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Circa 38,000 BC - Los Angeles has been pulling in visitors for tens of thousands of years, as a future fossil is trapped inside what are now the historical La Brea Tar Pits.

Circa 8000 BC - Chumash people settle the Los Angeles basin.

Circa 300 BC - The Tataviam (later Fernandeno) people inhabit what is now the San Fernando Valley.

Circa 500 AD - Tongva Indians settle in the Los Angeles basin. Some accounts say they displaced the Chumash. By the 16th century, the region's main village will be called Yang-Na, near present-day Los Angeles City Hall .

1542 - Portuguese explorer Juan Cabrillo navigates the coast of California. He calls present day San Pedro Bay the "Bay of Smokes."

1602 - Sebastian Vizcaino of Spain explores the California coast and meets some of the locals.

1769 - Spanish explorer Gaspar de Portola explores the area to open up a land route to the port of Monterey and establishes the first Spanish settlement in the area. The settlers name the local river Rio de Nuestra Senora la Reina de Los Angeles de Porciuncula (River of Our Lady Queen of the Angels of Porciuncula aka Los Angeles River).

1771 - Father Junipero Serra establishes the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, later moved to the present-day city of San Gabriel.

1781 - A group of 11 families comprising 44 Mexicans settles by the river. Felipe de Neve, Governor of Spanish California, names the settlement El Pueblo Sobre el Rio de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Angeles del Río de Porciúncula. The name is shortened rather quickly to Los Angeles River.

1797 - Father Fermin Lasuen founds Mission San Fernando, named for King Ferdinand of Spain. It later becomes home to the largest adobe structure in California, 30,000 grape vines and 21,000 head of livestock.

1805 - The first American trading ship arrives at San Pedro Bay, south of the Pueblo.

1821 - Mexico achieves independence from Spain.

1841 - History of Los Angeles' first census shows a population of 141.

1842 - California's first discovery of gold is made at Placerita Canyon, near Mission San Fernando, prompting LA's first population boom.

1846 - Pio Pico is sworn in as governor of the California, in Los Angeles. Out-of-towners begin to mispronounce his name (it's PEE-koh).

1847 - Battle of Rio San Gabriel. The United States takes control of Los Angeles. Treaty of Cahuenga is signed in the pass ( Cauhenga Pass) between Los Angeles and the San Fernando Valley.

1848 - Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Mexico formally cedes California to the United States, and all residents are made U.S. citizens.

1849 - That other California Gold Rush. Settlers flood the state, creating great demand for beef from Los Angeles-area ranchos.

1850 - Los Angeles is incorporated as a municipality, and California becomes the 30th state in the union.

1852 - The Gilmore Adobe is built at the site of the current Original Farmers Market, where it still stands.

1854 - The first Jewish services in history of Los Angeles are held.

1855 - Los Angeles gets its first schoolhouse.

1865 - Civil War ends. African Americans begin heading to Los Angeles in significant numbers.

1865 - Los Angeles' first college, St. Vincent's (now Loyola Marymount University), is established. Today Los Angeles County has 42 colleges and universities.

1866 - Los Angeles Town Square is established. Its name would change five times (La Plaza Abaja, St. Vincent Park, Los Angeles Park, 6th Street Park, and Central Park) before finally becoming Pershing Square in 1918.

1867 - The beginning of the famous nighttime view of Los Angeles, with the arrival of streetlights.

1869 - Southern California's first railroad is constructed, connecting Downtown Los Angeles with San Pedro Bay, 21 miles away.

1870 - Whites outnumber Hispanics and Native Americans for the first time in Los Angeles.

1871 - First rail link established between Los Angeles and San Francisco.

1871 - Isaac Newton Van Nuys buys 60,000 acres of land in the southern San Fernando Valley. Click HERE to see more in Early Views of the San Fernando Valley

1872 - Ventura County is established, ceded from a section of northwest Los Angeles County.

1872 - The Los Angeles branch of the First African Methodist Episcopal (A.M.E.) Church is established.

1873 - Hired by Southern Pacific rail baron Henry Huntington, journalist Charles Nordhoff writes the book California for Health, Pleasure and Residence. Today a street bears his name in the San Fernando Valley.

1873 - The city's first synagogue in history is built - B'nai B'rith Temple.

1873 - The first trolley line in the city opens.

1873 - The seedless navel orange is introduced to California from Brazil.

1874 - Los Angeles gets its First Streetcar. It's horse-drawn. The First Electrified Streetcars will debut in 1887.

1876 - Cathedral of St. Vibiana opens.

1877 - Thanks to new refrigerated boxcar technology, California oranges cause a sensation in St. Louis. Agriculture begins to replace ranching as the mainstay of the local economy.

1878 - Los Angeles County Bar Association is established.

1880s - Citrus, wine grapes and other fruits and vegetables are grown in the Los Angeles area. The area of present-day Beverly Hills is largely bean fields, Hollywood is fig orchards.

1880 - Founding of the University of Southern California. Its sports teams are known as the Methodists or the Wesleyans until 1912, when a columnist wrote that they "fought like Trojans." The name sticks.

1881 - The Los Angeles Times debuts as the Los Angeles Daily Times.

1881 - The Southern Pacific Railroad links Los Angeles directly with the eastern United States for the first time. Transcontinental

1881 - Los Angeles has its first recorded snowfall.

1880s - Westlake Park is built, later renamed MacArthur Park after the World War II general.

1883 - Los Angeles gets its First Conservatory of Music.

1885 - The Santa Fe Railroad opens a second line linking Los Angeles with the rest of the nation. 2nd Transcontinental

1886 - Harvey Henderson Wilcox purchases 160 acres of land west of the Cahuenga Pass for a planned residential community. He names it Hollywood, after the estate of an acquaintance of his wife, Daeida. Click HERE to see more Early Views of Hollywood (1850 - 1920)

1886 - The price of a train ticket between Kansas City and Los Angeles falls to one dollar, prompting another population boom.

1889 - USC and St. Vincent's College play the first college football game in Los Angeles.

1890 - Los Angeles population: 50,000 (a new record in the history of LA).

1890 - The official flag of Los Angeles is designed.

1892 - Edward Doheny discovers oil at "Greasy Gulch," near Westlake Park. Soon oil is discovered all over the Los Angeles area.

1896 - Colonel J. Griffith donates nearly five square miles of land near his ranch to the people of Los Angeles. Today, Griffith Park is 4,017 acres of mountains, dales and flatlands between Hollywood and the San Fernando Valley, the largest urban park in the United States.

1897 - Five hundred oil wells are operating within Los Angeles. California is the third-largest oil-producing state in America.

1897 - A nine-mile wooden cycleway called the California Cycleway is built connecting Downtown Los Angeles with Pasadena along the riverbed the Arroyo Seco. The cycleway eventually fails, but the right of way remains.

1897 - The First Automobile takes to the streets of Los Angeles.

1898 - Los Angeles gets a symphony orchestra, the fifth in the nation.

1899 - First Breakwater constructed at the Port of Los Angeles, on San Pedro Bay.

1900 - Los Angeles population: 102,479, which ranks it 36th in the nation.

1900 - Early Japanese immigrants arrive in Los Angeles.

1901 - Angels Flight, a funicular up Bunker Hill in Downtown Los Angeles, opens.

1902 - The First Rose Bowl Game is played. Michigan defeats Stanford.

1903 - The Los Angeles Examiner (later the Los Angeles Herald-Examiner) is founded by William Randolph Hearst.

1904 - Los Angeles establishes the first Playground Department in the United States.

1905 - Tobacco magnate turned real estate developer Abbot Kinney carves out canals near the beach, naming the district the Venice of America. Six of those canals still exist.

1906 - The first fossils are excavated from the La Brea Tar Pits.

1907 - The Southwest Museum of the American Indian opens. Today it has one of the most important collections of Native American art and artifacts in the United States, covering 2,000 years.

1908 - Philippe's Restaurant opens. It will later invent the French dip roast beef sandwich. See also: Cole's (no one knows for sure which restaurant actually gets credit for creating the now-famous menu item).

1909 - Los Angeles becomes the first large city in the nation to adopt zoning laws to distinguish between commercial and residential properties.

1910 - Los Angeles population: 319,198, 17th in the nation.

1910 - D.W. Griffith becomes the first director to shoot film in Los Angeles. His acting company includes Lionel Barrymore, Lillian Gish and Mary Pickford.

1910 - Dominguez Field in Los Angeles is host to the world's first air meet.

1910 - Residents of the municipality of Hollywood vote to join the city of Los Angeles, partially to have access to Los Angeles' water rights.

1911 - The first Hollywood production company, Nestor Film Company opens in an abandoned tavern. Soon, neighbors erect signs reading, "No dogs, no actors."

1911-1912 - An 8,500-foot breakwater is completed at the port of Los Angeles, and shipping channels are widened.

1912 - The area around First Street and Central Avenue becomes the gateway to a famous African-American corridor along Central Avenue, which swells in population in the 1920s.

1912 - Los Angeles gets its first gas station ( Early LA Gas Stations).

1913 - Cecil B. de Mille shoots the first Hollywood movie, Squaw Man, in a stuido converted from an Old Barn.

1913 - The Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County opens. It remains the largest museum of its kind in the western United States.

1913 - Los Angeles' first children's and family camps are established, for recreation in the mountains.

1913 - After a saga of cinematic proportions, the Los Angeles Aqueduct is completed, carrying water from the Owens Valley, about 230 miles north of the city. At the opening ceremony, engineer William Mulholland proclaims "There it is. Take it."

1913 - Georgia "Tiny" Broadwick becomes the first woman to parachute from an airplane, over Griffith Park. She later demonstrates parachuting techniques for the U.S. military.

1914 - The LA subdivision of Beverly Hills is incorporated as an independent city. From here on out, it's all swimming pools, movie stars, Beverly Hills Cop and 90210.

1915 - Large parts of the San Fernando Valley are annexed to the city of Los Angeles. Further annexations will continue through 1965.

1915 - Carl Laemmle opens Universal Film Manufacturing Company ( Universal Studios), the world's largest motion picture production facility, near the Cahuenga Pass. He charges the public 25 cents to watch films being shot, including a boxed lunch.

1915 - D.W. Griffith's Birth of a Nation creates the film vocabulary that is known today, despite the controversy it generates. The film's story seems to justify racial segregation and glorify the Ku Klux Klan.

1915 - Direct steamship service begins between Los Angeles and Japan.

1915 - There are 55,000 cars on the streets of Los Angeles.

1916 - The Jesse L. Lasky Company, a Hollywood film production house, merges with Adolph Zukor's New York-based Famous Players to distribute films under Paramount Pictures ' star-ringed mountaintop.

1917 - Frank Lloyd Wright designs the Hollyhock House for heiress Aline Barnsdall. Today's visitors can see the house at Barnsdall Art Park.

1917 - The first Forest Lawn Cemetery opens.

1918 - Brothers Sam, Jack, Harry and Albert Warner, immigrants from Poland via Pennsylvania, open Warner Bros. Studio on Sunset Boulevard.

1919 - Founding of the Southern Branch of the University of California, later University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). The campus is on Vermont Avenue and enrolls some 1,500 students.

1920 - Eighty percent of the world's films are shot in California, mostly in Hollywood.

1921 - Welder Simon Rodia (recently arrived from Italy) begins work on what will become the Watts Tower.

1921 - Amelia Earhart begins her aeronautic career with flying lessons in Los Angeles.

1923 - Robert Andrews Millikan of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) wins the first Nobel Prize for a Los Angeles-area institution, in Physics. Twenty-one more (so far) will follow in his footsteps including Linus Pauling and Richard Feynman.

1922 - Los Angeles' first radio stations, KFI, KHJ and KNX, take to the air.

1922 - The first concerts are held at the Hollywood Bowl amphitheater, now the summer home of the Los Angeles Philharmonic, and site of concerts by artists including Frank Sinatra, Judy Garland, the Beatles, Monty Python, Cher and world music of every stripe.

1923 - The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum opens.

1923 - Charismatic preacher Aimee Semple McPherson opens the Angelus Temple (seating 5,000) in Los Angeles' Echo Park district. Her preaching incorporates speaking in tongues and demonstrations of faith healing.

1923 - A young cartoonist named Walt Disney arrives in Los Angeles with $40 in his pocket.

1923 - Bel-Air becomes a not-quite-gated community in the foothills of the Santa Monica Mountains. It has been populated by movers and shakers ever since.

1924 - The Mulholland Highway (now Muholland Drive) opens on the ridgeline of the Santa Monica Mountains and the Hollywood Hills. It remains one of America's most beautiful drives.

1924 - Theater magnate Marcus Loew amalgamates Metro Pictures, Goldwyn Pictures and Louis B. Mayer Pictures into what will become Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM Studios). Hollywood's wunderkind, Irving Thalberg, is head of production.

1924 - CBC Film Sales Corporation is renamed Columbia Pictures Corporation. The lady with the torch will soon be introducing Frank Capra films.

1924 - Los Angeles population tops one million.

1924 - Los Angeles gets its first opera company.

1925 - Los Angeles Central Library opens.

1925 - Fox Film Corporation and Twentieth Century Pictures merge to form Twentieth Century Fox. The next year, the studio acquires 300 acres of open land west of Beverly Hills for its production facilities.

1926 - The Spanish-language newspaper La Opinion is founded. Today it has the largest circulation of any Spanish-language newspaper in the United States, with more than 126,000 copies daily.

1926 - A 2,400-plus mile stretch of road connecting Los Angeles and Chicago is designated as U.S. Highway 66. Roadside architecture and American popular music have never been the same since.

1927 - Talkies arrive, with the first feature-length talking picture, The Jazz Singer, starring Al Jolson, and Fox Movietone News, which will be regular feature in cinemas until 1963.

1927 - Grauman's Chinese Theatre (now TCL Chinese Theatre) opens. Over the years, impresario Sid Grauman and his successors will invite dozens of top stars to leave their handprints and footprints in freshly poured cement out front.

1927 - Establishment of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences, with actor Douglas Fairbanks as president. Oscar winners have been thanking the academy ever since.

1927 - Two hundred thousand people greet aviator Charles Lindbergh.

1928 - Los Angeles City Hall opens. Just the facts, ma'am: the tower, with its distinctive pyramid-shaped roof, later appears on the opening credits of the TV show Dragnet.

1928 - The first Academy Awards ceremony takes place at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel. Wings, directed by William Wellman, wins best picture.

1928 - Walt Disney finds his first lasting success with the release of the animated talking picture Steamboat Willie, starring a mouse named Mickey.

1928 - The first NAACP convention in the west takes place on Central Avenue.

1929 - UCLA opens the first four buildings of its current campus in the Westwood district, including the Romanesque-style Royce Hall. Graduates of this campus will include James Dean and Heather Locklear.

1929 - Ross-Loos Medical Group of Temple Street becomes the first comprehensive medical care organization in the United States, serving employees of the Department of Water and Power and their families. Today it would be better known as a health maintenance organization (HMO).

1930 - The area of the original Pueblo of Los Angeles is renovated and opens as Olvera Street.

1930 - Los Angeles International Airport (LAX) opens. Today it is the world's busiest in point-to-point passenger traffic and is fifth busiest overall.

1930 - The Greek Theatre, named because it was meant to replicate a Greek amphitheater, opens in Griffith Park.

1932 - Los Angeles hosts the games of the X Olympiad. Tenth Street is renamed Olympic Boulevard.

1933 - First publication of the African-American newspaper the Los Angeles Sentinel.

1934 - The Original Farmers Market opens at the corner of Third Street and Fairfax Avenue.

1935 - The Griffith Observatory opens in Griffith Park. From its perch on a promontory, one can view both the skies above and the city below.

1939 - Union Staion opens in Downtown Los Angeles. Its style combines Mission, Spanish Colonial and Streamline Moderne motifs, to dramatic effect. Los Angeles Chinatown moves to its present location to make way.

1939 - Raymond Chandler publishes The Big Sleep, the first of his detective novels set in Los Angeles.

1939 - MGM Studios takes viewers over the rainbow, with the release of The Wizard of Oz.

1940 - The Arroyo Seco Parkway opens on the right-of-way between Downtown Los Angeles and Pasadena, becoming the nation's first controlled limited access highway (you may know it as a freeway). Today the LA area has 27 interconnecting freeways, and the East L.A. Interchange is the busiest in the world.

WWII - Shipbuilding becomes the primary business of the Port of Los Angeles, employing some 90,000 workers. One-third of U.S. warplanes are manufactured in Los Angeles.

1942 - Los Angeles gives the world its first parking meter.

1944 - Bing Crosby's recording of "San Fernando Valley" reaches No. 1 on the charts, no doubt prompting plenty of GIs to move here after the war.

1944 - Peak of ridership of the Pacific Electric Railway (red car) streetcars, with 109 million riders on more than 1,150 miles of track in four counties.

1946 - The Cleveland Rams football team moves to Los Angeles and become the Los Angeles Rams. Under executive Pete Rozelle (later commissioner of the National Football League), the Rams will become the first team to capitalize on television.

1947 - The telephone area code 213 is assigned to Los Angeles.

1950 - Los Angeles population: 1,970,358, surpassing Detroit as fourth in the nation.

1950 - Sunset Boulevard is released and instantly becomes the definitive Hollywood film. Gloria Swanson headlines as the faded star Norma Desmond.

1953 - Completion of the "four level" interchange, the first of its kind, connecting the Hollywood, Pasadena and Harbor Freeways.

1954 - Oil magnate J. Paul Getty first opens a museum of his collections to the public.

1954 - Simon Rodia completes the Watts Towers.

1955 - Walt Disney moves to Los Angeles' ritzy Bel Air district and proclaims his new Disneyland Park in nearby Anaheim as the "Happiest Place on Earth."

1956 - The Capitol Records Building in Hollywood, distinctively shaped like a stack of 45-rpm disks, becomes the first circular office tower.

1957 - Richard Knerr and Arthur "Spud" Melin of the Los Angeles-based toy company Wham-O create a durable plastic ring they call the Hula Hoop. It sells over 100 million in the next two years.

1958 - Television station KTLA becomes the first to use a news helicopter.

1958 - The former Brooklyn Dodgers play for the first time as the Los Angeles Dodgers, becoming the first Major League Baseball team west of Missouri.

1958 - USC establishes the first schools in the United States for Cinema-Television, Gerontology and Urban Planning & Development.

1959 - Los Angeles-based toy company Mattel debuts Barbie on March 9. That makes her a Pisces.

1960 - Los Angeles population: 2,479,015, surpassing Philadelphia as third in the nation. More than 6 million people live in Los Angeles County.

1960 - The Minneapolis Lakers basketball team moves to Los Angeles and is renamed the Los Angeles Lakers. Legendary Lakers will include Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Wilt Chamberlain, Earvin "Magic" Johnson, Shaquille O'Neal and Kobe Bryant.

1960 - The Hollywood Walk of Fame opens with a star dedicated to Joanne Woodward embedded in the sidewalk.

1960 - Los Angeles hosts the national convention of the Democratic Party at the LA Memorial Sports Arena. John F. Kennedy is nominated to run for president.

1961 - Cleopatra, starring Elizabeth Taylor, becomes the first film to break the $10 million mark in production budget, and Twentieth Century Fox sells off its back lot to pay for it. This is to become Century City, now home to office towers, hotels and shopping.

1961 - The Chouinard Art Institute and Los Angeles Conservatory of Music merge to form California Institute of the Arts, the first degree-granting school for visual and performing arts in the United States. CalArts alumni include directors Tim Burton and Sofia Coppola, Pixar chief John Lasseter and actors Don Cheadle, Ed Harris and David Hasselhoff.

1961 - The last of the Red Car trolleys ceases operation.

1962 - Dodger Stadium opens in Chavez Ravine. Many aficionados still call it the most beautiful stadium in baseball.

1962 - The space-age Theme Building opens as the centerpiece of Los Angeles International Airport.

1962 - Heeeeere's Johnny! Johnny Carson becomes host of NBC's The Tonight Show. Although the show is first broadcast from New York, it later moves to Los Angeles, and Carson becomes synonymous with the city, peppering his monologues with numerous LA-area references.

1964 - The Dorothy Chandler Pavilion opens as the cornerstone of the Music Center of Los Angeles County. It is to serve as home to the Los Angeles Philharmonic, Los Angeles Opera and Music Center Dance, as well as several Oscar presentations.

1964 - The Whisky A Go Go opens. It will host musical acts including the Doors, Jimi Hendrix, the Who, Talking Heads, Oasis, Nirvana and Soundgarden.

1965 - The Los Angeles County Museum of Art opens. Today it is the largest art museum in the western United States, anchor of the Museum Corridor along Wilshire Boulevard's Miracle Mile.

1965 - Restrictions are lifted on immigration from East Asia. Early days of Koreatown, along Wilshire Boulevard.

1965 - Dedication of Marina del Rey, the largest man-made pleasure boat harbor in the world. South of Venice, it is home to 6,000 private yachts.

1966 - Los Angeles Zoo opens in Griffith Park.

1966 - The Beach Boys release Good Vibrations, a No. 1 hit in the United States and UK and widely considered one of the most influential pop songs ever written.

1967 - Super Bowl I takes place at the historical Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum.

1967 - The Mark Taper Forum opens at the Music Center. It will be instrumental in the launch of successful new plays including Angels in America.

1967 - Opening of the Los Angeles Forum. The Los Angeles Kings hockey team plays its first games here.

1970 - Los Angeles' first gay pride parade. Today it is the largest the United States; the parade and its festival draw more than 350,000 attendees annually.

