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There is much contention about when psychedelics were first used by shaman people in indigenous culture. Some believe that it was a recent development to aid in tourist attraction, while others believe that it has been around for nearly a million years.

This pouch was found in present day Bolivia. It is dated to between 900-1170 AD and contained psychoactive plants that would be used in the ritual of ayahuasca. This can be considered the world's earliest findings of ayahuasca for ritualistic purposes. These psychoactive ingredients would have been used to alter brain function as well as inducing nausea and vomiting in some cases. (1)

This artifact is important to neuroscience as it is one of the first physical pieces of evidence for the use of psychedelics to alter consciousness.

(1)https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/2019/05/ancient-hallucinogens-oldest-ayahuasca-found-shaman-pouch/#close

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The video below is a short description of the intertwining of the shaman and reindeer in Siberia using A. muscaria as a magic mushroom. It is believed to be the origin of the story of Santa Claus beginning in the 19th century. (1)

Santa is known for wearing a red suit, trimmed in white, much like the mushroom that is red with white spots. In Siberia, this mushroom was consumed and made reindeer appear to be flying, much like Santa's reindeer fly in children's stories today. (2)

This story is important to neuroscience, because it demonstrates how psychedelics can alter our perceptions and bolster creativity and imagination.

(1)https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x2p1gv2
(2)https://www.npr.org/2010/12/24/132260025/did-shrooms-send-santa-and-his-reindeer-flying

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Magic mushrooms & Reindeer - Weird Nature - BBC animals

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Magic mushrooms & Reindeer - Weird Nature - BBC animals

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Christianity believes in a higher being, a God. What is interesting is that many of their early paintings included the depiction of psychedelic mushrooms (1).

The image below is of a painting created in the 13th century depicting Adam and Eve. Between them is a tree made of out what many ethnobotanists believe is Aminata muscaria, a psychedelic mushroom. Its large size, while unrealistic in the natural world, is used to signify that the mushroom is of great importance. (1)

There are many other paintings that involve psychedelic mushrooms. Christians realized the mind-altering affects of mushrooms and potentially used them to bring them closer to God.

(1)https://akjournals.com/view/journals/2054/3/2/article-p142.xml

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The document below contains the first well written account of psilocybin's effects that occurred in Britain in 1799. A family of six had eaten a breakfast of mushrooms that the father had gathered in Green Park. A short while afterwards, they began to experience symptoms such as vertigo,  delirium, pupil dilation and uncontrolled laughter. (1)

Concerned that his family had just ingested poisonous mushrooms, the father took to the street and encountered Dr. Brande who documented their symptoms, and ordered medicine to make them vomit. After vomiting, the family seemed to return to normal. (2)

This is significant to neuroscience as psilocybin had been used for thousands of years,  to alter perceptions, but this is the first documentation of the symptoms experienced upon ingestion.

(1)https://mikejay.net/mushrooms-in-wonderland/
(2)https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5659401/?page=1

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Widely debated, there is a theory that the evolution of homo sapiens arose, in part, from the use of psychedelics, specifically psilocybin. (1)

Respected psilocybin mycologist Paul Stamets advocated for the "Stoned Ape Hypothesis" originally proposed in 1992 by Terence McKenna, seen in the image below. (1) This theory states that the mysterious doubling in brain size that occurred between 2 million and 700,000 years ago, can be attributed to ingesting psilocybin. (1)

Researchers, while they may disagree with this theory, acknowledge the benefits of psychedelics to evolution. Sullivan, Hagen and Hammerstein argue that our ancestors benefited from the use of psychoactive ingredients. (2) "Psychedelics enhanced the survival and reproduction of those who could best exploit and benefit from their effects," (2, Winkelman).

(1)https://www.inverse.com/article/34186-stoned-ape-hypothesis
(2)https://akjournals.com/view/journals/2054/3/2/article-p43.xml

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A great group to listen to regarding the use of psilocybin would be the research team, led by Roland Griffiths, at Johns Hopkins University. While several institutions are now looking into researching psilocybin and its effects on mental health, Johns Hopkins was arguably the first and is certainly the largest of its kind. Their team is interested in how psychedelics impact the brain of both healthy and mentally ill patients. Their research is centered on how these 'magic mushrooms' can impact brain functions such as learning and memory, behavior, and overall well-being. (1)

Psychedelic mushrooms are still extremely taboo in the United States, which makes this university an incredible source for knowledge as one of the only institutions currently doing research. (2)

(1)https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/news/articles/first-of-its-kind-psychedelic-research-center-debuts-at-johns-hopkins
(2)https://www.forbes.com/sites/robinseatonjefferson/2019/09/12/magic-mushrooms-as-medicine-johns-hopkins-scientists-launch-center-for-psychedelic-research-say-psychedelics-could-treat-alzheimers-depression-and-addiction/?sh=69e2ca42c171

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Psilocybin Use for Anxiety and Depression in Cancer Patients

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Psilocybin Use for Anxiety and Depression in Cancer Patients

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Psilocybin has long been known to be a mind-altering mushroom. In 2016, researchers first tested the effects of psilocybin in combination with psychotherapy on depression and anxiety of cancer patients (1).

In one study, at Johns Hopkins University, participants saw an 80% retained decreased depression at a 6-month follow up. The participants of these studies attributed their new outlook on life to the mind-altering affects of the psilocybin (2).

