaningful pattern from raw sensory information
-Top-down: interpret what we sense
what we use in this process: background knowledge
-Cambridge study: perception

-Absolute Threshold: the minimum stimulation necessary to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
-Just Noticeable Difference(JND): the amount of something must be changed in order to detect it 50% of the time; AKA Weber's Law (Ernest Weber)
-a constant fraction/proportion of original stimulus. Varies among sense 8% of light 2% weight, 3% tone.
-increase intensity, increased amount of change necessary
-Bright color needs to have even brighter difference to be able to notice a different -->what about food you eat