1972 - The South Bay Bike Trail is constructed, linking Pacific Palisades with Santa Monica, Venice, Marina del Rey and other beach cities, and turning the beach into even more of a recreation destination.

1973 - Tom Bradley becomes mayor of Los Angeles, the second African-American mayor of a major United States city. He is to serve as mayor for the next two decades.

1974 - The J. Paul Getty Museum moves to a recreated Roman villa on a hill overlooking the ocean in Malibu.

1974 - Nude sunbathing at Venice Beach gets national attention, before the Los Angeles City Council votes to outlaw it.

1975 - The George C. Page Museum opens adjacent to the La Brea Tar Pits.

1975 - Jaws, a film by a young director named Steven Spielberg, inaugurates the age of the modern blockbuster.

1975 - Establishment of the Southern California Air Quality Management District. Air quality in the Los Angeles basin has improved steadily since, with ozone levels down to about one-third their 1975 levels.

1976 - Painting of the Great Wall of Los Angeles in the San Fernando Valley, the world's longest mural at 2,500 feet. Los Angeles is the mural capital of the world, with over 1,500 wall paintings around the city.

1978 - The Santa Monica Mountains Recreation Area is established. At over 153,000 acres, it is the world's largest urban national park.

1979 - The Museum of Contemporary Art is founded, with one of the most comprehensive collections of late-20th-century art in the United States. Its main gallery (1986) is on Grand Avenue, designed by Arata Isozaki. MOCA galleries also include the Geffen Contemporary in Little Tokyo and MOCA West in West Hollywood.

1979 - The Laugh Factory opens on the Sunset Strip. Over the years, it will host every major North American standup comedian: Rodney Dangerfield, Chris Rock, Robin Williams, Adam Sandler, Roseanne Barr and more.

1980 - Los Angeles population: 3,005,072, surpassing Chicago as second in the nation.

1981 - The California African American Museum opens in temporary headquarters in Exposition Park. It moved to its permanent site in 1984.

1982 - The Raiders professional football team moves to Los Angeles from Oakland, California.

1982 - Wolfgang Puck opens Spago on the Sunset Strip, inaugurating a new era of California Cuisine and making LA a city of foodies.

1982 - OUTFEST comes out, the first gay and lesbian film festival in the country, and the longest continuously running film festival in Los Angeles.

1982 - Fast Times at Ridgemont High, set at a fictional San Fernando Valley high school, makes stars of Sean Penn, Nicolas Cage and Jennifer Jason Leigh.

1982 - Legendary rock 'n' roller Frank Zappa and his daughter Moon Unit, like, record "Valley Girl." It will become Zappa's only top 40 hit.

1983 - Randy Newman releases "I Love L.A.," which will become the city's unofficial anthem. We love it!

1984 - Los Angeles becomes the first city in America with two telephone area codes, as the San Fernando and San Gabriel valleys are designated as 818.

1984 - A new international terminal opens at LAX, named for Mayor Tom Bradley. Today, some 30 airlines operate out of this terminal.

1984 - Los Angeles becomes the only American city ever to host the Summer Olympic Games twice.

1984 - The Mazda Miata is designed in Los Angeles. In addition to Mazda, Honda, Nissan, Toyota, Volkswagen, Volvo and the "Big Three" U.S. automobile manufacturers all have design centers in LA.

1986 - Running on Olympic fever, the first City of Los Angeles Marathon takes place. It is the largest first-time marathon, at nearly 11,000 people.

1987 - Pope John Paul II visits Los Angeles. His activities include meeting with communications industry leaders and celebrating two outdoor masses.

1987 - James Ellroy's The Black Dahlia is published, the first of his series of Los Angeles novels, which also includes L.A. Confidential.

1988 - The Gene Autry Western Heritage Museum opens.

1990 - U.S. Bank Tower opens. At 73 stories, it remains the tallest building on the West Coast.

1990 - When the Metro Blue Line connects Downtown to Long Beach, light-rail for commuters returns to the Los Angeles area. It will be joined by four other subway/rail lines and busways.

1991 - Lakers star Magic Johnson retires, announcing that he is HIV-positive, giving HIV/AIDS a new platform and making it clear that this disease can affect anyone.

1991 - The 310 area code comes into use for western, southern and eastern Los Angeles.

1992 - Esa-Pekka Salonen takes the baton as conductor of the Los Angeles Philharmonic.

1992 - Opening of the Japanese-American National Museum in Little Tokyo, the only museum in the United States telling the story of Japanese Americans.

1992- Jay Leno takes over as host of The Tonight Show. Jaywalking begins.

1993 - The Museum of Tolerance opens in West LA. Although focused on the Nazi Holocaust, it also examines general issues of tolerance and racism.

1994 - The Petersen Automotive Museum opens on Museum Row.

1994 - The eyes of the world are focused on LA as football great O.J. Simpson is arrested for the murder of his wife, Nicole Brown Simpson, and Ronald Goldman, following a spectacular slow-speed car chase. "If it doesn't fit, you must aquit" soon enters the American lexicon.

1994 - The FIFA World Cup is held at venues throughout the United States. The final match, won by Brazil, takes place at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena.

1996 - The first Los Angeles Times Festival of Books is held. It is now the largest book fair in America, with over 13,000 attendees and 370 writers in attendance.

1996 - The Skirball Cultural Center opens in Brentwood as a museum of Jewish history and culture.

1997 - The hilltop Getty Center opens with views of the entire Los Angeles Basin. Architect Richard Meier has created the buildings, with a façade of travertine marble, while the garden by Robert Irwin draws equal praise.

1998 - The area surrounding LA's Downtown core is given the area code 323.

1999 - STAPLES Center arena opens, the new home for basketball and hockey teams and the beginning of a renaissance in Downtown Los Angeles.

2000 - A section of East Hollywood is designated as America's first and only Thai Town. So many ethnic Thais live in Los Angeles (roughly 80,000), that the city is sometimes referred to as Thailand's 77th province.

2001 - The Kodak Theatre opens as the new venue for the Academy Awards ceremony (it will later be renamed the Dolby Theatre, in 2012). Hollywood & Highland, a futuristic shopping mall that also has an eye toward Hollywood's past, opens next door.

2002 - The 11-story Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels opens in the heart of Downtown, replacing St. Vibiana's as the main center of worship for the archdiocese. The contemporary design by José Rafael Moneo has virtually no right angles and a plaza that evokes cathedrals of the Old World.

2003 - Walt Disney Concert Hall, designed by Los Angeles-based architect Frank Gehry, becomes a new architectural emblem for the city, and the acoustically perfect home of the Los Angeles Philharmonic.

2005 - Antonio Villaraigosa becomes mayor of Los Angeles, the city's first mayor of Hispanic descent since 1872. After his election, Newsweek features him on the cover with the headline "Latino Power."

2006 - The Getty Museum in Malibu reopens after years of renovation as the Getty Villa, housing the foundation's significant collection of Greek, Roman and Etruscan antiquities.

2006 - The Griffith Observatory reopens after extensive renovations, including the Leonard Nimoy Event Horizon Theater, named for the actor who played Mr. Spock on the original Star Trek series.

2006 - City population is 3,976,071. Los Angeles County population is 10,245,572, by far the nation's largest county.

2008 - L.A. LIVE opens in Downtown Los Angeles and the Broad Contemporary Art Museum opens at LACMA.

2009 - Madame Tussauds opens in Hollywood; the Annenberg Space for Photography opens in Century City.

2010 - Angels Flight reopens, connecting the historic and financial districts of Bunker Hill.

2011 - In Downtown LA, La Plaza de Cultura y Artes opens across from the Olvera Street marketplace, and Dinosaur Hall opens at the Natural History Museum in Exposition Park.

2011 - The Los Angeles Philharmonic extends acclaimed music director Gustavo Dudamel's contract through the end of the 2018-2019 season, the orchestra's 100th year anniversary.

2012 - TransformersTM: The Ride-3D launches at Universal Studios Hollywood, and the Space Shuttle Endeavour goes on public display at the California Science Center.

2013 - Several of LA's cultural landmarks celebrate milestone anniversaries: Walt Disney Concert Hall (10th), Fowler Museum (50th), Hollywood Sign (90th), Natural History Museum (100th).

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Circa 38,000 BC - Los Angeles has been pulling in visitors for tens of thousands of years, as a future fossil is trapped inside what are now the historical La Brea Tar Pits. Circa 8000 BC - Chumash people settle the Los Angeles basin.

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TEACHING CENTRAL AMERICA

More than seven million Central Americans reside in the United States today, yet the lack of resources in most schools on Central American heritage make the rich history and literature of the region invisible. Teaching for Change has launched a campaign to encourage and support teaching about Central America. We have collected lessons, book lists, biographies of noted historical figures, and readings for free use by classroom teachers. Learn more.

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More than seven million Central Americans reside in the United States today, yet the lack of resources in most schools on Central American heritage make the rich history and literature of the region invisible. Teaching for Change has launched a campaign to encourage and support teaching about Central America.

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Teaching California: Salvadorenx Political Activism in the 1980s (9th Grade/Ethnic Studies)

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Teaching California: Salvadorenx Political Activism in the 1980s (9th Grade/Ethnic Studies)

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Sources curated by UCLA HGP’s Cindy Mata

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The purpose of the variety of primary sources is to appeal to different multiple intelligences and varying English language levels. Not only does the kinesthetic aspect of the gallery walk tap into a rarely used intelligence, but it also encourages intrapersonal processing between students. The photographs allow English learners to meaningfully participate in the learning process alongside their peers. Teachers can allow students as little or as much time as the class period and student dynamic allows for.

We recommend an activity from Facing History, Facing Ourselves. These are their Big Paper instructions: Big Paper Strategy from facing History and Ourselves

Directions:

1. Select a stimulus for discussion.

First, you will need to select the "stimulus" - the material that students will respond to. A stimulus might consist of questions, quotations, historical documents, or excerpts from novels, poetry, or images. Groups can all be given the same stimulus for discussion, but more often they are each given a different text related to the same theme. This activity works best when students are working in pairs or triads. Each group also needs a sheet of big poster paper that can fit a written conversation and added comments. In the middle of each of these, tape or write the "stimulus" (image, quotation, excerpt, etc.) that will be used to spark the students' discussion.

2. Prepare students.

Inform the class that this activity will be completed in silence. All communication is done in writing. Students should be told that they will have time to speak in pairs and in the large groups later. Go over all of the instructions at the beginning so that they do not ask questions during the activity. Also, before the activity starts, the teacher should ask students if they have questions, to minimize the chance that students will interrupt the silence once it has begun. You can also remind students of their task as they begin each new step.

3. Students comment on their group's Big Paper.

Each group receives a Big Paper and each student gets a marker or pen. Some teachers have each student use a different color to make it easier to see the back-and-forth flow of a conversation. The groups read the text (or look at the image) in silence. After students have read, they are to comment on the text and ask questions of each other in writing on the Big Paper. The written conversation must start on the topic of the text but can stray wherever the students take it. If someone in the group writes a question, another member of the group should address the question by writing on the Big Paper. Students can draw lines connecting a comment to a particular question. Make sure students know that more than one of them can write on the Big Paper at the same time. The teacher can determine the length of this step, but it should be at least 15 minutes.

4. Students comment on other groups' Big Papers.

Still working in silence, students leave their groups and walk around reading the other Big Papers. Students bring their marker or pen with them and can write comments or further questions for thought on other Big Papers. Again, you can determine the length of time for this step based on the number of Big Papers and your knowledge of the students. Students return to their group's Big Paper, silence is broken. The groups reassemble back at their own Big Paper. They should look at any new comments written by others. Now they can have a free conversation about the text, their own comments, what they read on other papers, and the comments their fellow students wrote for them. At this point, you might ask students to take out their journals and identify a question or comment that stands out to them.

5. Discuss as a class.

Finally, debrief the process with the large group. The conversation can begin with a simple prompt such as, "What did you learn from doing this activity?" This is the time to delve deeper into the content and use ideas on the Big Papers to draw out students' thoughts. The discussion can also touch upon the importance and difficulty of staying silent and students' level of comfort with this activity.
Related Resources / Materials
We encourage educators to familiarize themselves with the long history of US intervention in Latin America.

Book: Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America by Juan González

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9 ES Salvadoreñx Political Activism in the 1980s

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The purpose of the variety of primary sources is to appeal to different multiple intelligences and varying English language levels. Not only does the kinesthetic aspect of the gallery walk tap into a rarely used intelligence, but it also encourages intrapersonal processing between students.

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Teaching California: Why did People Settle in California? (3rd Grade)

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Teaching California: Why did People Settle in California? (3rd Grade)

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Includes primary sources and teaching activities.

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3.1 Why Did People Settle in California? – Teaching California

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3.1 Why Did People Settle in California?

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Teaching California: Tenochtitlan as a Site of Encounter (7th Grade)

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Teaching California: Tenochtitlan as a Site of Encounter (7th Grade)

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Include primary sources and teaching activities

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Tenochtitlán was a site of encounter for several reasons. As the capital of the Aztec Empire, it was a center of political and military power. The Aztec Empire was organized by conquest, marriage alliances with other city-states, and the extracting of tribute. The Aztecs were latecomers to an area - the Valley of Mexico - occupied by many different peoples who were organized into city-states. By successful warfare, the Aztecs conquered or made marriage alliances with most of these city-states, and then expanded by conquering city-states and other groups in Mesoamerica. The Aztecs usually let the city-states and conquered peoples govern themselves but required them to pay tribute, to be sent periodically to Tenochtitlán. Receipt of this tribute enriched the Aztec state, which used it to build a splendid capital city. The circulation of tribute also stimulated markets in Tenochtitlán and attracted people from all over Mesoamerica to visit the city. Although the Aztecs relied upon warfare, the Aztec ruler and state officials engaged in diplomacy with rulers and important foreigners. In this inquiry set, students explore these factors to see that Tenochtitlán and the Aztec Empire had many of the same power dynamics and social systems as Afroeurasian capitals and empires, even though the Aztecs expressed these in very different ways.

One of the significant issues this set engages concerns the nature of the primary sources, which were all produced in the colonial period rather than during the Aztec Empire, even though some were created by Indigenous people and some by the Spanish. After they lost the Valley of Mexico to the Spanish under Cortés, Aztec writers continued to create codices and write in the Nahuatl language about their history, Tenochtitlán, and the loss of their previous way of life. However, these Nahua authors were writing about things that they had lost and missed bitterly, not about the confident power of an empire at its height. This set gives students the opportunity to consider the importance of historical context and perspective and its effect on a source. They must also grapple with the fact that there are no similar sources for the Aztec period, so they must decide which evidence they can cite, and with what conditions.

The first reason that Tenochtitlán was a site of encounter is that it was an imperial capital. In similar ways to Rome and Baghdad, Tenochtitlán attracted people. The Aztecs founded the city of Tenochtitlán in 1325 when they encountered a symbol foretold in their ancient prophecies. After leaving their legendary homeland to the north, the Aztecs (also known as the Mexica) journeyed south in search of an eagle devouring a serpent on a cactus growing from a rock (Source 1). On the island in the middle of Lake Texcoco, where the Mexica discovered this sign, emerged the capital of the empire (Source 2).

However, this land was not empty when the Aztecs arrived. The lake region in the Valley of Mexico was densely populated. The Aztecs couldn't find a place to settle except for a swampy island in Lake Texcoco that no one wanted. The Aztecs drained some of the water to make firm land, built canals, and made the island inhabitable and defensible. The Aztecs began interacting with neighboring Indigenous peoples in the Valley of Mexico and beyond. They conquered and annexed more than 20 neighboring city-states and created a network of vassal states from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean. In that land, however, there were states that maintained independence. This resulted in the Aztec Empire resembling a patchwork quilt instead of a continuously woven blanket. One important city-state that challenged the Mexica was Tlaxcala (Source 8). Aztec conquests and success in war created animosity and resentment among other city-states and groups of people. On the other hand, people from many different ethnic groups and lands met in Tenochtitlán.

Secondly, the Aztec style of rule drew wealth and people into its capital city. The Aztecs did not directly govern conquered areas. After they won battles, they required the defeated city-states to pay tribute to Tenochtitlán. The exact tribute owed was based on the goods produced or acquired in specific regions (Sources 5 and 6). This annual tribute provided exotic wares for the markets of Tenochtitlán and secured a variety of products for the capital's merchants. Cortés's awed description of the city's central market, written shortly after the conquest, testifies to the fact that Aztec Tenochtitlán was a center of trade and commercial activity (Source 4). Many people drawn into the city never left. This source set does not include any sources about human sacrifice, because that aspect of the Aztecs is so well known. However, this was also a factor that drew people to the city, which was a very important religious and ceremonial center.

In addition, the Aztecs used the wealth acquired from collection of tribute to build a grand and spectacular capital city. Tenochtitlán was one of the largest cities in the world at the time. It was spatially organized into four quarters that radiated from a central temple complex centered on the Twin Temples (Sources 2 and 3). The Aztecs built a city that maximized use of its site on a muddy island in a shallow lake with a transportation system of roads and canals, aqueducts to bring in fresh water, and chinampas (floating garden plots) to feed its people.

Finally, although the Aztecs are better known for their prowess in warfare, they also practiced diplomacy. When Hernán Cortés first arrived in Tenochtitlán, the Aztec ruler Moctezuma II went out to meet him on the causeway. As an Aztec account relates, Moctezuma presented gifts to the Spanish conquistador (Sources 7 and 8). Although the actual gifts were different, gift-giving and other practices of diplomacy were common to both Aztec and Afroeurasian cultures.

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Tenochtitlán was a site of encounter for several reasons. As the capital of the Aztec Empire, it was a center of political and military power. The Aztec Empire was organized by conquest, marriage alliances with other city-states, and the extracting of tribute.

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The Los Angeles Plaza Historic District, also known as El Pueblo de Los Angeles State Historic Park, is located at the oldest section of Los Angeles, known for many years as "El Pueblo de la Reina de Los Angeles". The district, centered on the old plaza, was the city's center under Spanish (1781-1821), Mexican (1821-1847) and United States (after 1847) rule through most of the 19th Century.

The one person most responsible for the founding of Los Angeles was the new Governor of California, Felipe de Neve. In 1777 Neve toured Alta California and decided to establish civic pueblos for the support of the military presidios. The new pueblos would reduce the secular power of the missions by reducing the dependency of the military on them. At the same time, they would promote the development of industry and agriculture. Neve identified Santa Barbara, San Jose, and Los Angeles as sites for his new pueblos.*

Historical Notes

It wasn't until April 4, 1850 that Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality, five months before California achieved statehood.

In 1850, the population of Los Angeles was only 1610.*

Click HERE to see more in an Interactive Map of Early Los Angeles as it appeared in 1850.

Historical Notes

The site of the Plaza today is not the original location. It is the second, third, or maybe even the fourth. One of the earlier plots is believed to be around where the current Pershing Square sits. It's also thought that at least one of the first three was washed away in a flood. The current Plaza dates from as early as 1815.

When early settlers arrived at the Los Angeles River by way of Mission Road, they picked as a nearby gathering point a huge sycamore (upper right-center of photo) that gave them shelter and became a landmark, "El Aliso." That Spanish word for sycamore was later used to name the road carved out near the river (Aliso Street in 1854).

El Aliso (upper center-right of photo) sprang from the ground near the western bank of the Los Angeles River in the late fifteenth century, about the same time Columbus arrived in the Americas. As it matured, the sycamore -- located at the juncture of the Los Angeles coastal plain and the San Fernando and San Gabriel valleys -- became a gathering place for Los Angeles' indigenous Tongva people. Local leaders traveled from their villages across Southern California to confer under the shade of the tree's canopy. By the mid-eighteenth century, the mighty sycamore stood at the center of one of the largest Tongva villages, Yangna. By the 1830s, due to the encroachment of the pueblo, El Aliso had ceased to function as the symbolic center of daily Tongva life as Yangna changed locations twice before dissolving into historical oblivion.*

Historical Notes

In 1857, the city council granted William Dryden a franchise to deliver water to homes through a system of wooden pipes beneath the streets. Dryden and his newly incorporated water company, Los Angeles Water Works Co., erected a forty foot water wheel to lift water from the LA River to the city's main water ditch.

In 1858, the LA Water Works Co. constructed a large brick and wood storage tank in the center of the city plaza as seen above. It would remain there for about 10 years and then replaced by a fountain. Water would be continued to be stored in other tanks on the periphery of the plaza as well as in other nearby reservoirs.

In 1860, the population of Los Angeles was 4385, almost three times what it was 10 years earlier.*

Click HERE to read more about Water in Early L.A. Also, click HERE to see more Early LA Water Reservoirs.

Historical Notes

The 'Church of Los Angeles' was founded on August 18, 1814 by Franciscan Fray Luis Gil y Taboada. He placed the cornerstone for the new church in the adobe ruins of the original "sub-station mission" here, the Nuestra Señora Reina de los Ángeles Asistencia (founded 1784), thirty years after it was established to serve the settlement founding Los Angeles Pobladores (original settlers).*

Historical Notes

The completed new structure was dedicated on December 8, 1822. A replacement chapel, named La Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de los Ángeles - for Mary, mother of Jesus or "The Church of Our Lady of the Angels" - was rebuilt using materials of the original church in 1861. The title Reina, meaning "Queen," was added later to the name. For years, the little chapel, which collected the nicknames "La Placita" and "Plaza Church," served as the sole Roman Catholic church in emerging immigrant Los Angeles.*

Historical Notes

The 'Old Plaza Church' was one of the first three sites designated as Historic Cultural Monuments by the City of Los Angeles, and has been designated as a California Historical Landmark No. 144. Click HERE to see the complete listing of California Historical Landmarks in L. A.