The video below contains interviews with some of the researchers working on this new project involving psilocybin. It also gives a brief overview of the initial results. (3)

(1)https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/28/health/magic-mushrooms-psilocybin-cancer-patients-study-wellness/index.html
(2)https://maps.org/other-psychedelic-research/211-psilocybin-research/psilocybin-studies-in-progress/1268-johns_hopkins_study_of_psilocybin_in_cancer_patients
(3)https://www.nbcnews.com/health/mental-health/single-dose-psychedelic-drug-eased-cancer-patients-anxiety-depression-years-n1123451

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Nearly five years after a group of cancer patients were given a single dose of a psychedelic drug to ease depression and anxiety, new research finds that many of them are still feeling the positive effects.

The patients were among a group of participants who had been given a dose of synthetic psilocybin - the psychedelic compound found in so-called magic mushrooms - in a 2016 study that looked at whether the drug could help with symptoms of cancer-related depression and anxiety. The drug was given in a controlled setting and the patients were monitored the entire time.

As to its effects on anxiety and depression, the psilocybin appeared to work: Eighty percent of the patients reported that their symptoms faded, and the effects lasted six months, the 2016 study found. At the time, this long-lasting effect was a landmark finding.

The new study, published Tuesday in the Journal of Psychopharmacology, followed up with 15 of those patients nearly 5 years later, and found that up to 80 percent were still experiencing significant improvements in cancer-related depression and anxiety. Nearly all of the participants attributed their positive life changes to the psychedelic-assisted therapy.

One of those patients was Dinah Bazer, who was in her mid-60s when she was diagnosed with ovarian cancer. She beat the disease, but in two years that followed, her anxiety skyrocketed.

"I thought that when the chemo ended, I would celebrate but instead, I went into a tailspin. Even though my prognosis was really excellent, I was worried about a relapse," Bazer said.

After taking the dose of psilocybin though, Bazer said she went through a period of six months feeling no anxiety at all.

Now that five years have passed, Bazer said some of her social anxiety has returned, and that she's frequently anxious about politics. But one significant change has stuck.

"What is permanent is that I don't have anxiety about cancer. Not only about my cancer returning, but how I viewed my reoccurrence when it did happen," said Bazer, who was diagnosed last March with a type of rare gastrointestinal cancer.

This time, Bazer said she wasn't anxious about seeking a diagnosis or going under the knife.

Dr. Stephen Ross, director of addiction psychiatry at New York University's Langone Medical Center who led the 2016 study and co-authored the new research, said the results of the latest study are "mind-boggling."

"Psilocybin-assisted therapy appears to both work rapidly and have a sustained benefit for years. If other studies support that, the implication is potentially huge for cancer patients," he said.

Anxiety and depression among cancer patients and survivors is "very common and very consequential," Ross said. Up to 40 percent of cancer patients develop cancer-related anxiety and depression, according to the study. And the effects that depression and anxiety have on both mental and physical health can be fatal.

"Distress increases rates of suicide and decreases rates of survival by impairing the immune system," Ross told NBC News.

Although researchers understand some of the ways in which psychedelics like psilocybin affect the brain, they haven't pinpointed exactly how the drugs are able to help people overcome anxiety and depression. Ross said that he suspects the drugs' effectiveness stems from the meaningful experiences that patients have while on psychedelics. These often profound or spiritual experiences appear to alter how a person perceives their situation.

"It's a powerful experience that creates a lasting memory that involves them dealing with the demons of their cancer or their mortality," Ross said.

According to David Nutt, director of the neuropsychopharmacology unit in the division of brain sciences at Imperial College London, psychedelics also target a specific serotonin receptor believed to be responsible for organized thinking.

"Depression is a state where there is over-organized thinking. People think about themselves repeatedly in a negative way, they get locked into these cycles," said Nutt, who was not involved with the new research. "Psilocybin disorganizes thinking and allows people, for a period of time, to think differently and break those cycles."

Nutt's own research focuses on treating long term depression with psychedelics, something he said is much different than cancer-related anxiety and depression.

"The more ingrained your illness, the more difficult it is to treat," Nutt said.

While a single dose of psilocybin appears to be enough to provide lasting effects in cancer patients who were suddenly confronted with their own mortality, Nutt said that people with long-term depression would likely need more frequent psychedelic-assisted therapy.

The new study builds on a body of research that examines whether illegal recreational drugs could be medically useful. The idea is not new: Studies conducted in the 1950s examined whether psychedelics could ease anxiety and depression in cancer patients.

Ross said his team is trying to pick up where these studies left off. Next, he said, researchers need to conduct studies looking at brain scans taken before and after people are given the psychedelics, and also look for biomarkers that could indicate changes in the body. These future studies could help researchers understand what's going on in the brain or body to make people feel better, Ross said. The improvement could be the result of tangible changes in brain matter, or may solely be related to the experiences people have while on psychedelics, he said.

Whatever the cause, Bazer said she supports the use of psychedelic-assisted therapy. "My own feelings are that this is a wonderful therapeutic tool and I think it should be available for therapeutic use. If it was, I would seek it out," she said.

CORRECTION (Jan. 28, 2020, 9:22 p.m. ET): A previous version of this article misstated the type of cancer Bazer was diagnosed with last March. It was gastrointestinal cancer, not gastrological cancer.

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A single dose of psychedelic drug eased cancer patients' anxiety and depression for years

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Nearly five years after a group of cancer patients were given a single dose of a psychedelic drug to ease depression and anxiety, new research finds that many of them are still feeling the positive effects.