Historical Notes

The original 1822-built "Church of Our Lady of the Angels" incoporated a three-bell campanario, or "bell wall" which was replaced by a gazebo-like structure (seen above) when the Church was rebuilt in 1861. The "bell wall" or "bell tower" would once again return when the Plaza Church was repaired/remodeled circa 1901.*

Historical Notes

Calle Principal is now Main Street and follows the old Bath Street, while the upper portion of Calle Principal became Upper Main and later Spring Street, and no longer exists below Sunset Boulevard. (Its remnants can be seen in El Pueblo de Los Angeles Parking Lot Number 2.)

Calle de los Negros (then disparagingly called "Nigger Alley") is now the east side of Los Angeles Street.

Wine Street is now Olvera Street.

Sunset Boulevard (at one time called Short Street) originally ran down Church (Bread) and Marchessault Streets; now it follows a more direct path to connect with Macy Street, and this portion was recently renamed Cesar E. Chavez Street.

Calle Alta (old High Street) is now Ord Street.

Church (Bread) Street is now an alley.

Calle Corto (Short Street) no longer exists.

Historical Notes

The Zanja Madre is shown here from the river at the right edge of the map, running along the bluffs in the proximity of current day North Broadway, completely open to the elements. A few years after this rendering, a brick tunnel enclosed the Zanja Madre in an attempt by the Common Council and the Los Angeles City Water Company to preserve the precious water flowing down from the river. The map includes the Campo Santo cemetery (the second one) at the end of Eternity Street, the water wheel that propelled the flow toward the pueblo, and the homes of pioneers like Jose Sepulveda, Abel Stearns, and Bernardo Wilson.

Click HERE to see more in Zanja Madre - LA's Original Aqueduct

William Moore, the rendering's rather robust and tireless cartographer, was county surveyor for two separate terms and a man with such drive that he once tired of waiting for a ship from San Francisco and walked to Los Angeles. Because he was bi-lingual and reportedly quite charming he was involved in many important projects in the days after California gained statehood, including the planning of reservoirs, a sewer system, creation of sidewalks, the Farmers and Merchants Bank, and even orange growing for a time.*^^

Historical Notes

The Lugo Adobe, said to have been built in the 1840s by Don Vicente Lugo, was one of the very few two-story houses in the pueblo of Los Angeles. In 1867, Lugo donated this house on the Plaza to St. Vincent's School (forerunner of Loyola University).^^

Click HERE to see more of St. Vincent's College (later LMU).

Historical Notes

Between 1868 and 1870, Pio Pico constructed the three story, 33-room hotel, Pico House (Casa de Pico) on the old plaza of Los Angeles, opposite today's Olvera Street.

Pío de Jesús Pico was the last Governor of Alta California under Mexican rule. In 1821 Pico set up a tanning hut and dram shop in Los Angeles, selling drinks for two Spanish bits (US 25 cents). His businesses soon became a significant source of his income.

By the 1850s Pico was one of the richest men in Alta California. In 1850 he purchased the 8,894-acre Rancho Paso de Bartolo, which included half of present day Whittier. Two years later, he built a home on the ranch and lived there until 1892. It is preserved today as Pio Pico State Historic Park. Pico also owned the former Mission San Fernando Rey de España, Rancho Santa Margarita y Las Flores (now part of Camp Pendleton), and several other ranchos for a total of over one half-million acres, or 800 mi². *

(ca. 1880s)*#^ - View shwoing the Pico House's French restaurant dining room.

(ca. 1873)** - View looking east showing the showing the Pico House, the Merced Theater, and the Masonic Lodge, located on Main Street. Two tanks of the City's first gas works are seen in the foreground. They were located just south of the Plaza Church (out of view to the left) and across the street from the Pico House.

The gas tanks were built in 1867 when the City installed its first streetlighting system consisting of 43 gas lamps along Main Street. By 1873, 136 gas lamps provided the outdoor night lighting for the City.

Things would change in 1882 when electricity was introduced. Click HERE to see more in Early Los Angeles Streetlights.

In 1868, John S. Griffen, Solomon Lazard, and Prudent Beaudry, three of the city's more successful businessmen, submitted a proposal to the city council to develop and operate the city's water system. In turn they asked for all of the city's water rights and control over the water rates. They also promised to construct a reservoir for the city, lay twelve miles of iron pipe, install fire hydrants at major street crossings, provide free water to public buildings, and to erect an ornamental fountain in the Plaza.

Click HERE to see more in Water in Early Los Angeles.

Fort Hill (also known as Fort Moore Hill) was a prominent hill overlooking the pueblo of Los Angeles. Its commanding view of the city made it a strategic location.

Fort Moore was an historic U.S. Military Fort during the Mexican-American War. Its approximate location was at what is now the Hollywood Freeway near the intersection of North Hill Street and West Cesar Chavez Avenue, downtown. The hill on which it was built became known as Fort Moore Hill, most of which was removed in 1949 for construction of the freeway. The hill was located one block north of Temple Street and a short distance south of present day Cesar Chavez Avenue, between the Los Angeles Civic Center and Chinatown.

The fort is now memorialized by the Fort Moore Pioneer Memorial, 451 North Hill Street.*

Historical Notes

L.A.'s first streetcars ran under horsepower. Steam locomotives were considered too dirty and dangerous for use on city streets still teeming with easily spooked horses, and cable car technology was still new and expensive. Electric-powered traction railways, meanwhile, remained more than a decade off.

On July 1, 1874, the modest, horse-drawn cars of the Spring and Sixth Street Railroad became the first streetcars to roll down Los Angeles streets. Founded by lawyer Robert M. Widney, the Spring & Sixth operated a regular schedule, running cars hourly on weekdays between 6:30 a.m. and 10 p.m. For a ten-cent fare, passengers could ride the one-and-a-half-mile route from the intersection of Temple and Spring south to Sixth, and then west to Figueroa.

Soon, L.A.'s streetcar network expanded as new railways opened and existing lines extended their tracks across the city. The Plaza functioned as a central hub for the city's growing streetcar network, with lines radiating out in several directions.*^^*

(ca. 1878)*** - View of Main Street looking south. A horse-drawn wagon with two men in it is parked in front of the Pico House near the Merced Theatre on the left. The road is unpaved and a streetcar track runs down the middle. Both sides of the street are lined with imposingly large buildings. At center on the left side of the street is an especially big building topped by three prominent towers ( Baker Block ). Most of the other buildings are somewhat Romanesque, with large columns and archways dominating their facades. Click HERE to see more in Early Views of the Historic 300 Block of N. Main Street

(1870s)^^ - Lafayette Hotel stagecoach near the adobes in Calle de los Negros, presently Los Angeles Street and Arcadia Street. The old Antonio Coronel adobe is in the background. Numerous horse-drawn wagons and carriages are parked along the street. The above area was the scene of a Chinese massacre in 1871.

(ca. 1882)** - View looking toward the Baker Block on the east side of Main Street north of Commercial Street showing one of the first of seven electric street lights installed in the City of Los Angeles in 1882. It stood 150 feet tall! A man can be seen standing on a platform half way up the street light mast.

Floating some 9,000 feet above the city in a hot-air balloon in 1887, Edwin H. Husher took what may be the first aerial photo of Los Angeles.^#^*

By 1887 the City's population had grown to over 20,000 people with most of the new development having taken place south of the orignal Pueblo and LA Plaza as seen in the above photo.

Historical Notes

Agustín Olvera arrived from Mexico in 1834 where he had been a Justice of the Peace, and held various offices in the Mexican administration. In 1842 he was granted Rancho Mission Viejo, and three years later, was also granted the 35,501-acre Rancho Cuyamaca.

Olvera is noted for helping to bridge the gap between the governance of California by Mexico and the U.S.; helping sign the Treaty of Cahuenga, thus ending the war in California; was appointed to be Judge of the First Instance in 1849; was elected as the first county judge of the newly formed County of Los Angeles in 1850; and eventually entered private practice law.

In 1877, the Los Angeles City Council changed the name of Wine Street to Olvera Street in his honor. Marchessault Street is named for French Canadian, Damien Marchessault, who served as mayor of Los Angeles from 1859-1860, and again from 1861-1865. During his term in office, the Plaza Church was rebuilt and the City Gas Company was organized. Marchessault committed suicide in the city council chamber in 1868, after becoming despondent over public criticism of the water system and over gambling debts.**

The Lugo Adobe has been designated as a California Historical Landmark No. 301. Click HERE to see more in Early Views of California Histrorical Landmarks in L.A.

(ca. 1887)* - A view of the Los Angeles Plaza looking southwest with the Pico House to the left and the Old Plaza Church on the right. The 2-story 'Plaza House' (built in 1883) sits directly across the Plaza on the west side of Main Street. The Vickrey-Brunswig Building, one of the City's first 5-story buildings, would be built within a year of this photo just to the left (south) of the Plaza Building.

In 1887, during the height of the real estate boom, investor William Vickrey bought a parcel of land on North Main Street, on which he commissioned construction of the Vickrey-Brunswig Building. Originally the site of an adobe owned by Jesus Dominguez, the land was purchased by Vickrey from the City of Los Angeles for a total cost of $3,925.

Los Angeles city directories from the mid-1880s list Vickrey's occupation as "capitalist." He established and served as president of the East Side Bank, which was located at 510 Downey Avenue in downtown Los Angeles.^^^^

Construction of the Vickrey-Brunswig Building took place in 1888, the year marking the abrupt collapse of the real estate boom that had driven rapid construction and market speculation through the 1880s. Soon after completion of the building, Vickrey would be forced to declare insolvency and then lose the property to his lender.^^^

The Victorian-era brick Vickrey Building was among the earliest five-story buildings in Los Angeles. When it opened in 1888, the building housed ground floor retail with lodging on the upper floors. #*#*

The two-story Plaza House (built in 1883) was commissioned by Frenchman Philippe Garnier, whose name appears at the base of the decorative false gable parapet rising above the roofline. It was once the site of La Esperanza Bakery.

(ca. 1890s)** - Closer view showing the new 5-story Vickrey-Brunswig Building located on N. Main Street across from the LA Plaza and also across the street from the Pico House. Men are seen strolling in front of the Plaza.

Historical Notes

In 1868, the City of Los Angeles approved a franchise water agreement on a 30 year lease basis with the private Los Angeles City Water Company.

In 1899, after the end of the lease, a $2.09 million bond measure for the purchase of LA City Water Co.'s system was approved by city voters by a margin of nearly eight to one. After over two years of litigation the City of Los Angeles finally regained control of its water system on February 3, 1902. A new department was created called the Los Angeles Water Department.

Once the purchase was completed, the Los Angeles City Water Department acquired all assets of the privately owned water system including its main office building at Marchessault and North Alameda.

Click HERE to see more in Water Department's Original Office Building.

The Old Plaza Firehouse is the oldest firehouse in Los Angeles. Built in 1884, it operated as a firehouse until 1897. The building was thereafter used as a saloon, cigar store, poolroom, "seedy hotel", Chinese market, "flop house", and drugstore. The building was restored in the 1950s and opened as a firefighting museum in 1960.^*

The Old Plaza Firehouse was dedicated as California Historical Landmark No. 730 (Click HERE to see more in California Historical Landmarks in L.A.)

(1895)** - View of Governor Pio Pico's Office located between the Old Fire Station (left) and the Pico House (right), across from the Plaza. The prominent towers of the Baker Block can be seen in the background.

Historical Notes

Mission Nuestra Señora Reina de los Angeles (Church of Our Lady the Queen of the Angels), was founded on September 4, 1781 by a group of Spanish settlers. The church was considered an asistencia ("sub-mission") of Mission San Gabriel Arcángel. Priests from Mission San Gabriel divided their time between the mission and the Asistencia site, but ultimately the installation was never granted mission status and the missionaries eventually abandoned the site.

The surrounding area was named El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Angeles del Río de Porciúncula ("The Town of Our Lady the Queen of the Angels on the River Porciúncula", which is the present-day City of Los Angeles). A chapel, La Iglesia de Nuestra Señora Reina de los Angeles, was later erected and dedicated on December 8, 1822, and for years served as the sole Roman Catholic church in the Pueblo. It is the oldest church in the city of Los Angeles.

The Plaza Church was dedicated as California Historic Landmark No. 144. Click HERE to see list.

Back of photo print reads: "This bell (known as the Penance Bell) was given by Henry Delano Fitch as a forfeit for his transgression when he defied the civic and ecclesiastical authorities and eloped with Josefa Carillo, a Spanish California lady -- the first elopement of California -- 1829."***

Historical Notes

Los Angeles High School (seen above and behind the Old Plaza Church) was completed in 1891 at Castelar and Rock streets (North Hill Street and Fort Moore). It was built on part of the site of the abandoned Fort Moore Hill Cemetery, the first Protestant cemetery in Los Angeles, which was spread over the slopes of the hill.

The four-story red brick building had 40 rooms for its 400 students. It was the second Los Angeles High School to be built and replaced the original one that was built in 1872, at the former site of Central School on what was then known as Poundcake Hill, at the southeast corner of Fort Street (later Broadway).**

Early buildings commissioned to house the Los Angeles High School were among the architectural jewels of the city, and were strategically placed at the summit of a hill, the easier to be pointed to with pride. One of the school's long standing mottos is "Always a hill, always a tower, always a timepiece."

In 1917, the school moved to its current location at 4650 West Olympic Boulevard (which incidentally is not on a hill).^*

Click HERE to see more Early Views of Los Angeles High School.

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Your generosity allows us to continue to disseminate knowledge of the rich and diverse multicultural history of the greater Los Angeles area; to serve as a resource of historical information; and to assist in the preservation of the city's historic records.

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^^^ Metro - Los Angeles Transit History

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#*^ Flickr.com: Views of Los Angeles

#^* Flickr.com: Michael Ryerson

**^ Blogdowntown: Hollywood Freeway

^*^# Facebook.com - Bizzare Los Angeles

^#*^ ElPueblo.lacity.org: Plaza Map

^*^*^ Los Angeles Telephone
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The Los Angeles Plaza Historic District, also known as El Pueblo de Los Angeles State Historic Park, is located at the oldest section of Los Angeles, known for many years as "El Pueblo de la Reina de Los Angeles".

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Mexican American and Latinx Civil Rights in the Inland Empire: Prof. Mark Ocegueda, Brown University

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Mexican American and Latinx Civil Rights in the Inland Empire: Prof. Mark Ocegueda, Brown University

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From the UCLA HGP’s Localizing the Narrative: The Inland Empire and US History series

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The Las Fotos Project: Inspiring Teenage Girls Through Photography

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The Las Fotos Project: Inspiring Teenage Girls Through Photography

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AGE OF CHANGE, A FOTO BOOK

Support our programs and celebrate 10 Years of creativity, exploration and self-expression with Las Fotos Project's first photography publication! Over the course of a decade, Las Fotos Project students in our various programs have documented themselves and their surroundings, offering a unique perspective of the world through the eyes of teenage girls. Their resulting images have created a beautiful visual tapestry which spans from Los Angeles to Guatemala.

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Las Fotos Project Home - Las Fotos Project

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Support our programs and celebrate 10 Years of creativity, exploration and self-expression with Las Fotos Project's first photography publication! Over the course of a decade, Las Fotos Project students in our various programs have documented themselves and their surroundings, offering a unique perspective of the world through the eyes of teenage girls.

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Twentieth-century Mexican settlement in the Eastside can be traced to the 1910s and 1920s, during a period of rapid industrial development in the area known as Sonoratown within the City of Los Angeles.

Workers living in Sonoratown, the traditional barrio located near El Pueblo downtown, moved just east of the city limits to the newly established community of Belvedere, drawn by the availability of inexpensive housing and new job opportunities.

The 1910 Mexican Revolution also propelled the development of the area, as thousands of Mexicans immigrated to Los Angeles in the wake of the conflict. In the decades following World War II, the Eastside became predominantly Latinx as other communities moved to the city's expanding suburbs.

Places such as the Boyle Hotel, Our Lady of Solitude, Wyvernwood Garden Apartments, and the Maravilla Handball Court demonstrate the unique character that this longstanding community has brought to the Eastside. Within unincorporated East Los Angeles, several distinct neighborhoods, including Maravilla, Belvedere, and City Terrace, have emerged over time, each with a unique cultural identity.

In addition to significant population shifts, the Eastside was the backdrop for the rise of an important resistance movement in the postwar era.

In the 1960s, activists organized to protest widespread social discrimination against Mexican Americans in what would be called the Chicano Movement. In 1968, students and teachers from East Los Angeles high schools carried out a series of protests known as the East Los Angeles Walkouts or the Chicano Blowouts, which focused largely on educational inequality in local schools, but also aimed to draw attention to other restrictions on residents' civil rights.

A definitive moment in the Latinx history of the Eastside was the 1970 Chicano Moratorium.

After decades of discrimination, an increase in police brutality, and frustration over the disproportionate number of Mexican American soldiers dying in the Vietnam War, Chicanxs throughout Los Angeles organized the Chicano Moratorium as part of a national movement to protest the war and advocate for social justice at home.

Between 20,000 and 30,000 people participated in the peaceful demonstration that occurred on August 29, 1970 in East Los Angeles. The Chicano Moratorium began at Belvedere Park and followed a route along Atlantic and Whittier Boulevards, ending with a rally at Laguna Park.

Following reports of an incident unrelated to the Moratorium at a nearby liquor store, violence erupted between law enforcement and protestors, ultimately resulting in the death of three people, among them Ruben Salazar. Salazar, a noted Chicano journalist for the Los Angeles Times, was killed in the Silver Dollar Bar and Café by a Los Angeles County sheriff's deputy.

One month after the Moratorium, Laguna Park was renamed "Ruben F. Salazar Park" in honor of the reporter, who was the first in the mainstream American media to write about the social unrest in the Chicanx community. A new plaque with information on Salazar's life was unveiled on August 29, 2014 at Salazar Park, an effort spearheaded by County Supervisor Gloria Molina's office in collaboration with community activists.

The Eastside has long fostered a vibrant Latinx cultural scene that continues to enliven its historic places today.

Sites such as the Self Help Graphics and Art building, Estrada Courts, and El Mercado embody the artistic movements and rituals that define East Los Angeles and Boyle Heights to this day. For decades, the area has been the epicenter of Chicanx muralism in Los Angeles, with thousands of murals paying tribute to the community's heritage and empowering locals through stories of both struggle and triumph.

The Chicanx rock scene brought the experiences of barrio life to broad audiences with the rise of Eastside bands such as Cannibal and the Headhunters and Los Lobos. Countless cultural traditions, including the annual procession in honor of Our Lady of Guadalupe at Soledad Church, continue today.
Learn more about the Conservancy's outreach to Latinx communities >>
Note: The Conservancy uses the terms "Latinx" and "Chicanx" as gender-neutral alternatives to Latina/o, Latin@, etc. Though we recognize that different people and communities self-identify in different ways, "Latinx" and "Chicanx" are gaining ground in our cultural discourse as a way of acknowledging and respecting people who are transgender, queer, or gender fluid or non-conforming.

These terms may not always be appropriate when describing people and events in the past (ex. Chicano Moratorium), but we are incorporating them into our vocabulary as part of our commitment to inclusion. Learn more about this "lingusitic revolution" from the Huffington Post >>

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Twentieth-century Mexican settlement in the Eastside can be traced to the 1910s and 1920s, during a period of rapid industrial development in the area known as Sonoratown within the City of Los Angeles.

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A Report by Historian Becky Nicolaides

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The Life and Times of Pio Pico, Last Governor of Mexican California

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The Life and Times of Pio Pico, Last Governor of Mexican California

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Pío Pico was the last governor of California under Mexican rule, serving from 1845-46, just before the U.S. military occupation. Today, the name Pico is a familiar place name. Driving or walking throughout Southern California one will encounter busy Pico Boulevard; the City of Pico Rivera; two Pío Pico elementary schools; the Pico-Union district near downtown L.A.; Pico Park; the Pío Pico Koreatown Library; the three-story Pico House building; natural landmarks such as Pico Canyon north of Los Angeles and Pico Creek near Oceanside; and Pío Pico State Historic Park in the City of Whittier, just to name a few. His name has been commercialized in several businesses from corner grocery stores, shopping malls and fast food restaurants. And yet, despite the veneration in the popular mind, much of what we know about Pío Pico remains clouded in myth. His significance as an historical figure, as well as his connection to the contemporary Latino and African-American communities, is worth remembering.

Pío de Jesus Pico was born on May 5, 1801, to José María Pico and María Eustaquia Gutierrez at Mission San Gabriel Archangel where his father served as corporal of the guard. His life spanned almost the entire 19th century under the flags of Spain, Mexico, and the United States, a century in which he played a major role in shaping. Pío's grandparents, Santiago de la Cruz Pico, a mestizo and his wife, María Jacinta Bastida, a mulata and their seven children were the first Picos to settle in California. They were among the settlers from the northwest Mexican provinces of Sonora and Sinaloa who journeyed in 1776 with Captain Juan Bautista de Anza on a new land route from Sonora.

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The Life and Times of Pío Pico, Last Governor of Mexican California

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Pío Pico was the last governor of California under Mexican rule, serving from 1845-46, just before the U.S. military occupation. Today, the name Pico is a familiar place name.

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Who is included in your curriculum and who can be added when teaching Hispanic history?

What are the lasting contributions of Hispanic people and groups to the culture and history of the United States?

How is Latino history woven into the fabric of U.S. history?

What are some historical and cultural connections between Latin America and the United States?

Latin American and Latino History

This section provides historical context and framing for EDSITEment's resources on Latin American and Latino history, as well as ways to integrate NEH-funded projects into the classroom. Lessons are grouped into four thematic and chronological clusters: the indigenous societies of Mesoamerica and the Andes; the colonization of the Americas by Spain; the Mexican Revolution; and immigration and identity in the United States. By no means are these clusters exhaustive; their purpose is to provide context for learning materials available through EDSITEment and NEH-funded projects, and to serve as jumping-off points for further exploration and learning. For each theme, a series of framing questions and activities provides suggestions for connecting and extending the lessons and resources listed for that topic.

Indigenous Mesoamerica and Andes

Indigenous peoples inhabited the Americas long before their "discovery" by Europeans at the end of the fifteenth century. Major civilizations had risen and fallen here, just as they had in Eurasia. One of the most famous archaeological sites in the Americas, Teotihuacan, was home to a complex and wealthy society that collapsed nearly a millennium before Christopher Columbus set out from the Spanish port of Palos in 1492. Students can explore the history and culture of the best-known of the major Mesoamerican civilizations in the lessons The Aztecs: Mighty Warriors of Mexico and Aztecs Find a Home: The Eagle Has Landed. In the South American Andes, the Incas came to control a vast territory crisscrossed with an impressive network of roads traversed by couriers. Students can learn more about the Inca empire and its communication system in Couriers in the Inca Empire: Getting Your Message Across. The NEH-funded project, Mesoamerican Cultures and Their Histories, provides dozens of additional lesson plans about indigenous societies and cultures.

Framing questions and activities:

Terminology and periodization: Often, names and time periods are taken for granted. These discussion questions prompt students to think critically about the names used to refer to groups of people and to the ways they think about the division of time around the period of European contact with the Americas.

While we use the term "the Aztecs" most commonly today, this was not what the inhabitants of Tenochtitlan would have called themselves. Historians usually use either Nahuas/Nahua-speaking, to refer to the language these people spoke (and which is still spoken to this day), or Mexica, which refers to the most powerful of the three groups in the Triple Alliance that controlled Tenochtitlan and the Valley of Mexico when Hernán Cortés arrived in 1519. Ask students to reflect on these different names. Why might "Aztec," which is not what the Mexica specifically or Nahuas generally would have called themselves, have become so common? What is gained from a better understanding of the history of these names and their meanings?

Ask students to read and explore this timeline of Mesoamerican civilizations. Reflect on the words often used to describe these civilizations and what happened to them after the arrival of Europeans to the New World. What words come to mind? Ask them to reflect on the terms "Pre-Hispanic" and "Pre-Columbian." What do these terms communicate, and what do they omit? Why do these questions about terminology and periodization matter? Can they think of alternative ways to refer to these time periods? What are the pros and cons of these alternatives?

Evidence-based claims: The NEH-funded virtual exhibit, Teotihuacan: City of Water, City of Fire, invites students to explore recent archaeological finds made at the site, while placing them in historical and cultural context. As students interact with the site, ask them to create a chart with headings such as "Trade," "Religion," "Diet," "Agriculture," and "Social Structure," adapting these categories as you see fit. Students should record what claims the site makes about these different aspects of Teotihuacano society and what evidence is used to support these claims (for example, under "Trade," a student might write: "Teotihuacan had extensive trading partnerships, evidenced by the prevalence of green quetzal feathers depicted in carvings of elites. These feathers needed to be imported from as far as 600 miles away, indicating that the city was able to command resources from such distances through trade and diplomacy").

Holes in the historical record: As students complete the activities in Aztecs Find a Home: The Eagle Has Landed, they will explore another archaeological site: Mexico City itself, which was the seat of Aztec power, the capital of the Spanish colony of New Spain, and now the capital of Mexico. As students observe sites in Mexico City where ruins of Tenochtitlan, colonial structures, and modern skyscrapers are simultaneously visible, ask them to reflect on the other kinds of evidence an historian might use to learn about the Aztecs. Though Nahuatl was a written language, many Nahua texts were destroyed during conquest and subsequent attempts to convert indigenous people to Catholicism. Surviving texts produced in Nahuatl and by indigenous authors were almost all created after the conquest. What does this mean for historians and students? How might they approach what sources do exist? Students can reflect on these questions independently and share their thoughts with a partner, small group, or whole class. For grades 11-12, this exercise would be a good segue into some of the materials from The Conquest of Mexico, a lesson plan created by Dr. Nancy Fitch for the American Historical Association.

Comparing and contrasting: After students have learned about both the Aztec and Inca empires using the EDSITEment lesson plans Aztecs Find a Home: The Eagle Has Landed, The Aztecs: Mighty Warriors of Mexico, and Couriers in the Inca Empire: Getting Your Message Across, ask them to compare and contrast important features of these two civilizations. How were these societies organized? How did tribute and taxation work in each? Language? What territories did each control, and by what mechanisms? Students can work in groups to research different points of comparison before sharing their findings and reflecting as a class.

Contact, Conquest, Colonization

When Spanish conquistadors reached the New World, they encountered these complex indigenous societies with their sophisticated, surplus-producing economies, as well as smaller, nomadic societies. The early Spanish colonizers, far fewer in number than the populous New World civilizations they sought to conquer, often attempted to graft onto existing tribute systems to extract this surplus wealth, with major indigenous cities like Tenochtitlan (situated where Mexico's capital city is to this day) serving as the geographic loci of early colonization. Spanish colonization was helped along by Spain's military technology, alliances with rival indigenous groups, and, most crucially, disease. The Spaniards introduced contagious diseases, such as smallpox, to which indigenous people had little immune resistance. Indigenous populations were decimated by the combination of warfare, disease, and harsh labor on Spanish plantations. As Spain's empire expanded, the Spanish crown depended heavily on the Catholic Church to subjugate indigenous peoples, both settled and nomadic, and integrate them into the colonial economy. Along New Spain's northern frontier, which stretched into the present-day United States and where contact and conflict with other burgeoning European empires was likely, fortified missions relying on coerced indigenous settlement and labor were important institutions for expanding the geographic and demographic reach of the Spanish empire. In the EDSITEment lesson plan, Mission Nuestra Señora de la Concepción and the Spanish Mission in the New World, students are invited to use the image of the mission to explore one instance of the missionary institution in the mid-17th century. This lesson might be further enriched with an exploration of Spanish mission sites in California in The Road to Santa Fe: A Virtual Excursion.

The processes of conquest and colonization were often carefully documented by Spaniards, creating a rich-and problematic-historical and literary record. A prime example, the journey of Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, can be found by visiting New Perspectives on the West. For another perspective on Spanish exploration and settlement, visit Web de Anza, which is packed with primary source documents and multimedia resources covering Juan Bautista de Anza's two overland expeditions that led to the colonization of San Francisco in 1776. Surviving indigenous perspectives are more difficult to find. Even when available, these sources pose significant interpretive challenges because they were often mediated through Spanish individuals or institutions. For grades 11-12, The Conquest of Mexico provides a plethora of primary and secondary sources (including texts produced by indigenous people), lesson plans, and exercises in historical analysis. Finally, Southwest Crossroads offers lesson plans, in-depth articles, and hundreds of digitized primary sources that explore the many narratives people have used to make sense of this region, from colonization to the present.

Framing questions and activities:

Source interpretation: In several EDSITEment lessons about Spanish colonization, students are asked to analyze images to glean information about colonial institutions and practices. They have also confronted the problem of authorship and perspective in primary sources from this period, with the archive of the colonizer serving as the main paradigm through which the processes of conquest and colonization are understood. Two lessons from the NEH-funded website, Southwest Crossroads: Cultures and Histories of the American Southwest, throw this problem into sharp relief. In Encounters-Hopi and Spanish Worldviews, students work with texts written by both Hopi and Spanish authors, as well as maps and images, to learn about missionaries' violent attempts to convert Hopi villagers to Catholicism and to reflect on the lasting impacts of those attempts for Hopi culture and society. In Invasions-Then and Now, students work with a Spanish account of a sixteenth-century expedition, a map of similar expeditions, and a twentieth-century poem to reflect on the echoes and reverberations of the colonial past.

Image analysis: The EDSITEment lesson Mission Nuestra Señora de la Concepción and the Spanish Mission in the New World is based on the analysis of a watercolor painting of the mission. Students can learn more about the architecture of Spanish missions from the National Park Service, and use their insights to analyze the architecture of other missions pictured in the University of California's digital exhibition of Spanish mission sites in California. They can explore additional photographs of Spanish missions, as well as get a sense for the distribution of missions in what is now the United States, from Designing America, a website created by the Fundación Consejo España-Estados Unidos and the National Library of Spain. Ask students to think critically about this last source in particular as they read through its descriptions of mission architecture and function. How does this information compare with, for example, this Hopi author's account of the construction of a Spanish mission? Why might this be?

The Mexican Revolution

Beginning in 1910 and continuing for a decade, the Mexican Revolution had profound ramifications for both Mexican and U.S. history. The EDSITEment Closer Readings Commentary on the Mexican Revolution provides background on the conflict and its cultural, artistic, and musical legacies. A lesson plan for the Mexican Revolution covers the context for, unfolding of, and legacies of the Revolution for later social movements. Students can learn about the role played by the United States in the Mexican Revolution in the EDSITEment lesson plan "To Elect Good Men": Woodrow Wilson and Latin America.

Framing questions and activities:

Guided research: Ask students to explore the Mexican Revolution in greater detail. Useful sources, in addition to those already mentioned, include:

The following questions and prompts can guide their research:

Describe Mexican political, economic, and social conditions during the Porfiriato.

What were some of the causes of the Mexican Revolution?

Who were some of the major military actors in the Mexican Revolution? Why were they involved, and what were they fighting for?

How have different people experienced and understood the Mexican Revolution? Provide at least two different individuals' perspectives.

Before students begin their research, ask them to review the sources provided and give examples of primary and secondary sources. As they answer the guiding questions, they should use at least one primary and one secondary source to support each of their answers.

Comparing and contrasting: After studying the Mexican Revolution and U.S. involvement in it, ask students to make comparisons with another revolution or conflict that they have studied. They might consider the following factors:

Major divisions and conflicts

The role of foreign intervention

Outcomes of the conflicts

Major actors involved in the conflict

The way the conflict was represented in contemporary accounts (for example, by researching coverage in historic newspapers on Chronicling America)

Ways the conflict is commemorated today

Students should create presentations of their findings to present to each other. As they listen to their classmates, ask students to take notes about the various revolutions. Use their observations to start a discussion about the word "revolution." What should be classified as a revolution? Could a coup be a revolution? A civil war? Why do they think some civil wars are classified as such, while others are labeled revolutions, even though the impacts of both might be equally profound?

Immigration and Identity in the United States

The border between the United States and Mexico has changed over time, and much of the territory that now forms the southwestern United States was at one point Mexican. But the movement of people, goods, money, and ideas has always been a feature of this border. That movement, especially of people, has not always been voluntary. During the Great Depression, many thousands-and by some estimates as many as two million-Mexicans were forcibly deported from the United States. Over half of those deported were U.S. citizens.

Less than a decade later, U.S. policy changed completely: rather than deporting Mexican-Americans and Mexicans, the United States was desperate to draw Mexican laborers into the country to ease agricultural labor shortages caused by World War II. As a result, the Mexican and U.S. governments established the Bracero Program, which allowed U.S. employers to hire Mexican laborers and guaranteed those laborers a minimum wage, housing, and other necessities. However, braceros' wages remained low, they had almost no labor rights, and they often faced violent discrimination, including lynching. Oral histories from braceros, as well as several lesson plans about the program, can be found at the NEH-funded Bracero History Archive

The Bracero program ended in 1964. Two years before, in 1962, César Chávez had co-founded the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) with Dolores Huerta. The NFWA would later become the United Farm Workers (UFW). In response to the low wages and terrible working conditions experienced by farmworkers, Chávez and Huerta organized migrant farmworkers to press for higher wages, better working conditions, and labor rights. Students can learn more about Chávez and Huerta in the EDSITEment lesson "Sí, se puede!": Chávez, Huerta, and the UFW.

The UFW was part of the larger civil rights movement of the 1960s and beyond. The Chicano movement fought for the rights of Mexican-Americans and against anti-Mexican racism and discrimination. It was also important in the creation of a new collective identity for, and sense of solidarity among, Mexican-Americans. Other ethnic categories sought to include a greater number of people of Latin American heritage and to capture aspects of their shared experience in the United States. In the 1970s, activists pushed for the inclusion of "Hispanic" on the U.S. Census in order to disaggregate poverty rates among Latinos and whites. Since then, different terms have emerged to describe this diverse population, including Latino and Latinx. The PBS project Latino Americans (available in English and Spanish) documents the experiences of Latinos in the United States and includes a selection of lesson plans for grades 7-12, as well as shorter, adaptable classroom activities. Additional resources for teaching immigration history include the Closer Readings Commentary " Everything Your Students Need to Know About Immigration History," which provides an overview of immigration history in the United States, and Becoming US, a collection of teaching resources on migration and immigration created by the Smithsonian Institution.

Framing questions and activities:

Terminology and identity: There are many words to describe the experiences and identities of Latinos in the United States. The words "Hispanic" and "Latino" are intentionally broad and meant to capture a wide diversity of identities and experiences, which means that they can also erase or diminish specific individuals and their stories. Teaching Tolerance has created and compiled a selection of educational materials, including readings, discussion questions, and suggestions for teachers, to help address this topic in the classroom. Within this Teacher's Guide, the lessons in the section "Borderlands: Lessons from the Chihuahuan Desert" address questions of identity, belonging, and difference in greater depth.

Comparing and contrasting: Like "Sí, se puede!": Chávez, Huerta, and the UFW, the EDSITEment lesson Martin Luther King, Jr., Gandhi, and the Power of Nonviolence addresses the civil rights movement and the use of nonviolent protest to fight racism, discrimination, and exploitation. Ask students to research a specific protest organized by the UFW and one by leaders of the movement for African American civil rights. They might return to the lessons for some ideas, or work on a protest not included in the lesson plans. Ask them to discuss the following questions with respect to their chosen protests:

What actors were involved? What united them?

What were they protesting?

What strategies did they use? Describe the mechanics of the protest: its location and duration, what actions the protesters took, how they responded to any resistance or confrontations, how and why the protest ended. Depending on the protest they have chosen, a timeline and/or map may be a good way to represent this information.

Were there any divisions, controversies, or conflicts within the movement?

What responses met the protest? How was the protest represented in different media outlets from the time?

How has the protest been commemorated or remembered since it took place? How have those commemorations changed over time?

If you were to design a monument, event, or other public commemoration of this protest, what would you create? Why?

Guided research: To expand students' understanding of protest and resistance in the United States, ask them to research a contemporary protest movement. They might use the questions from the "Comparing and contrasting" activity, above, as guidance. Students should create presentations about their chosen movement to share their findings with the class; afterwards, they can discuss any similarities and differences they noticed between the contemporary protests, as well as continuities with and changes from the historical protests they have studied in class.

Landmarks of Movement and Migration

Borderlands

Challenging ideas of fixed boundaries of nations and empires, the term "borderlands" conceptualizes the crossroads where cultures meet in the movement of people, ideas, and goods. In the context of United States history, borderlands can describe the changing relationships of the U.S.-Mexico border, the U.S.-Canada border, and Indigenous-U.S. borders. These contact zones help us understand place as a tool for identity-creation and citizenship.

Throughout the colonial era, borders changed over time in the Americas. Spanish colonization further impacted trade, language, and culture-often at the expense of Indigenous people. As people claimed land for themselves and built new communities, regional and ethnic identities developed. Hispanic heritage refers to a person who is from, or a descendant of someone from a Spanish-speaking country. Latino/a or Latinx heritage refers to a person who is from, or a descendant of someone from a country in Latin America. Hispanic and Latinx communities continue to grow and impact the built environment.

Imperialism and Missionaries

Spanish colonization of the Americas began under the Crown of Castile with Spanish conquistadors, such as Bernal Diaz del Castillo and Hernán de Cortés. The Americas were incorporated into the growing Spanish Empire, with the exception of British America, Brazil, and the Caribbean. Throughout these land holdings, the Spanish Empire established Catholic missions to religiously convert Indigenous people local to the area. These missions were often found on the outermost borders of Spanish colonies.

Founded in 1716, Mission Nuestra Señora de la Concepción is one of five Spanish missions in San Antonio, Texas. The Spanish established missionary outposts in Texas as barriers to the threat of French expansion from Louisiana. Using a system they previously employed in Arizona and New Mexico, Spanish missionaries moved to remote areas to build missions where they preached Christianity. The missionaries taught American Indians about Spanish language, arts and crafts, and culture in order to convert the Indigenous population to Christianity and allegiance to the Spanish Crown.

The Palace of the Governors in Santa Fe, New Mexico reflects the complex heritage of the American Southwest. Constructed in 1610 to house the first Spanish royal governor of New Mexico, Don Pedro de Peralta (1584-1666), the Palace of the Governors is the oldest, extant public structure built by European settlers in the continental United States. As control of the New Mexican territory shifted over the centuries, the Palace served as residence to the Spanish in the colonial era, Pueblo Indians during the Pueblo Revolt, Mexican governors, and American governors. In 1912, New Mexico became the 48th state of the United States. Over a century late, the Palace of the Governors serves as the New Mexico History Museum.

Trade and Migration

Officially established as a trading route in 1829, the Old Spanish National Historic Trail spans over 2,700 miles across New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Arizona, Nevada, and California. Following Mexican independence in the 19th century, trade between the United States, Mexico, and western territories flourished along this network of trails. The route ensured safe passage through dry and sweltering environments for explorers, traders, and settlers as they traversed between burgeoning trading posts like Santa Fe to Los Angeles and beyond. The historic trail remains a physical reminder of the contact and exchange of goods, ideas, and people across the region.

National Heritage Areas (NHAs) are lived-in landscapes where historical, cultural, and natural resources form congressionally-recognized, nationally important places. The preservation of these distinct historic, cultural, and environmental sites provide a sense of place and community. NHAs foster community collaboration to make history and heritage relevant to local interests and needs.

An NHA in Colorado, the Sangre de Cristo National Heritage Area reflects the diverse region where Indigenous, Latinx, and Anglo peoples inhabited the alpine desert valley. Named for the surrounding jagged mountain range, the San Luis Valley contains wildlife and forest wilderness areas, one of the largest and highest alpine valleys in North America, the beginning of the Rio Grande, and part of the Old Spanish Trail, as well as Colorado's oldest town, San Luis. Spanish explorers passed through the region in the 18th century and by the 19th century, settlers migrated to the area via Mexican land grants. The descendants of these families remain in the San Luis Valley today.

Immigration and Work

Funded by the NEH, The Bracero History Archive preserves the experiences of the millions of Mexican guest workers to the United States between 1942 to 1964. The Bracero Program brought Mexican laborers, known as braceros or "strong arms," into the U.S. on temporary work visas due to domestic farm-labor shortages during and after World War II. Of the five bracero processing centers created by the program, Rio Vista Farm in Texas is the only one that remains. Rio Vista Farm served as a reception and processing center for the more than 80,000 manual laborers annually entering the U.S. throughout the duration of the program. Although many braceros returned home after the completion of their contracts, many Mexican-Americans can trace their grandfathers' and fathers' immigration to the U.S. through this program.

Considered the "Ellis Island of the South," Freedom Tower became a symbol of freedom due to the aid offered to Cubans fleeing the dictatorship of Fidel Castro. Built in 1925 in the Renaissance style with Spanish Baroque embellishments, Freedom Tower served as the headquarters of the Miami News and Metropolis newspaper before it was acquired by the United States government. Used as a processing center for Cuban immigrants from 1962 to 1974, the building serves as a physical reminder of Cold War era politics and the Cuban exodus. Today, the tower is a registered historic site and the home of the Miami Dade College's Museum of Art and Design.

K-12 Lessons for Hispanic History & Culture

Social Studies and History

The Mexican Revolution-In order to better understand this decade-long civil war, we offer an overview of the main players on the competing sides, primary source materials for point of view analysis, discussion of how the arts reflected the era, and links to Chronicling America, a free digital database of historic newspapers, that covers this period in great detail.

Chronicling America's Spanish-language newspapers-The Spanish-language newspapers in Chronicling America, along with those published in English, allow us to look beyond one representation of the communities and cultures pulled into the United States by wars and treaties of the 19th century. Spanish-language newspapers reveal how these communities reported on their own culture, politics, and struggles to form an identity in a brand new context.

Hispanic American Keywords for Chronicling America-This resource is part of EDSITEment's Race and Ethnicity Keyword Thesaurus for Chronicling America. Here you will find historically accurate keywords that may help in using the Chronicling America historic newspaper database to research topics in Hispanic American history.

Mission Nuestra Señora de la Concepción and the Spanish Mission in the New World-Focusing on the daily life of Mission Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, the lesson asks students to relate the people of this community and their daily activities to the art and architecture of the mission.

Literature and Language Arts

Esperanza Rising: Learning Not to Be Afraid to Start Over (also available in Spanish)-In this lesson students will explore some of the contrasts that Esperanza experiences when she suddenly falls from her lofty perch as the darling child of a wealthy landowner surrounded by family and servants to become a servant herself among an extended family of immigrant farm workers.

Magical Realism in One Hundred Years of Solitude (Curriculum Unit)-Author Gabriel García Márquez meshes magical elements with a reality which is, in his view, fantastical in its own right. In One Hundred Years of Solitude, García Márquez vividly retells episodes in the history of Latin America through the story of real and fantastical events experienced over the course of one century by the Buendía family.

Women and Revolution: In the Time of the Butterflies-In this lesson, students undertake a careful analysis of the main characters to see how each individually demonstrates courage in the course of her family's turbulent life events in the Dominican Republic during the dictatorial rule of Rafael Trujillo.

Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz: The First Great Latin American Poet (Curriculum Unit, also available in Spanish)-Through this curriculum unit students will gain an understanding of why Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz is considered one of the most important poets of Latin America, and why she is also considered a pioneering feminist writer and poet.

"Every Day We Get More Illegal" by Juan Felipe Herrera-In his poem "Every Day We Get More Illegal" Juan Felipe Herrera, the former Poet Laureate of the United States, gives voice to the feelings of those "in-between the light," who have ambiguous immigration status and work in the United States.

"Translation for Mamá" by Richard Blanco-Richard Blanco wrote the poem "Translation for Mamá" for his mother, who came to the United States from Cuba to create a new life for herself and her family. Using both English and Spanish language translation, Blanco honors the bridge between his mother's new identity and the losses she faced in emigration.

Culture and Arts

La Familia-Students will learn about families in various Spanish cultures and gain a preliminary knowledge of the Spanish language, learning the Spanish names for various family members.

De Colores-This lesson plan is designed for young learners at the novice or novice-intermediate level of proficiency in Spanish. The vocabulary, the colors, is appealing to young learners because colors are easy for them to comprehend and observe while connecting the newly acquired vocabulary to familiar objects.

Origins of Halloween and the Day of the Dead-This EDSITEment feature can be used with students as a framework for discussing the origins and history of the Halloween festival and introducing them to the Mexican festival, the Day of the Dead ( el Día de Muertos), recognizing the common elements shared these festivals of the dead as well as the acknowledging the differences between them.

Mexican Culture and History through Its National Holidays-This lesson will focus on holidays that represent and commemorate Mexico's religious traditions, culture, and politics over the past five hundred years.

Lessons from the Chihuahuan Desert

Borderlands narratives have historically been seen as peripheral to the development of American history and identity and the binational spaces border people occupy have been portrayed as dangerous, illegitimate, and as part of a distinct counter-culture. During "Tales from the Chihuahuan Desert: Borderlands Narratives about Identity and Binationalism," a summer institute for educators (grades 6-12) sponsored by the National Endowment for the Humanities and offered by The University of Texas at El Paso, scholars and teachers examine debates about American history and identity by focusing on the multicultural region and narratives of the El Paso-Ciudad Juárez metroplex.

The lessons and materials provided below were created by institute attendees in the interest of developing "their own creative ways of implementing diverse storytelling methodologies into their teaching philosophies in order to more holistically reflect on the complex histories and identities of border peoples and of the binational spaces they inhabit." The complete portfolio of lesson plans is available at the "Tales from the Chihuahuan Desert: Borderlands Narratives about Identity and Binationalism" homepage.

Smokestack Memories: A Borderlands History During the Gilded Age-The second industrialization also known as the Gilded Age from about 1870s-1900s is one of the most significant time periods in American history. In 1887, a smelter was established in El Paso which would become known as ASARCO. The purpose of this lesson is to understand and contextualize the global, national, border, and regional impact of industry during the Gilded Age. (Grade: 7, 8, 11) (Subject: U.S. History, AP U.S. History)

Push/Pull Factors and the Quest for God, Gold, and Glory-Through these two lessons that connect early European exploration of US territories with contemporary immigration, students draw upon the familiar to understand the past and the long history of the United States as a nation by and for people of many cultures. (Grade: 8) (Subject: U.S. History, World History)

Making a Nation-Through these lessons, students will produce an interactive map of North America in the earliest days of colonization that demonstrates the multiple nations and borderlands that cut across the physical space that we now consider to be clearly defined that they can then use throughout their study of American history. (Grade: 8) (Subject: Language Arts and Social Studies)

Borders Near and Far: A Global and Local Investigation of Borderlands-This lesson is designed as an introduction for exploring the theme of borders and borderlands throughout a literature course. Compelling questions and text-based examples are provided to prepare students for independent close readings and discussions of borders at multiple points during the school year. (Grade: 11-12) (Subject: Literature and Language Arts)

Know Thyself-This unit focuses on the topics of identity, stereotypes, culture, and biculturalism. It is a four-part unit intended to extend throughout the semester with supplemental activities and resources in between. This unit is presented in English to serve lower level Spanish courses, however, it can be adapted and taught in Spanish with additional vocabulary instruction and scaffolding. (Grade: 9-12) (Subject: Language, Spanish level 1, 2)

Borders: Understanding and Overcoming Differences-Students will examine the concept of borders, both literal and figurative, as well as what a border is and how it is created. They will use this knowledge as they learn about the U.S.-Mexico border and will delve deeper into the idea of borders as they examine their own lives. (Grade: 8-10) (Subject: Spanish and Social Studies)

"Latino Americans" Documentary Resources

Latino Americans is an NEH-funded documentary series that chronicles the rich and varied history and experiences of Latinos from the first European settlements to the present day. The website contains trailers from all episodes, a timeline, and an opportunity to upload your own video history. The related education initiative invites teachers and learners to explore the many ways that Latinos have contributed to the history and culture of the United States.

To accompany Episode 3: War and Peace, Humanities Texas offers a collection of resources to explore the contributions of Latino Americans during the second world war and the experience of returning servicemen who faced discrimination despite their service. These lesson plans and activities include viewing guides to support students as they watch the episode and primary sources to draw out key themes and events introduced by the film.

Related Websites & Resources

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Hispanic Heritage and History in the United States

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Since 1988, the U.S. Government has set aside the period from September 15 to October 15 as National Hispanic Heritage Month to honor the many contributions Hispanic Americans have made and continue to make to the United States of America.

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8 Ideas for Teaching National Hispanic Heritage Month

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8 Ideas for Teaching National Hispanic Heritage Month

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Anti-defamation League

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Yuyi Morales

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★ "Many books about immigration describe the process of making new friends and fitting in; this one describes what it's like to become a creative being in two languages, and to learn to love in both. 'We are two languages./ We are lucha./ We are resilience./ We are hope.'"-Publishers Weekly, Starred Review

★ "An immigrant's tale steeped in hope, dreams, and love. . . . Details in the art provide cultural markers specific to the U.S., but the story ultimately belongs to one immigrant mother and her son. Thanks to books and stories (some of her favorites are appended), the pair find their voices as 'soñadores of the world.' A resplendent masterpiece."-Kirkus Reviews, Starred Review

★ "The narrative text is poetic and full of emotion. . . . the mixed-media illustrations are breathtaking, created through painting, drawing, photography, and embroidery. The joyous imagination and intricacy of each illustration will make readers of all ages explore them further. . . . "-Booklist, Starred Review

" Dreamers is a paean to libraries, to reading and writing and creativity, a value statement I endorse wholeheartedly. Dreamers aims for the glorious and the poetic; it's big, passionate, crammed with detail." -The New York Times Book Review
★ "The magical art marries the succinct and powerful narrative in a resplendent celebration of literacy, language, and the transformative power of the picture book form . . . This excellent memoir encapsulates the fears, hopes, and dreams that come along with immigrating to a new place . . . A timely and much-needed selection."-School Library Journal, Starred Review

★ "Every page of Dreamers vibrates with energy, depicting the emotions, the turmoil, the stress and the joy that come with creating a new life."-Shelf Awareness, Starred Review

★ "The gently hopeful text offers its best optimism when rooted in Morales' own experience. The immersive magical reality of the art is the real glory here; the mixed-media illustrations, including acrylic paint, drawing, and bits of collage, are full-bleed spreads that depict the library as a milieu every bit as startling and novel to the speaker as the U.S. itself."-The Bulletin of the Center for Children's Books, Starred Review

★ "A wise book and, to praise it in its own words, 'resplendent,' an eloquent vision of the 'resilience' and 'hope' of the 'dreamers, soñadores of the world.'"-The Horn Book Magazine, Starred Review

"Morales tells, through illustrations that seem to dance and sing, the story of crossing borders on a bridge of language with her young son. Together they discover picture books and public libraries, and the gifts they brought with them - open hearts, art, poetry and stories - blossom." -The Washington Post, Best Books of 2018

Kirkus Prize for Young Readers' Literature FINALIST 2018

California Reading Association Eureka! Silver Honor Book HONOR 2018

Bulletin Blue Ribbon Book AWARD 2018

Pura Belpre Illustrator Award AWARD 2019

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Dreamers by Yuyi Morales: 9780823440559 | PenguinRandomHouse.com: Books

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We are resilience. We are hope. We are dreamers. Yuyi Morales brought her hopes, her passion, her strength, and her stories with her, when she came to the United States in 1994 with her infant son....

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Amanda Irma Perez

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As a young person, Maya Christina Gonzalez grew up under the hot pink sunsets of the Mojave Desert. It was in the brilliant hot pinks of the sunset that she finally found her reflection in her environment. At a very young age Maya understood the importance of seeing one's self reflected in one's world. When working with children, she often recalls her favorite page of any book as a child: those empty pages at the back. It was there that she used to draw in her round, Chicana face!

She has now created art for upwards of 20 award-winning, multicultural children's books. The first book she ever wrote, My Colors, My World was given the Pura Belpre Illustrator Honor Award.

What reviews are saying:

Animals of the Iquazu by Francisco Alarcon and illustrated by Maya

"The simple words--often playfully integrated into the illustrations as shaped poems--stress the natural balance of the Iguazú... The multimedia illustrations feature lush, glowing paints that depict the animals (including humans) set against a backdrop of cut-paper strips that comprise the rainforest's verdant growth. Stunning." --Kirkus Starred Review

My Colors, My World by Maya

"The exaggerated facial features of both Maya and her feathered friend capture the contentment they find through enjoying the beauty of their world . . . Recommended for public libraries and bookstores." --Criticas Magazine

I Know the River Loves Me by Maya

"The author's love and respect for the natural beauty and rhythm of the river and how it sustains her through quiet and vibrant moods is vividly portrayed in both her words and paintings. . . Inspiring and peacefully thought-provoking." --Kirkus Reviews

Nana's Big Surprise by Amada Irma Perez and illustrated by Maya

"...fantastically engaging... a treasure hunt for found objects... a wonderful book about the love and support of a family. " --ForeWord

Maya currently plays and plays in San Francisco. She wants to share the important lessons she has learned from her only and deeply loved teacher Creativity. In this spirit she has created a small press to share her lessons to support educators, fellow artists and especially children.

She loves to share her 3 rules:

1. Everyone is an artist.

2. There is never a right or a wrong way to make art.

3. Art is always an act of courage.

To learn more about her curriculum, philosophies and much more...please feel free to visit her here: www.reflectionpress.com

To see prints from her children's books...please visit her here:

mayachristinaprints.etsy.com

And to see more about her fine art and her work in the Contemporary Chicano/a Art Movement...feel free to go here: www.mayagonzalez.com

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My Diary From Here to There/Mi diario de aqui hasta alla (Spanish and English Edition)

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One night, Amada overhears her parents whisper about moving from Mexico to Los Angeles, where greater opportunity awaits. As she and her family make the journey north, Amada records her fears, hopes, and dreams for their new life in her diary. What if she can't learn English? How can she leave he...

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UCLA HGP’s Lesson on Prop 187 written by Teacher Leader Frank Salcedo-Fierro

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UCLA HGP’s Lesson on Prop 187 written by Teacher Leader Frank Salcedo-Fierro

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How was Prop 187 resisted and defeated?

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Yamile Saied Mendez and Jaime Kim

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This resonant and award-winning picture book tells the story of one girl who constantly gets asked a simple question that doesn't have a simple answer. A great conversation starter in the home or classroom-a book to share, in the spirit of I Am Enough by Grace Byers and Keturah A. Bobo.

When a girl is asked where she's from-where she's really from-none of her answers seems to be the right one.

Unsure about how to reply, she turns to her loving abuelo for help. He doesn't give her the response she expects. She gets an even better one.

Where am I from?

You're from hurricanes and dark storms, and a tiny singing frog that calls the island people home when the sun goes to sleep....

With themes of self-acceptance, identity, and home, this powerful, lyrical picture book will resonate with readers young and old, from all backgrounds and of all colors-especially anyone who ever felt that they don't belong.

2019 Nerdies Fiction Picture Book Award Winner | Silver Medalist for Bank Street College of Education's Best Spanish Language Picture Books of the Year | Named one of Kirkus Reviews Best Books of 2019 |A Mighty Girl's 2019 Book of the Year | Named one of New York Public Library's Best Books for Kids 2019

" Lyrical language and luminous illustrations. An ideal vehicle for readers to ponder and discuss their own identities." - Kirkus (starred review)

"An enchanted, hand-in-hand odyssey [and] opportunity to acknowledge and celebrate the many, many backgrounds, roots, histories, of those who live in these United States." -Shelf Awareness (starred review)

" A much-needed title that is a first purchase for libraries and classrooms." - School Library Journal

"This touching book addresses a ubiquitous question for children of color, and in the end, the closeness between the girl and Abuelo shows that no matter the questions, she knows exactly where she's from." - Booklist

" Although the book begins as a gentle riposte to narrow cultural and ethnic categorizations, its conclusion reaches out to all readers, evoking both heritage and the human family." - Publishers Weekly

A Spanish-language edition, ¿De dónde eres ?, is also available.

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Where Are You From? [Méndez, Yamile Saied, Kim, Jaime] on Amazon.com. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Where Are You From?

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UCLA HGP’s Platicas con Family Photographs

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UCLA HGP’s Platicas con Family Photographs

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Platicas con Family Photos: Memorials & Monuments

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UCLA HGPs Lost LA Lesson: Before the Dodgers

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UCLA HGPs Lost LA Lesson: Before the Dodgers

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Elementary lesson explores the impact that building Dodger Stadium had on Chavez Ravine

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UCLA HGP’s Family Cookbook: Creating a Culturally Responsive Family Heirloom

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UCLA HGP’s Family Cookbook: Creating a Culturally Responsive Family Heirloom

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Family Cookbook: Creating a Culturally Responsive Family Heirloom

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Latinxs in Kid Lit: Picture Books and Early Readers

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Latinxs in Kid Lit: Picture Books and Early Readers

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REVIEWED BOOKS: Picture Books & Early Readers

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These are the picture books and early readers we have read and reviewed. Each cover image is linked to the review, so click on an image for more information about the title. Any author or illustrat…

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These are the picture books and early readers we have read and reviewed. Each cover image is linked to the review, so click on an image for more information about the title. Any author or illustrator who is an #ownvoices creator is marked with an asterisk (*).

PICTURE BOOKS AND EARLY READERS

These books were reviewed for a post about ABC books. Click on any of the cover images to access the post.

Books created by: Innosanto Nagara*; Rubén del Rosario*, Isabel Freire de Matos* and Antonio Martorell*; Cynthia Weill, K. B. Basseches and Moisés* and Armando Jiménez*; Jeanette Winter; Alma Flor Ada* and Simón Silva* (English translation by Rosa Zubizarreta); Idalia Rosario*; Pat Mora* and Doug Cushman; Tony Johnston and John Parra*; Quiara Alegría Hudes* and Shino Arihara

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These books were reviewed for a post about environmental heroes. Click on any of the images to access the post. Books created by Harriet Rohmer, Cindy Trumbore/Susan L. Roth, Pete Salmansohn/Stephen W. Kress, Claudia Davila*

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These were reviewed for a post about art-related books. Click on any of the images to access the post. Books created by Yuyi Morales*, Raúl Colón*, and Catherine Reef

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These were included in a post about buy-worthy bilingual picture books. Click on any of the images to access the post. Books created by Anette Rusling, Katie Saunders,  Julie Mercier, Emily Bolam, Susie Jaramillo

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These were reviewed in a post about how art inspires young artists and the beauty of waiting. Click on any of the images to access the post. Books created by Isabel Campoy*, Theresa Howell, Rafael López*, Virginia Sánchez-Korrol*, Carolyn Dee Flores*, Terry Farish, Oliver Rodriguez*

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Frederick Luis Aldama*, illus. by Chris Escobar*

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Alexandra Alessandri*, illus. by Addy Rivera Sonada*

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Alfredo Alva*

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Jen Arena*, illustrated by Angela Dominguez*

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Jorge Argueta*, illustrated by Duncan Tonatiuh*, Luica Angela Perez*, Elizabeth Gomez*

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Jessica Betancourt-Perez* & Karen Lynn Williams, illus. by Gina Maldonado*

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David Bowles*, illus. by Shane Clester

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Monica Brown*, illustrated by Rafael López*, Angela Dominguez*, John Parra*, Joe Cepeda*

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Hilda Eunice Burgos*, illus. by Gaby D’Alessandro*

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F. Isabel Campoy*, Theresa Howell, illus. by Rafael López*

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Andy Carter and Allison Havens

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Judith Ortiz Cofer*

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Carmen Agra Deedy, illus. by Eugene Yelchin

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Lulu Delacre*

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Anika Aldamuy Denise*

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Grecia Huesca Dominguez*, illus by Teresa Martinez*

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Tania de Regil*

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Zetta Elliott

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Susan Middleton Elya, illustrated by Juana Martinez Neal*

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Margarita Engle*, illustrated by Rafael López*, Mike Curato

Click on the link for an additional Book Talk for Drum Dream Girl: https://youtu.be/I9gHFWs_C4k

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Click on any of the images to access the post about Carmen Lomas Garza*

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Cynthia Leonor Garza*, illustrated by Alyssa Bermudez*

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Gary Golio, illustrated by Rudy Gutierrez*

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Rebecca J. Gomez*, illus. by Elisa Chavarri

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Lucía González, illustrated by Lulu Delacre

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Sarai Gonzalez* and Monica Brown*, illustrated by Christine Almeda*

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Ben Gundersheimer (Mister G), illustrated by Marcos Almada Rivero*

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Christy Hale

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Juan Felipe Herrera*, illustrated by Honorio Robeldo Tapia*

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Zara González Hoang*

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Jacqueline Jules, illustrated by Miguel Benítez*, Kim Smith. Any of the Sofia Martinez images will lead you to the same post.

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Alicia Z. Klepeis, illustrated by Gary Undercuffler

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Laura Lacámara*

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René Colato Laínez*, illustrated by Tom Lintern, Fabricio Vanden Broeck

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Megan Lacera* and Jorge Lacera*

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Amyra León* and Molly Mendoza*

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Robert Liu-Trujillo*

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Mariana Llanos*, illustrated by Anna López Real*

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Silvia López*

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Laurin Mayeno*; illustrated by Robert Liu-Trujillo*

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Juana Medina*

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Yamile Saied Méndez*, illustrated by Jaime Kim

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Pat Mora*, illustrated by Raúl Colón* and Rafael López*

Click on the link for an additional Book Talk on Doña Flor: A Tall Tale About a Giant Woman with a Great Big Heart: https://youtu.be/DKGNYGmhs8k

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Areli Morales*, illustrated by Luisa Uribe*

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Yuyi Morales*; Marisa Montes*, illustrated by Yuyi Morales*

Click on the link for an additional Book Talk about Just a Minute: A Trickster Tale and Counting Book: https://youtu.be/6jGkTbscEAQ

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Juana Martinez Neal*

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Marc Tyler Nobleman, illustrated by Ana Aranda*

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Laura Rexach Olivencia*, illustrated by Mya Pagán*

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Raquel M. Ortiz*, illustrated by Maria Dominguez*

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Emma Otheguy*

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Yolanda Arroyo Pizarro, illus. by Brittany Gordón Pabón

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Isabel Quintero*, illustrated by Zeke Peña*

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Luis J. Rodríguez*, illustrated by Carlos Vázquez*

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Patty Rodriguez* and Ariana Stein*

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Jarod Roselló*

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René Saldaña, Jr.*, illustrated by Carolyn Dee Flores*

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Anita Sanchez*

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Gary Soto*, illustrated by Susan Guevara* and Pamela Paparone

Click on the link for additional Book Talks on Chato’s Kitchen and Chato and the Party Animals: https://youtu.be/R4ln4DeSRJs

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Javaka Steptoe*

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Matt Tavares

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Raúl the Third*

Click on the link for an additional Book Talk about ¡Vamos! Let’s Go Eat!: https://youtu.be/Ec5emBV4wSQ

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Roseanne Greenfield Thong, illustrated by John Parra*

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Duncan Tonatiuh*

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Jennifer Torres*, illustrated by Renato Alarcão*

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Patricia Valdez*

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Samantha R. Vamos*, illustrated by Ryan O’Rourke, Sebastià Serra

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Eric Velasquez*

Click on the link for an additional Book Talk about Grandma’s Gift: https://youtu.be/OxAVJC2w_jY

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Aldis Vicente*, illustrated by Nancy Cote

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These are the middle grade books we have read and reviewed. Each cover image is linked to the review, so click on an image for more information about the title. Any author who is a Latinx creator is marked with an asterisk (*). MIDDLE GRADE Alma Flor Ada* .

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These are the young adult books we have read and reviewed. Each cover image is linked to the review, so click on an image for more information about the title. Any author who is an #ownvoices creator is marked with an asterisk (*). YOUNG ADULT Elizabeth Acevedo* . Fred Aceves* .

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A list of 80 books

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More than 100 carefully selected lists of multicultural and social justice books for children, young adults, and educators. When you find a book at this site, please purchase it here. Our titles are linked to Bookshop. A portion of your book purchase helps sustain our work. New Releases Activism and Organizing Africa Afro-Latinx American Indians Arabs […]

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Latinx and Latin American Titles | Social Justice Books

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Here are titles on Latinx/Latin American History

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17 Afro-Latino Children’s Books to Read to Your Kids

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17 Afro-Latino Children’s Books to Read to Your Kids

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Source: Essence Magazine

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17 Afro-Latino Children’s Books to Read to Your Kids

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No matter how hard people try to make it so, when it comes race and culture, there is no one-size-fits-all. And you know what, that’s what makes us beautiful. Being Afro-Latino doesn’t mean you’re less black or less Latino than anyone else.One of the best things we can do for our children is to help…

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Two trailblazing women in Riverside’s Casa Blanca neighborhood fought for their own school in 1911 – Press Enterprise.pdf

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UC Berkeley History Project’s 4th grade lesson on Mexican Land Grants post Mexican-American War

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UC Berkeley History Project’s 4th grade lesson on Mexican Land Grants post Mexican-American War

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UC Berkeley History Project’s 4th Grade lesson exploring the land grant court cases of the 1840s & 1850s

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UC Berkeley History Project’s 4th Grade lesson exploring the land grant court cases of the 1840s & 1850s

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How did Mexican Disenos and land grant court cases of the 1840s and 1850s impact the Californio’s as they gained US citizenship?

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UC Berkeley History Project’s 11th Grade lesson on Mexican immigration during the 20th century

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UC Berkeley History Project’s 11th Grade lesson on Mexican immigration during the 20th century

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How have opportunities for Mexican immigrants in the US changed during the 20th century?

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11.10 Mexican Immigration in the 20th Century Lesson.docx

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Teaching California: The Virgin of Guadalupe (7th Grade)

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Teaching California: The Virgin of Guadalupe (7th Grade)

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7.9 The Virgin of Guadalupe – Teaching California

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7.9 The Virgin of Guadalupe

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Teaching California: The Social & Economic Impact of the Mexican-American War in California (8th grade)

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Teaching California: The Social & Economic Impact of the Mexican-American War in California (8th grade)

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In fighting the Mexican-American War, the United States demanded that Mexico relinquish its northern lands. The ceded territory included present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of Utah, Colorado, and Nevada - the sites of numerous Mexican towns and Native villages that had been occupied for millennia. The war began as a result of a territorial dispute following the Texas Revolt. In 1824 the recently independent Republic of Mexico wanted to populate its northern lands with settlers. The republic created the Colonization Law, which allowed US citizens to settle on Mexican lands in Texas as long as they became Mexican citizens and respected Mexican law. The deal was very popular; many settlers rushed into Texas, especially from the southern states, and occupied large ranches. Many brought slaves. When Mexico abolished slavery in 1829, however, the Texans became weary of Mexican law. The Texans became increasingly defiant of Mexican law and in 1835 declared their independence. Although Mexico was unable to defeat the rebellion, it claimed that it had never relinquished control of the territory. But in 1845 the US government annexed Texas as the 28th state, which ultimately led to the Mexican-American War. The war had profound consequences for the lives of the people living in this region, as well as on US political debates regarding slave and free territory. In the coming decades the United States initiated industrial and agricultural development, as well as settlement, on an unprecedented scale throughout the region. The result was widespread environmental change, from the conversion of the plains to wheat farms, forests to lumber, and mountains to mining quarries. In short, there were significant social, political, environmental, and economic consequences of the war. This source set begins with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, with a special focus on Article VIII. Students read the promises outlined in the treaty and can use this as a base when assessing the experience of the Mexican Americans and the indigenous peoples now living in the United States under the terms of this treaty. Significantly, the United States did not count Native Americans as US citizens until 1924, thereby negating any rights they may have received as a result of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The Disturnell Treaty map (1847) is also included to help students understand the enormity of the land Mexico was required to cede to the United States. This map shows how Mexico had organized its northern territories, the extent of the territory lost in the Texas Revolt, existing Mexican towns, and various Native-controlled regions. Large swaths of territory were never settled by Spain or Mexico, meaning that indigenous populations lived in relative peace. Indian Territory is also shown, which was created in 1830 under Andrew Jackson's Indian Removal Act. The map is also useful as a springboard for a discussion of slavery in the West and how the newly acquired lands would be divided over the issue. This map must be analyzed along with various new policies that affected the former Mexican citizens. Native Californians were not recognized as Mexican and so were not protected by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Their lands were taken and they were brutally exterminated. The third source is the Act for the Government and Protection of Indians, which allowed the kidnapping of indigenous children. The act reveals the precarious situation for Native Californians after US annexation. Two additional maps in this set give students the opportunity to consider changing rules regarding property rights from the Mexican to the US era in California. These rules, along with the common feeling of racial superiority and entitlement to the western lands among white Americans, all had a significant impact on the lives of those who held Mexican ranchos and further hindered the opportunities available to California's indigenous peoples. Sources 4 through 6 reflect this. The discussion of the dispossession of Mexican land should be coupled with the creation of laws that sought to disempower the Mexican population, who had legal rights and property rights under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Source 7 will spur discussion of Mexican resistance to racial and legal discrimination. Meanwhile, American settlers, as well as people from around the world, settled in the West and converted its natural resources into marketable goods. Source 8 includes the example of Marysville, a town that grew rapidly in response to the Gold Rush. Other industries followed on the heels of the Gold Rush, as the hotels and other commercial establishments in Source 8 indicate. Source 9 reveals the growing tensions between Anglo and Chinese populations. Finally, this source set concludes by considering the political implications of the Mexican-American War on the slave-state vs. free-state debate that was racking the United States. Source 10 reveals the issue of the Compromise of 1850, which made California a free state. Students examine the Archy Lee case, which deals with the Fugitive Slave Act. Students will consider how the incorporation of the once-Mexican lands into the United States had significance not only for the people in this region but also for the political makeup of the entire United States.

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8.8 The Social and Economic Impact of the Mexican-American War in California

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In fighting the Mexican-American War, the United States demanded that Mexico relinquish its northern lands. The ceded territory included present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of Utah, Colorado, and Nevada - the sites of numerous Mexican towns and Native villages that had been occupied for millennia.

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Teaching California: The Mexican Revolution (10th Grade)

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Teaching California: The Mexican Revolution (10th Grade)

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The Mexican Revolution is the defining event of modern Mexican history and has provided a touchstone for political and cultural life throughout the twentieth century. Deeply entrenched economic inequality and undemocratic institutions provided favorable conditions for a wide-scale revolt. Although Mexico became independent from Spain in 1821, a majority of Mexicans suffered during the nineteenth century as a result of political chaos and foreign intervention. The last decades witnessed the rise of Porfirio Dίaz. Dίaz's plan was to modernize Mexico by promoting foreign investment and making the country produce for international markets. He thus granted concessions for land use and mining rights to wealthy landowners and entrepreneurs and to US and European companies. In the process, he confiscated communally held land from peasant communities (ejidos. ) His corruption, favoritism, and dictatorial rule led to resentment by many upper- and middle-class Mexicans. They were educated, white or light-skinned landowners and professionals who resented the lack of democracy and opportunity, but considered themselves superior to the Indian and mestizo masses (Sources 1 and 3). Following the concept of the hierarchy of races, assumed by most intellectuals of the period, they believed that as white descendants of Europeans, they were the natural superiors of the Indians and mestizos.

Francisco Madero (Sources 2 and 3) ran against Porfirio Díaz during the presidential election of 1910. Madero agreed with Díaz's efforts to modernize the country but believed that Mexico was ready for a more democratic system (based on universal male suffrage. ) Madero was a political liberal who belonged to one of Mexico's richest families. Although Madero campaigned widely, Díaz ultimately jailed him and stole the election. Madero then fled to the United States and called for a revolution. Eventually, the revolution succeeded in toppling Díaz after 34 years in power. Although Madero instituted democratic reform as the new president, his program did not go far enough in the eyes of many who had supported him, especially in regard to land redistribution.

A major cause of the Mexican revolution was unequal distribution of land (Sources 1 and 9). Wealthy white landowners had owned vast estates since Spanish colonial times and increased their holdings during the Porfirian era. Foreign investors also came to control large estates. In the meantime, Indians and mestizos who had small plots of land, or who worked on communally held lands or ejidos, often lost their lands. By the early years of the twentieth century, most peasants (campesinos, or the more derogatory term, peons) were dependent on pitiful wages from wealthy landowners. The pressures of the growing international market economy meant that smaller peasant farms were increasingly unable to compete with the large estates, or haciendas, of the wealthy. When Dίaz began privatizing untitled lands and confiscating ejido land, popular resentment boiled over. Workers in the cities and towns, suffering also from low wages and harsh conditions, were similarly discontent. In 1910, popular uprisings spontaneously broke out in many parts of the country. Over the next ten years, peasant armies, led by Pancho Villa in the North and Emiliano Zapata in Morelos and the South, attacked wealthy landowners, destroyed haciendas, and redistributed land, defying the orders of the liberal governments of Madero, Carranza, and others.

The differing perspectives of the major participating groups meant those who had mobilized against Díaz did not agree on the purpose of the revolution or on its policies on land. This set provides sources to analyze the perspectives of four major groups. The first group was the wealthy landowners who supported Díaz (Source 1). The second group was upper- and middle-class people (mostly light-skinned) who wanted liberal democratic political change and supported Madero, Carranza, and Obregón, but not the land confiscation and social revolution that Zapata advocated (Sources 2 and 3). A third group was Indian and mestizo cowboys and rural poor of northern Mexico who wanted land or access to wealth and power and supported Villa (Sources 4, 5, and 8). The final group was Indian and mestizo campesinos, or peasants, in the South, who wanted more ejidos for their communities and supported Zapata (Sources 9 and 10). Although this set does not include the shifting power rivalries between leaders, the role of the United States, or the role of urban laborers, it allows students to probe deeply into the intersection of race, class, and aspirations in revolutionary Mexico.

One effect of the revolution was a brutal extended war. Rival armies held different parts of the country and engaged in guerrilla warfare and occasional large battles against each other. The countryside was devastated, and almost 1 million Mexican people were killed (from a total population of 15 million. ) Many others fled over the northern border into the United States. All of the major leaders, except Obregón, were assassinated. Writers mythologized Villa and Zapata as folk heroes (Sources 8 and 10).

Another effect is that large numbers of women, called soldaderas, joined the armies, and many fought as soldiers (Sources 6 and 7). The central importance of these women to the war effort is documented in corridos (popular songs) and in black-and-white photographs. Their political and military activities did not lead to increased rights for women, and their contributions were long ignored after the revolution. Nevertheless, documentation of these women's participation attests to their involvement in the revolution as more than just victims.

Resistance from below forced political leaders to accept demands for genuine democracy, preservation of peasant communities, and land reform. The Constitution of 1917 (Source 11) authorized the redistribution of land and water from large estates to poor communities and created new ejidos of communal village holdings protected from alienation. It gave protections to workers that were revolutionary for the time and also granted extensive rights to trade unions. However, these ambitious goals were often not carried out; despite that, one of the enduring accomplishments of the revolution was stability. There has not been another large-scale social revolution in Mexico since.

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The Mexican Revolution is the defining event of modern Mexican history and has provided a touchstone for political and cultural life throughout the twentieth century. Deeply entrenched economic inequality and undemocratic institutions provided favorable conditions for a wide-scale revolt.

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UCLA HGP’s 11th Grade lesson on the ways youth in East LA and the San Gabriel Valley used music and dance as a form of resistance in the 1950s.

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UCLA HGP’s 11th Grade lesson on the ways youth in East LA and the San Gabriel Valley used music and dance as a form of resistance in the 1950s.

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Source: Social Justice Books

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This list of books was carefully selected by Teaching for Change. It is a short list because there are far too few books in print for children and young adults featuring Afro-Latinos.

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Source: Social Justice Books

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Source: Social Justice Books

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Teaching for Change carefully selects the best multicultural and social justice books for children, young adults, and educators.

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Children’s Books about the Dominic Republic

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Children’s Books about the Dominic Republic

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Source: Social Justice Books

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Dominican Republic | Social Justice Books

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Teaching for Change carefully selects the best multicultural and social justice books for children, young adults, and educators.

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Dominican Republic

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Source: Social Justice Books

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Teaching About El Salvador | Social Justice Books

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Teaching for Change carefully selects the best multicultural and social justice books for children, young adults, and educators.

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Source: Social Justice Books

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Teaching About Immigration | Social Justice Books

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Titles we recommend on immigration and the immigrant experience with a focus on the United States.

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Source: Bookshop

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Here are titles on Mexican American / Chicana and Chicano history and culture. See related lists: Latinx/Latin American History, Central America booklist, Puerto Rican Children's Literature for Social Justice: A Bibliography for Educators, and our booklists on Cuba, El Salvador, and more.

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Source: Social Justice Books

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De Colores: Raza Experience books for Children

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De Colores: Raza Experience books for Children

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Source: De Colores Reviews

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De Colores: The Raza Experience in Books for Children

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Five Puerto Rican Artists you should Know

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Five Puerto Rican Artists you should Know

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The island of Puerto Rico has a long and vibrant artistic tradition. Western, Indigenous, and African cultures have all left their mark on Puerto Rican art, creating a colorful and unique visual legacy. While Puerto Rican artists have demonstrated their excellence throughout the years- from the creators of the captivating Taino petroglyphs to the sophisticated and subtle works of the Modernist painters-Puerto Rican art has received little attention from art historians and the wider art world.

Here are five underappreciated Puerto Rican artists that you should know:

José Campeche is often known as the first Puerto Rican painter in the Western history of fine arts. He was primarily known for his religious paintings and his portraits of elite Puerto Ricans, and today his work is recognized as some of the finest examples of Rococo art produced in the Americas. Campeche's personal story is also inspiring. The son of a slave who had purchased his own freedom, Campeche was among the first artists of Afro-Caribbean ancestry to rise to prominence.

Francisco Oller was one of the most influential and important Latin American artists of the nineteenth century. Educated in France, he was one of the early pioneers of the Impressionist movement. He was also a leading figure in the Realism movement and brought both styles home with him when he returned to Puerto Rico. Oller's work has long been recognized for its excellence, and his most famous painting El Velorio -which depicts the wake of a dead infant-is considered to be one of Puerto Rico's national treasures.

Along with Francisco Oller and José Campeche, Miguel Pou is often considered to be one of Puerto Rico's great masters. Pou is known for his impressionistic style, which he often used to portray the daily lives of everyday Puerto Ricans. Today, his work is recognized for preserving the culture and spirit of Puerto Rico in the early twentieth century, and his art remains an important touchstone for modern Puerto Ricans. Pou, who founded an art school in the city of Ponce, is also responsible for educating and inspiring many of the finest minds in Puerto Rican art.

Puerto Rico has a rich and vibrant legacy of modernist art. While many artists have risen to prominence in this movement, the work of Myrna Báez stands out as some of the finest examples of Puerto Rican modernism. Báez studied in Spain and was heavily influenced by impressionism and surrealism; there are even elements of cubism in her style. Her paintings betray a particular interest in light and color, which she uses to explore the psychological landscape of Caribbean life. Báez was also a leading voice in the Puerto Rican independence movement, a supporter of women's rights, and an important advocate for art education.

5. Rafael Tufiño

Known as the painter of the people, Rafael Tufiño was one of the finest Puerto Rican painters of the twentieth century and a leader in the island's Generación de los Cincuentas, a group of artists that worked to develop a new visual identity for Puerto Rico. Tufiño is perhaps best known for his illustrations of plenas ( Puerto Rican folk songs) and for his work in portraying Puerto Rico's underrepresented agricultural workers. He is also well-known as an outspoken voice for social justice and an advocate for impoverished communities.

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Five Puerto Rican Artists You Should Know

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The island of Puerto Rico has a long and vibrant artistic tradition. Western, Indigenous, and African cultures have all left their mark on Puerto Rican art, creating a colorful and unique visual legacy.

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Source: Culture Trip

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Puerto Rico's art scene is diverse and thriving, and contemporary art is one of its most notable genres. Don't let these six talented individuals, all of whose art is available at the Museum of Art of Puerto Rico fly under your radar.

Dávila-Rinaldi 's art, shaped by the Pop Art and neo-Dadaism movements, explores the mass media and humor. The multi-hyphenate professional identifies as a sculptor, painter, graphic designer, and draftsman.

Nick Quijano is a multi-faceted artist whose artwork largely features his life and childhood in Puerto Rico. He studied at the University of Puerto Rico and taught at the Art Students League located in San Juan.

Olga Albizu 's Abstract Expressionism makes her a major figure in the Puerto Rican art scene. A very well-educated painter, Albizu studied at the University of Puerto Rico, the Art Students League in New York, the Académie de la Grande Chaumière, and the Academy of Fine Arts in Florence.

An alum of the University of Puerto Rico and the Complutense University in Madrid, Myritza Castillo creates artworks through photography, painting, videos, and large-scale installations. Castillo's work has been exhibited internationally, reviewed in a handful of publications, and awarded several art prizes in Spain.

It's almost impossible to keep track of all the professions that Papo Colo has worked in: actor, writer, curator, photographer, painter, and graphic designer. Based out of San Juan and New York, his work has won multiple prizes. Topics that his pieces cover include travel and popular culture.

Originally a cabinetmaker, Eduardo Vera Cortés studied at the Escuela La Esmeralda, Centro Superior de Artes Aplicadas, and Escuela Nacional de las Artes del Libro under artists like Irene Delano and Julio Rosado del Valle to develop his artistry. As a painter, graphic artist, sculptor, and illustrator, Vera Cortés created a wealth of socially conscious art, often featuring stray dogs.

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6 Contemporary Artists From Puerto Rico You Need on Your Radar

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Puerto Rico's art scene is diverse and thriving, and contemporary art is one of its most notable genres. Don't let these six talented individuals, all of whose art is available at the Museum of Art of Puerto Rico fly under your radar.

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8 Influential Chicana and Chicano Artists in LA

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8 Influential Chicana and Chicano Artists in LA

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Source: Culture Trip

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8 Influential Chicana And Chicano Artists In LA

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The Great Wall Explained

The Great Wall of Los Angeles is one of Los Angeles' true cultural landmarks and one of the country's most respected and largest monuments to inter-racial harmony. SPARC's first public art project and its true signature piece, the Great Wall is a landmark pictorial representation of the history of ethnic peoples of California from prehistoric times to the 1950's, conceived by SPARC'S artistic director and founder Judy Baca. Begun in 1974 and completed over five summers, the Great Wall employed over 400 youth and their families from diverse social and economic backgrounds working with artists, oral historians, ethnologists, scholars, and hundreds of community members.

Its half-mile length (2,754 ft) in the Tujunga Flood Control Channel of the San Fernando Valley with accompanying park and bike trail hosts thousands of visitors every year, providing a vibrant and lasting tribute to the working people of California who have truly shaped its history. In 2000 and 2001 SPARC received acknowledgement and support from the distinguished Ford Foundation Animating Democracy: The Role of Civic Dialogue in the Arts initiative and from the Rockefeller Foundation Partnerships Affirming Community Transformation initiative. As well funding from the National Endowment for the Arts in 2013 and 2014. SPARC continues to work on the Great Wall; next phase is to hold civic dialogue sessions and ultimately design the remaining four decades of the century (1960s-1990s).

The mural's restoration, a critical need, and continuation with future panels produced by the next generation of children of the Great wall remains a vital on going program of SPARC. We are currently initiating a major fundraising campaign to restore, extend and create a full use park at the Great Wall thereby establishing the site as an international educational and cultural destination.

CLICK TO GO TO GREAT WALL OF LA DVD

For the Complete History and Description of The Great Wall, please go to the next page >
A Personal Message from Judy Baca

"In 1975 when the Great Wall was still a dream, I never imagined it would lead me, the more than 400 young "Mural Makers" and the 35 other artists on my team through such a moving set of experiences. Nor could I have imagined that 27years from the date the first paint was applied to the wall that it would still be a work in progress.
When I first saw the wall, I envisioned a long narrative of another history of California; one which included ethnic peoples, women and minorities who were so invisible in conventional text book accounts. The discovery of the history of California's multi‑cultured peoples was a revelation to me as well as to the members of my teams. We learned each new decade of history in summer installments; the 20's in 1978, the 30's in 1980, the 40's in 1981, and the 50's in 1983. Each year our visions expanded as the images traveled down the wall. While our sense of our individual families' places in history took form, we became family to one another. Working toward the achievement of a difficult common goal shifted our understandings of each other and most importantly of ourselves.
I designed this project as an artist concerned not only with the physical aesthetic considerations of a space, but the social, environmental and cultural issues affecting the site as well. I am not a social worker, though people mistakenly call me one and I am not a teacher although I have teaching skills. I draw on skills not normally used by artists. I've learned as much as I've taught from the youth I've had the good fortune to know by working alongside of them. They've taught me among other things how to laugh at myself, how to put play into hard work, and how not to be afraid to believe in something. I am extremely grateful.
Perhaps most overwhelming to me about the Great Wall experience has been learning of the courage of individuals in history who endured, spoke out, and overcame seemingly insurmountable obstacles. It was true both of the people we painted about and of ourselves the Mural Makers."
- Judith F. Baca

For the Complete History and Description of The Great Wall, please go to the next page >

Restoration
Message from UCLA Professor Judy Baca
Creator of the Great Wall of Los Angeles and SPARC's Founder/Artistic Director

"The restoration of the Great Wall of Los Angeles is a massive undertaking. Every segment of the 2,750ft is cleaned, examined and treated to bring it back to its original state of brilliant color. Within the three-month dry season in the Los Angeles River the work must be completed racing against a clock that is determined by the difficult conditions of heat, water flow, rain and other factors of the unique site in the Los Angeles flood control channel. The site channels the main water flow through the San Fernando Valley to the ocean and becomes extremely perilous in a rain storm so weather watches and evacuation methods are a constant worry for the 30 members of the restoration team composed of professional muralist, interns from universities around the country, local volunteers and past participants of the Great Wall productions."
SPARC IN THE NEWS LINKS
Special thank you to: CCHE, SMMC, City of LA, County of LA and Prudential Social Investments.

Interpretive "Green" Bridge Proposed

Begun in 1976 and completed over five summers, the Great Wall employed over 400 youth and their families from diverse, social and economic backgrounds working with artists, oral historians, ethnologists, scholars, and hundreds of community members. "The Great Wall" is painted on the concrete retaining wall of the Tujunga Wash in the San Fernando Valley. In addition to restoring the mural between 2009-2011, SPARC will also be constructing a new solar-lit "green" bridge with interpretive stations, and constructing five additional stations along the wall to provide access to the historical content of the mural.

Judy Baca and SPARC have collaborated with wHY Architecture to complete the designs for the "Green Bridge" which will be solar lit and composed in part from the debris of the Los Angeles River with interpretive panels along the expanse of the Bridge from which the public can view the River and the ½ mile of mural along its banks. A site plan, elevations for the bridge, materials, budget, schedule of construction have been completed for the bridge. A full model of the bridge has been built reviewed by County and City department representatives. The new Great Wall Interpretive "Green" Bridge will replace the former bridge which crossed the Tujunga Wash Flood control Channel between Miranda Street and Hatteras Street on the west side of Coldwater Canyon Blvd. The new bridge will function not only as a point to cross the Tujunga wash but also as a viewing station and interpretive center to view the Great Wall of Los Angeles mural and the Los Angeles River.

The structure of the bridge will consist of prefabricated built-up plate steel girders, steel framing and new poured concrete footings. The finishing material will consist of prefabricated textured fiberglass concrete panels on the sides of the footbridge and canopy, and composite plastic impregnated wood decking on walk able surfaces. End panels will be troweled stone face plaster over steel framing with guardrails constructed of powder-coated steel for durability. The look will be one of layered sediment with broken glass, and other plastic debris common to the river. The roof of the canopy will consist of aluminum framed, clear glass panels with thin film photovoltaic strips. Photovoltaic cells will collect solar energy and distribute back to the department of water and power, monitored by PV meters. On the underside of the canopy will be a clear skylight finished with two layers of laminated polycarbonate panels with images of the River and the Great Wall silk screened on film and sandwiched between them. Light will filter through this skylight during the day illuminating the images. The total impact of the bridge will be that it will be an instructional site about the river and the history of the diverse people of Los Angeles while it reconnects the two sides of the channel.

Proposed Designs
Purposed designs the 1960s extension segment to the Great Wall of Los Angeles
Please click image below for presentation on designs

Research 60s Timeline

Videos and Fly Through of The Great Wall in LA

Initiated in the Fall of 2002 and completed in 2003 as a joint collaboration between the UCLA/SPARC Digital/Mural Laband the UCLA Visualization portal , the Virtual Great Wall of Los Angeles 3-D model brings the signature work of Professor Baca and SPARC into the virtual world of real-time 3-D visualization. UCLA/SPARC Digital/Mural Lab staff worked with the staff of the UCLA Visualization Portal to model in 3-D the entire Great Wall of Los Angeles mural site and the surrounding city area. To accomplish this enormous task, satellite photos of the site were used along with blueprints to model the entire flood control channel to scale. Photos of the Great Wall taken from the SPARC MREC Archive were scanned and stitched together to texture the virtual wall of the channel and photos of the surrounding area were used to texture the rest of the model.The completed 3-D real time model is displayed in the UCLA Visualization portal, which boasts a 160 degree IMAX style screen where viewers can navigate through the virtual Great Wall in real-time, literally flying through the site to view the mural from perspectives not possible at the actual mural site. The virtual model will also be used to pre-visualize how the next four decades of the Great Wall of Los Angeles (currently in early design phases as part of the extension and continuation of the mural) will look before they are actually in situ.

Great Wall Testimonials

Testimonials featured on KCET, click here.On the last day of the 1983 summer project, each of the Mural Makers sat down to write about his/her experiences of working on the mural. The following are excerpts from their thoughts.

This was definitely not a waste of my time. I feel I have accomplished something very worthwhile. I have educated myself and with the work I have done I will help to educate countless others, I have never been involved with the creating of a landmark before, but if I had a choice of any the mural is the one I would choose. The fact that this mural is recognized internationally is very exciting and has fulfilled my dream of doing something with international impact. I'm not just a Mural Maker, I'm a history maker and proud of the history on the wall I got the chance to show.

-Kelly Watts, age 19
Third summer on the project.

If I can come back next year I would come back right away. I have a lot of feelings that I can't explain on paper. All I can say is I wish everybody the best of luck in the future and I wish Judy all the success that she needs to continue.

-Robert Martinez, age 18
Third summer on the project.

It's been great working at the Great Wall and having a large family of forty. I bet you can't top that I've learned to get along with people of all colors and the responsibility of doing for myself. I would do it again. But it was not all fun and play. It takes time to get things all together. But still in all, the best part is getting to the end and looking back at what you helped do.

-Rena Robinson, age 17
First summer on the project.

In today's society where there's not many constructive and positive activities or happenings, this mural is a very positive thing. Where else can kids from all kinds of cultural backgrounds come together and work towards a goal. I have found this experience to be very rewarding and got a lot out of it. The work was very hard at times but the finishing product was well worth the effort, you know, the end justifying the means. There were times when I had my bad days but mostly they were great. I'm very proud that I worked on the mural this year and if there's any way possible I would more than happily come back next year. It got to the point where I didn't care if I was getting paid or not, but the pay was nice to get for it. It's kind of neat knowing that you're becoming part of history and that it's a community project that people will appreciate.

-Michelle Russell, age 21
First summer on the project.

To me the mural means a piece of art, it means workmanship among others, it means a part of ourselves, also making new friends, doing a good job and having lots of fun.

-Alex Alvarez, age 14
First summer on the project.

There's one way to describe our worksite of people and that is we are one Big Family and I hope when the public comes to admire our mural they'll share the magic and emotion that our crew shared with one another.

-Nancy Jane Avila, age 17
First summer on the project.

This was my second year on the mural, but it was a completely new experience. The group feeling was tremendous, stronger and sooner than two years ago. This year had obstacles that weren't present previously, and this unity kept us going, because we were so proud of our unity that the idea of giving up after the flood, and splitting the crew, was inconceivable. After my first year on the mural, I left with a sense of who I was and what I could do that was unlike anything I'd ever felt before. The feeling came from encountering people of different backgrounds and outlooks, and confronting history from new perspectives, and seeing what I was personally capable of at a time in my life when my self‑confidence had been extremely low. This year was different largely because I had been changed by my earlier experience with the mural. The feelings of identity and pride came in new ways. Because of the unity we shared, I feel now that everything on the mural is my history, in a deeper way than I think I felt before.

-Todd Ableser, age 18
Second summer on the project.

Being a crew leader and all, it gave me responsibility and an incentive to perform the desired duties to its full extent. It was hard to ask a friend to do a difficult job but in time everything fell into place. I want this mural to continue forever. I hope we paint in the summer of 1984 and every year after. I was a born surfer and I gave up the beach for the project and I will always be dedicated.

Marc Meisels, age 18

This year has definitely been a year to remember, with the accident of the weather and the media. But in the end we pulled through. Everyone now seems to know the spirit of unity: sharing, caring and working it out.

Esther Martinez, age 19
Third summer on the project

The mural project is composed of a group of young people working toward one mutual goal: the completion of a work of art from which will come an in‑depth look to the drama and importance of many great persons who have worked toward the banishment of racial injustice, discrimination, and human struggle. These are goals that we, as Mural Makers see daily working on the mural. There is a feeling of camaraderie and friendship among the persons. Out of this bond shall be initiated another strong addition to the Great Wall.

Glenn Cho, age 16
First summer on the project

When I started working here I did it for the money, then I began to take great pride in the mural and in the Chicano section in particular. At first I didn't think an assortment of races could work together because in my neighborhood there is primarily one race. This project made me realize that the prejudices I had inside me were not only false but also ignorant. I only wish all mankind could have gone through this experience with me. I regret that when I leave here my new attitude will change back to before. I hope that when people see this mural they forget all their prejudices and try to live with all people, no matter what race, in peace.

Sergio Moreno, age 16
First summer on the project

Public Reviews:

To see more reviews on YELP, go to Our Yelp page.
Patrick W., Los Angeles, CA
5 stars
This is one of the coolest things I discovered when I moved to Los Angeles. It really makes you respect how LA as a community values art and history to create such an awesome collaborative work of diverse artists that tells the story of America from the beginning of time to the late 1970's. It made me think damn I made the right decision to move to LA from Texas.
This wall is amazing because the art is really well done, it's a mural so each scene segues into the next scene smoothly and gracefully, and it teaches an interesting history lesson that makes you feel like you're really learning something without trying. So it's knowledge without effort, which is always best!

The wall ends thematically at the late 1970's. It's time to bring the Great Wall of LA up to date! Artists, ready your paintbrushes. Philanthropists, get out your moneypurses and let's make more history!

Christine A., Cerritos, CA
5 stars
Back when I was taking my California Cultures class at CSUF, my professor would frequently reference the Great Wall of Los Angeles in his teachings since this extensive mural covers so many points in history - especially those that high schools here tend to skip over.

Need proof? While Lee A. and I walked along the fence, a group of teenagers (looked to be about seniors in high school) were heading in the opposite direction, toward us. As we were neared each other, Lee and I could hear them addressing the Manzanar section of the mural. Of the six of them, only one knew what it was about and started to explain the Japanese internment as best she could while the others listened with shocked expressions.

The mural has the expected historic milestones (the Chumash, Spanish conquest and the missions, the Gold Rush, the world wars, the citrus industry, Hollywood, etc). But it also includes the assimilation of American Indians, the Chinese Massacre of 1871, the Beats, the Mattachine Society and the Daughters of Bilitis, the division of the barrios and Chavez Ravine, white flight, the roles of women during the wars, the deportation of half a million Mexican Americans during the 1930s, Israel refugees, and as mentioned Manzanar and the "Go For Broke" Fighting 442nd.

I mean, so quickly people forget how others were dragged out of their homes, which were bulldozed behind them, and Dodger Stadium was built on the land.

The recent restoration is GLORIOUS. The mural is no longer peeling and the colors are so solid and vibrant. There's so much to learn from the mural as each moment in history melts into the next.

It's viewable from the park above the flood control wash. Best to park near Coldwater Canyon Ave and Burbank Blvd, where the mural begin (If you see a prehistoric ground sloth sticking its tongue out at the rest of the mural, you're in good shape), and walk along the fence, parallel to Coldwater Canyon, toward Oxnard Street.

Patricia D., Los Angeles, CA
5 stars
Often I get a little envious that most of the historical landmarks that have set identity to this country are found around the East Coast. After my visit to The Great Wall of LA, that envy is no more!

Outside of the cookie cutter history books that are written from one perspective, The Great Wall involved a diverse group of young individuals with their families working with historians, artists and academicians to give an accurate and personal presentation of California/Los Angeles history!

It cost nothing but a drive to Valley Glen College to enjoy this amazing mural! Not only is there art to be enjoyed but there is a belt of grass along with a pathway around the mural that is great for a little power walk! ha ha Parking is easily available and there is plenty of shade, perhaps in a warm day!

This is a definite treasure of LA. The issues and events that are depicted in the panels are some that are still being fought about in the present time! It is an indescribable feeling learning more that LA is not just a place of aesthetics and money! It is a place of progression and enriching cultures!

You will not regret your visit!

Directions

The Great Wall of Los Angeles is located in the Tujunga Wash Flood Control Channel (LA River) in the San Fernando Valley - Studio City / Valley Glen.

Near LA Valley College and Grant High School

North of the Ventura Freeway (101), between the 405 and 170.

From the 101, Exit on Coldwater Canyon Ave. and head North.

The Great Wall is on Coldwater Canyon Avenue between Burbank Blvd. and Oxnard St.

Park along the street and walk the 1/2 mile mural and enjoy!

Curriculum Resources For Educators

To Buy the Walking Tour Guide, click here.

Welcome to our Great Wall Interactive Page!

To submit proposals to further the upcoming Great Wall production, click here.

The Great Wall production has always been a collaborative project. The first step has always been to create compelling metaphors and interpretations of the American History and particularly the California History. After the proposal of various concepts and proposals, the final draft has been extracted and used to start the next section of the mural.
Please review our past interactive submissions and get inspired.
Audience Participation: Metaphor Gathering

1. What is a metaphor that, for you, defines one of the last four decades of the 20th century?

2. What is an art work from one of the last four decades that symbolizes for you the spirit of that time?

Past Submissions:
From Serg Hernandez

A once proud Aztec people now work as gardeners blowing leaves and grass.
Anonymous from Stanford University:

"An artist who represents the 80's: JEFF KOONS' image of Michael Jackson and Bubbles which captures the cult of celebrity, materialism, pop culture, all relevant during the Reganomics 80's."
From S.A. Beckman

By collaging images taken from cold-war era and contemporary magazines, I attempt to reveal sexism, conformity, consumer appetite, and the denial of dysfunction as underlying the media's construction of the American family.

From the Community Arts Center in Los Angeles
First of all - great idea!! Keep it up SPARC !!!!

What comes to mind, briefly, is the NEA shenanigans and Karen Finley, the "Piss Christ", of Andre Serrano. Censorship and cultural co-opting by a select few deemed reverent by the art community.

What also comes to mind are cultural incidents that have come to define our Americanism: Rodney King, the dragging and decapitating of an African-American man, the killing of Andrew Sheppard, and MTV.

To submit proposals, ideas and upload pictures to further the upcoming Great Wall production, click here.

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The Great Wall of Los Angeles - SPARCinLA

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The Great Wall Explained The Great Wall of Los Angeles is one of Los Angeles' true cultural landmarks and one of the country's most respected and largest monuments to inter-racial harmony.

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Great Wall of Los Angeles (US National Park Service)

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Great Wall of Los Angeles (US National Park Service)

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On a walk to see The Great Wall of Los Angeles.
Photo by Kent Kanouse (CC BY-NC 2.0; https://www.flickr.com/photos/kkanouse/8317127514/).

The Great Wall of Los Angeles (also known as The History of California) is a half-mile long mural depicting the history of California through images of significant figures and historic events from diverse and traditionally marginalized communities. The mural is painted on the west wall of the Tujunga Flood Control Channel in the North Hollywood area of the City of Los Angeles, California. The Great Wall of Los Angeles was completed between 1974 and 1984 by teams of young people and artist supervisors. Chicana muralist Judith F. Baca, working with the Social and Public Art Resource Center (SPARC), was primarily responsible for the artistic vision and subject matter depicted in the mural. The flood control channel was built by the Army Corps of Engineers, and is owned and maintained by the Los Angeles County Department of Public Works. Baca and SPARC created the mural and own the copyright to it.

The Great Wall of Los Angeles is one of the largest murals in the world, 13.5 feet high and 2,754 feet long, stretching over half a mile. The west wall of the channel functions as a canvas for the mural. The Great Wall of Los Angeles is located in a section of the Tujunga Flood Control Channel bounded by Oxnard Street to the north, Coldwater Canyon Boulevard to the east, Burbank Boulevard to the south, and the Coldwater Canyon Extension road (sometimes called Lancer Lane) and a parking lot to the west. The mural is arranged in connected chronological segments depicting eras of California's history from prehistoric times through the 1960s. The scenes emphasize the role played by Native Americans, Latinos (focusing on those with Mexican heritage, sometimes self-identified as Chicano/a), African Americans, Asian Americans, and Jewish Americans in creating California's culture. The Great Wall imagery highlights themes such as immigration, exploitation of people and land, women's rights, class distinctions, racism and racial equality, and the struggle for gay and lesbian rights. The artistic style of the mural reflects the Chicano/a mural movement of the 1970s, using colors, steep rescinding perspective, and symbols influenced by indigenous Mesoamerican art, traditional European figurative art, the Works Progress Administration, and Mexican muralists of the 1930s.

The Great Wall of Los Angeles is arranged in panels with compositions that blend into each other, comprising six sections with 86 titled segments. Sections are usually organized by decade. Segments within each decade-specific section depict discrete historical events or important figures from the decade. The composition of the earliest sections from 1976 was supervised by multiple artists. Later sections, completed between 1978 and 1984, have stronger visual coherence and were under the design supervision of a single artist, Judith F. Baca. Segments are listed with titles as they appear on the mural. The mural was painted during summers between 1974 and 1984. No painting took place in the summers of 1979 and 1982.

A project through the Underrepresented Community Grant Program, which works to diversify nominations submitted to the National Register of Historic Places, funded the effort to recognize the significance of this property related to Latino and minority history in Los Angeles.

Links in the list below will take you to related NPS pages.

Section 1, completed in 1976, comprises 35 segments. Segments were designed by multiple artists as specified, working with youth design teams.
1. Pre-Historic California: 20,000 BC (designed by Kristi Lucas)
2. The La Brea Tar Pits (designed by Kristi Lucas)
3. Chumash Village 1,000 AD (designed by Christina Schlesinger)
4. Indigenous Plants (designed by Kristi Lucas)
5. Chumash Animal Spirits (designed by Christina Schlesinger)
6. Portolá Expedition 1769 designed by Judith F. Baca)
7. Legend of Califa (designed by Judith F. Baca)
8. Indigenous Perspective (designed by Judith F. Baca)
9. Junipero Serra (designed by Judith F. Baca)
10. Founders of Los Angeles 1781/ Mulatto & Metizo Descent (designed by Judith F. Baca)
11. Mexican Rule 1822 (designed by Judith Hernandez)
12. Missions (designed by Judith Hernandez)
13. Californios (designed by Judith Hernandez)
14. Mexican Hacienda (designed by Judith Hernandez)
15. Mexican-American War (designed by Judith Hernandez)
16. Sutter's Mill (designed by Ulysses Jenkins)
17. Mifflin W. Gibbs (designed by Ulysses Jenkins)
18. Mary Ellen Pleasant (designed by Ulysses Jenkins)
19. William A. Leidesdorf (designed by Ulysses Jenkins)
20. California Gold Rush (designed by Ulysses Jenkins)
21. Biddy Mason/AME Church (designed by Ulysses Jenkins)
22. Joaquin Murrieta (designed by Ulysses Jenkins)
23. Sojourners 1868 (designed by Gary Takamoto)
24. Chinese Build the Railroad (designed by Gary Takamoto)
25. Chinese Massacre 1871 (designed by Gary Takamoto)
26. Frontier California 1880 (designed by Arnold Ramirez)
27. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 1848 (designed by Arnold Ramirez)
28. California Citrus Industry (designed by Arnold Ramirez)
29. Suffragettes (designed by Olga Muniz)
30. LA Mountains to the Shore 1890 (designed by Olga Muniz)
31. Red Car (designed by Olga Muniz)
32. Youth Team at L.A. Harbor (designed by Charlie Brown and youth painting team)
33. San Pedro Harbor 1900 (designed by Charlie Brown)
34. Migrant California (designed by Isabel Castro)
35. World War I (designed by Isabel Castro)

Section 2, completed in 1978, comprises six segments. All segments were designed by Judith F. Baca with the support of SPARC design teams.
36. WWI Doughboys
37. Women in the War Industry
38. Charlie Chaplin
39. Thomas Alva Edison
40. The Great Train Robbery
41. William S. Hart

Section 3, completed in 1980, comprises 12 segments. All segments were designed by Judith F. Baca with the support of SPARC design teams.
42. Illusion of Prosperity
43. Prohibition
44. Dunbar Hotel
45. Market Crash
46. Child Labor
47. Great Depression
48. Labor Strikes
49. Long Beach Earthquake 1933
50. Unsigned Indian Treaties
51. 500,000 Mexican Americans Deported
52. Dustbowl Refugees
53. Japanese Internment - Manzanar

Section 4, completed in 1981, comprises 14 segments. All segments were designed by Judith F. Baca with the support of SPARC design teams.
54. 442nd Infantry Division
55. Jewish Americans
56. California Aqueduct
57. Jeanette Rankin
58. World War II
59. Rose the Riveter
60. Dr. Charles Drew
61. Mrs. Laws
62. David Gonzales: Pacoima, CA
63. Zoot Suit Riots/ L.A. 1943
64. Luisa Moreno
65. Bracero Program
66. Jewish Refugees
67. Baby Boom

Section 5, completed in 1983, comprises 18 segments. All segments were designed by Judith F. Baca with the support of Matt Weurker, Jan Cook, and additional SPARC design team members.
68. Farewell to Rosie the Riveter
69. Development of Suburbia
70. The Red Scare & McCarthyism
71. Division of the Barrios & Chavez Ravine
72. The Birth of Rock & Roll
73. Big Mama Thornton
74. Forebears of Civil Rights
75. Gay Rights
76. Daughters of Bilitis
77. Mattachine Society
78. Ginsberg & The Beats
79. Jewish Arts & Sciences
80. Indian Assimilation
81. Asians Gain Citizenship & Property
82. Vicki Manalo Draves
83. Sammy Lee
84. Wilma Rudolf
85. Billy Mills

Section 6, completed in 1984, comprises one segment and a panel describing the project.
86. Olympic Champions: Breaking Barriers 1964-1984

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Great Wall of Los Angeles (Mural) (U.S. National Park Service)

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The Great Wall of Los Angeles (also known as The History of California) is a half-mile long mural depicting the history of California through images of significant figures and historic events from diverse and traditionally marginalized communities. The mural is painted on the west wall of the Tujunga Flood Control Channel in the North Hollywood area of the City of Los Angeles, California.

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Source: Remezcla

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Prior to Spanish colonization, Mexico came under a region now known as Mesoamerica. Mesoamerican art was strongly based on nature, the surrounding political reality and the gods. Post colonization, Mexican art was dominated by Christian subjects and it was used to propagate colonial interests. After Mexico gained its independence in 1821, Mexican artists began to carve out a separate identity for themselves, different from European influences. One of the earliest influential Mexican artists was José Guadalupe Posada, whose work was known for its satirical acuteness and social engagement. Mexican art saw unprecedented development after the Mexican Revolution (1910 - 1920). In fact, the three most influential muralists from the 20th century are the Mexican artists Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco and David Siqueiros; who are called "los tres grandes (the three great ones)". Apart from these three men, Leonora Carrington, Remedios Varoand Frida Kahlo ensured that women too remained at the forefront of 20th century Mexican art. The most renowned contemporary Mexican artist is perhaps Gabriel Orozco. Here are the 10 most famous Mexican artists and their greatest masterpieces.

#10 Dr. Atl

Gerardo Murillo Cornado is regarded as one of the pioneers of the Mexican movement for artistic nationalism. It was his art that established Mexico's artistic identity following the Mexican Revolution. Gerardo Murillo is better known by his Aztec name Dr. Atl (Náhuatl word for "water"). He adopted this name as a rejection of his Spanish heritage and to show that he was proud of his Mexican Indian ancestors and their culture. Dr Atl was passionately interested in the native art of Mexico and he aimed to create a modern indigenous artistic style of expression. His best known paintings portray the Mexican landscape, primarily the Valley of Mexico and the volcanoes of Popocatépetl and Ixtacihuatl.

#9 Gabriel Orozco

Gabriel Orozco was born in an artistic family with his mother Cristina Felix Romandia being a pianist and his father Mario Orozco Rivera being a mural painter and art professor. In his teens, Gabriel worked with his father on several murals in order to earn money to buy a car. After educating himself as an artist, Orozco preferred a nomadic way of living which strongly influenced his art. He rejected working in an isolated studio and instead embraced the surrounding environment assembling sculptures from found materials and capturing the interaction between people and objects. The art of Orozco forces the viewers to focus on unseen and overlooked features in both urban and natural environment. He is also famous for using games in his artworks.

Samurai Tree (Invariant 5) (2005)

Astroturf Constellation (2012)

#8 José Guadalupe Posada

As a child, Posada worked as a farm laborer and in a pottery factory. In teenage he learned lithography and engraving. Soon his first political cartoons were published in a newspaper titled El Jicote. He went on to establish himself as a pictorial journalist publishing thousands of illustrations. José Guadalupe Posada is considered a hugely influential political printmaker and engraver. The satirical acuteness and social engagement of his work went on to influence numerous Latin American artists and cartoonists. Posada is best known for his calaveras, or representations of human skulls. The most famous among these is La Calavera Catrina, a satirical portrait of upper class Mexicans which has become a quintessential Mexican icon.

Masterpiece: La Calavera Catrina (The Catrina Skull, 1913)

Los Gendarmes (The Police, 1913)

La Calavera de Cupido (Cupid's Skull, 1910)

#7 Rufino Tamayo

Rufino Tamayo worked in a wide variety of media including woodcuts, lithographs and etchings. Along with Mexican painter and engineer Luis Remba, Tamayo also invented a new medium which they named Mixografia. This technique is a unique fine art printing process that allows for the production of prints with three-dimensional texture. Tamayo was extremely pleased with the Mixografia process and he produced around 80 Mixographs. The art of Rufino Tamayo is known for combining modern European painting styles, like Cubism and Surrealism, with Mexican folk themes. Another important aspect of his art is that he preferred using only a few colors as he believed that this gave his art greater force and meaning.

Dos Personajes Atacados por Perros (Two Characters Attacked by Dogs, 1983)

Perro De Luna (Moon Dog, 1973)

#6 Remedios Varo

Born in Angles, Spain, Remedios Varo had to flee to Mexico to escape war-torn Europe. She became a naturalized Mexican citizen in 1941. Remedios Varo was involved with the Surrealism movement. The Surrealists rejected rationalism and literary realism; and instead focused on channeling the unconscious mind to unveil the power of the imagination. Remedios Varo differed from other Surrealists due to the constant use of religion in her work. Varo exhibited profound technical skill producing deep, intuitive paintings which provide extraordinary insights into human nature. She is most renowned for her enigmatic paintings of androgynous beings engaged in magic arts or the occult. Remedios Varo unfortunately died from a heart attack at the age of 54 when she was at the peak of her career.

M asterpiece: Useless Science or the Alchemist (1958)

Allegory of Winter (1948)

#5 David Alfaro Siqueiros

David Alfaro Siqueiros was the first of the "los tres grandes" (three greats) of Mexican muralism; the other two being Diego Rivera and José Clemente Orozco. He was also the most radical of the three in his technique, composition and especially political ideology. The art of Siqueiros reflected his Marxist ideology and it primarily portrays the numerous social, political and industrial changes through a leftist perspective. Such was his adherence to his political ideology that he refused any commission that conflicted with it. Siqueiros created many large murals for government buildings in Mexico. Apart from their monumental size, these murals are marked by great dynamism and vigor; and dramatic effects of light and shadow. Siqueiros was also a political activist who was jailed numerous times in his life for his labor-union work and his communist political activities.

Death to the Invader (1942)

#4 Jose Clemente Orozco

One of the "los tres grandes" (three greats) of Mexican muralism, Orozco differed from the other two due to his open criticism of both the Mexican Revolution and the post-Revolution government. He was the most complex of the Mexican muralists with the ability to convey dark themes. His art was often politically motivated and he often furthered the political causes of peasants and workers. The art style of Orozco was complex and it contained several elements including modernist abstraction; emotional expressiveness; and Renaissance-style compositions and modeling. Orozco was dissatisfied with his early art which was derived from European traditions and he later used forms and iconography from Mexico's indigenous, pre-colonial, pre-European art. José Clemente Orozco was a towering figure in Mexican muralism and he is regarded as the most important 20th-century muralist to work in fresco.

#3 Leonora Carrington

Considering that renowned Mexican painter Frida Kahlo declared that she was not a Surrealist, Leonora Carrington is perhaps the most famous female Surrealist artist. Leonora was born in England but lived most of her adult life in Mexico. She had a romantic relationship with Max Ernst, one of the leading Surrealist artists; and her first work in the genre was a portrait of Ernst as a tribute to their relationship. Unlike the other Surrealists, Carrington was not interested in the writings of S igmund Freud. She is instead famous for her haunting, autobiographical paintings that incorporate images of sorcery, metamorphosis, alchemy and the occult. Her art is also known for expressing female sexuality in a distinctively different way than male Surrealists. Leonora Carrington was one of the leading female artists of the 20th century.

Portrait of Max Ernst (1939)

The Giantess (The Guardian of the Egg) (1947)

#2 Diego Rivera

Considered a genius who could turn his hand to any style including Impressionist, Post-Impressionist, Cubist and Flemish, Rivera believed that everyone should be able to view his art and hence he painted large murals on numerous places including Mexico City, Chapingo, Cuernavaca, San Francisco, Detroit, and New York City. Rivera deployed a style that incorporated various sources including European modern masters and Mexico's pre-Columbian heritage. He chose themes appropriate to the large scale of his art like social inequality; the relationship of nature, industry and technology; and the history and fate of Mexico. Diego Rivera was perhaps the most influential Mexican artist of the 20th century. Among other things, his large-scale murals led to a revival of fresco painting in Latin America. Rivera was the most famous Mexican artist during his time but with time his fame has been surpassed by his wife Frida Kahlo.

Detroit Industry Murals (1933)

The History of Mexico (1935)

#1 Frida Kahlo

On 17th September 1925, Frida Kahlo and her friend Alex were riding in a bus when it crashed into a street trolley car. Due to the grave injuries she suffered in the accident, Frida had to undergo 35 operations in her life, bear with relapses of extreme pain and could not have children. While in hospital, Kahlo began painting and she ultimately abandoned her career in medicine to become an artist. Frida Kahlo is most famous for her self-portraits which often incorporate symbolic portrayals of physical and psychological wounds. She said, "I paint myself because I am so often alone and because I am the subject I know best." Frida Kahlo is ranked among the greatest artist s in the genre of self portraiture. She is undoubtedly one of the most famous modern artists and perhaps the most renowned female painter ever. She also remains a feminist icon for the way she led her life.

Self-Portrait with Thorn Necklace and Hummingbird (1940)

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10 Most Famous Mexican Artists And Their Masterpieces

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Prior to Spanish colonization, Mexico came under a region now known as Mesoamerica. Mesoamerican art was strongly based on nature, the surrounding political reality and the gods. Post colonization, Mexican art was dominated by Christian subjects and it was used to propagate colonial interests.

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Top 7 Hispanic Artists to Impact Western Culture

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Top 7 Hispanic Artists to Impact Western Culture

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Environmental Justice: Global Youth Council

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Environmental Justice: Global Youth Council

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Sofia Hernandez and Jeronimo Zarco

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Earth Uprising's Global Youth Council was formed to connect young climate activists from all around the world. The council's primary purpose is to tell their personal stories of the climate crisis and use their lived experiences to imagine a new, sustainable future for our planet and humanity.

The transformational proposals generated by our Global Youth Council will be interventions in all current systems of national and international policy and governance. Our Global Youth Council will also bring climate education to their peers in their countries, as well as mobilize and participate in direct actions as each country allows. We've been failed by the generations which have preceded us. Not only are the youth responsible for bringing the climate crisis to the attention of the world, we now must bring climate solutions to the world too.

Don't see your country represented? If you live there and want to get involved, email us at [email protected] with the subject: Global Youth Council. Tell us who you are and how you are involved in climate action!

Please note that your country may already be represented but not yet listed on this website, however we still want to work with you and have you be a part of Earth Uprising!

Oladosu Adenike

Oladosu Adenike is a Nigerian climate justice activist and an agricultural expert (first class in agricultural economics and extension). She has six years of experience in rural development. She is the country ambassador Fridays for Future as well. She's also the founder of "ILeadClimate" and an awardee from Amnesty International.

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Earth Uprising's Global Youth Council was formed to connect young climate activists from all around the world. The council's primary purpose is to tell their personal stories of the climate crisis and use their lived experiences to imagine a new, sustainable future for our planet and humanity.

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Green Spaces in Urban Communities: Rutas Naturabanas

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Green Spaces in Urban Communities: Rutas Naturabanas

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For an example of this project click here: https://youtu.be/Z89VnlkGT8o

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Conectamos a las personas con la ciudad a través de la naturaleza Conocé el proyecto

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Environmental Justice: Youth in Latin American and the Caribbean call for environmental education and more

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Environmental Justice: Youth in Latin American and the Caribbean call for environmental education and more

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Source: UNICEF

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PANAMA CITY, 13 September 2021 - Incorporating environmental education and integrating youth in decision-making in the face of climate change are the demands of 24 young environmentalists. They are part of the "Delegación Joven", promoted by the MERI Foundation and UNICEF. They were selected to represent the youth of the region at the 2nd Conference on Scientific Evidence and Public Policy: Climate Change in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Although climate change seriously affects children and youth, they are not participating in decisions to address the crisis. According to the U-Report survey conducted by UNICEF, 65 percent of young activists in Latin America and the Caribbean say they have never been included in climate and environmental public policy decisions.

"They are limiting our future by deciding without us. Youth must have an active role in decision-making," said Bolivian activist, José Enrique Cerezo, during the conference. "We need our voices and reports to be taken into account. It's not political window dressing, it's time for action," said Nicole Reyes, who works on ocean protection in Peru.

The meeting was attended by scientists, decision-makers, representatives of civil society and indigenous peoples. At this forum, the young activists also called for greater access to information and the implementation of environmental education in curricula.

"Education is a fundamental tool to combat climate crisis and create systemic solutions, instead of patches," mentioned Julieta Martínez. She founded the "Tremendas" platform in Chile and created "Climáticas", an environmental education academy with a gender perspective. Floridalma López, a Guatemalan activist, added that "education must strengthen our resilience and adaptation to climate change".

According to the World Meteorological Organization, 2020 was one of the three warmest years on record for Central America and the Caribbean, and the second warmest in South America[1]. The effects of climate change are evident in hurricanes, floods, droughts and heat waves, which are increasingly intense and frequent. These extreme phenomena put the rights of children at risk by threatening their health, access to water, clean air, housing, healthy food and education.

"I have seen the serious effects of climate change in the region and how it threatens the present and future of children. Like the devastating impact of hurricanes Eta and Iota in Central America. The loss of glaciers in the Andes Mountains that reduces water sources. Droughts and forest fires in different parts of the continent. And, although they are the most affected by climate crises, we are not listening to children and youth. We have to include them in the decisions and we must act urgently, as they are acting and being protagonists of the solutions," says Jean Gough, UNICEF Regional Director for Latin America and the Caribbean.

In order to strengthen youth participation, MERI Foundation and UNICEF have signed an alliance to make scientific evidence available to them, empower children and youth in the region, advance environmental education and make new generations agents of change to protect the planet.

Following its participation in the regional conference on September 7 and 8, the "Delegación Joven" will prepare an advocacy document on youth principles to mitigate climate change in Latin America and the Caribbean. This instrument will be key for other upcoming discussion spaces, such as the Youth Conference (COY) and the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26).

___________
[1] World Meteorological Organization, State of the Climate in Latin America and the Caribbean 2020, WMO, Geneva, 2021.

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Youth from Latin America and the Caribbean call for environmental education and effective participation in decision making

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PANAMA CITY, 13 September 2021 - Incorporating environmental education and integrating youth in decision-making in the face of climate change are the demands of 24 young environmentalists. They are part of the "Delegación Joven", promoted by the MERI Foundation and UNICEF.

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Activities for Young Students created by the Homestead Museum

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Activities for Young Students created by the Homestead Museum

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Whittier College student Fights for the Environment

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Whittier College student Fights for the Environment

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Since she was nine years old, Nalleli Cobo '23 has been fighting for a healthier environment.

Cobo's activism began while she was growing up in affordable housing near an oil well site in South Central. Her health was suffering, so she went door to door to spread awareness and rally her neighbors to stand up for themselves. She started speaking out against neighborhood oil drilling at city hall hearings and town hall meetings-eventually co-founding a grassroots organization to stop the oil site.

"Then we noticed we weren't the only community affected by neighborhood oil drilling, so STAND LA was formed-Stand Against Neighborhood Drilling, Los Angeles-with the mission to pass an ordinance to establish a 2,500-foot health and safety buffer zone between sensitive land and oil extraction," Cobo said. "I'm also proud co-founder of the South Central Youth Leadership Coalition, and with Communities for a Better Environment, we sued the City of Los Angeles for environmental racism and violation of CEQA, the California Environmental Quality Act."

She's become a poster child for environmental activism; literally, her face was on posters at last year's Youth Climate Strike in L.A., which she helped organize. At the protest, she had the opportunity to meet another young activist, Swedish teenager Greta Thunberg, "who's completely awesome and has also been one of my heroes," Cobo adds.

Now, Cobo also shares an honor with one of her other inspirations: civil rights activist Dolores Huerta. In her Spanish-speaking home, Cobo grew up understanding that Huerta was the reason her grandmother had signage in her native language to help her navigate their country. Now, they're both recipients of the Center for the Study of Political Graphics' Aris & Carolyn Anagnos Culture of Liberation Award. Cobo received the award last year, and is the youngest person to ever be honored with it.

The center lauded Cobo as a young woman who's "considered among the top 100 of the world's most influential people in climate policy." She feels empowered knowing that her voice and her story can inspire and improve the lives of the people around her.

"Knowing that the youth are being given more power now, and more of a voice and more of an opportunity to be heard and empowered, is something that's really beautiful," Cobo said.

The Los Angeles Times recently spotlighted Cobo's activism, including a rally earlier this month on the steps of L.A. City Hall, where actor Joaquin Phoenix introduced her to the crowd and called her "our future president." She "hugged him and stepped up to the microphone, quickly adding that she would run in 2036," the article states.

In the meantime, she's created her own major at Whittier College through the Whittier Scholars Program, combining political science, economics, international relations, and environmental studies, with the hopes of one day becoming a civil rights activist. She began a medical leave earlier this year after being diagnosed with a rare and aggressive cancer; a GoFundMe has raised more than $63,000 to help her.

Nancy Halpern Ibrahim, executive director of Esperanza Community Housing, told the L.A. Times that "we're going to fight very hard.... We want to make sure that nothing extinguishes this fierceness that she has."

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Nalleli Cobo '23 Fights for the Environment

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Cobo's activism began while she was growing up in affordable housing near an oil well site in South Central. Her health was suffering, so she went door to door to spread awareness and rally her neighbors to stand up for themselves.

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Meet the young environmental activist in Los Angeles taking on oil companies

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Meet the young environmental activist in Los Angeles taking on oil companies

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12 Ago 2016 - 06:33 PM EDT

Nalleli Cobo Crédito: People Not Pozos

Many of Nalleli Cobo 's recent memories are of being sick. Beginning in 2010, at just nine-years-old, she had constant nosebleeds and headaches. At her school, in University Park, in South Los Angeles, she'd often go to the nurse, complaining of stomach pain. She developed asthma and heart palpitations. And she wasn't the only one.

"I was sick just like the other kids in my neighborhood," Cobo says. "My nose was always bleeding and my mom was nauseous and had migraines."

But Cobo didn't sit inside and complain. Instead, she joined community efforts to fight against the well. She passed out flyers, educated her neighbors and advocated publicly against the oil operation.

In 2013, largely thanks to community efforts, the well was closed. And in June, a public nuisance lawsuit filed by the City of Los Angeles against the company was settled, ruling that AllenCo could not pump oil again until it meets all federal, state and local environmental rules.

But Cobo and her mother Monic Uriarte, who works for the social services organization Esperanza Community Housing, say the settlement doesn't go far enough. They continue to take part in local community efforts to make the closure permanent. For her activism, Cobo's become known around the country.

"Unity is strength, and our effort can weaken the enemy, no matter how rich and powerful it is," Cobo told Univision. "We must tell AllenCo that wells and residents cannot coexist."

AllenCo bought the oil production facility, located between nine schools and day-care centers, in 2009. The neighborhood complaints began that same year, Cobo says. The smells were horrible. And Cobo and many of her neighbors began to complain of serious headaches, scratchy throats, nausea and bloody noses.

"No parent should be scared that their child may die while they sleep, by choking on their own blood," Uriarte says.

Residents of the low-income neighborhood couldn't afford to pick up and move. And that's when Cobo and her family joined a community effort to shut down the wells. The grassroots team organized community meetings to share stories and concerns. That led to the creation of the People Not Pozos (People Not Oil Wells) program.

"Nalleli has been involved in this fight since she was little," Uriarte says. "She lived the consequences of pollution and she realized that it was unfair. My daughter knows how to speak out and is not afraid to fight for the welfare of our community."

Complaints led to state and federal investigations, during which authorities found that AllenCo was in violation of the General Duty Clause of the Clean Air Act, and that the well did not meet standards of industrial practices.

In November 2013, under pressure from U.S. Senator Barbara Boxer, the well was shut down. The following January, Los Angeles City Attorney Mike Feuer filed a lawsuit to prevent AllenCo from reopening until it complies with health and safety regulations. The company agreed to spend about $700,000 to make improvements.

"The temporary success we had to close AllenCo is a very good example of how residents can come together to fight injustice," says Sandy Navarro, People Not Pozos coordinator. "As a Latina, I am very proud of us to create a difference and be leaders of this effort."

But Cobo and her neighbors say the shutdown must be permanent. She says her health, and that of her neighbors, improved as soon as the well was shut down.

Two years ago, she sent a video to the Pope asking for help in closing the well. But not for religious reasons; the well is located on land owned by the archdiocese of Los Angeles.

"Our community has been able to get this well temporarily shut down," she said in the video. "But everyday I'm worried that they will reopen and that we'll be exposed to the toxic emissions."

She never received a response from the Catholic church.

"Many Hispanics are afraid to say something because of their immigration status, language or economic resources," Uriarte says. "But we can all come together to seek justice. Everyone has the right to breathe clean air."

In 2014, the family moved away from the well. But Cobo has remained involved in the fight.

"We had to change houses because of my health, but I'm still active with this topic because I am afraid they'll reopen the well," Cobo says. "There are still other places in Los Angeles and around the country where this is happening, and we can not let that continue."

Jessica Weiss contributed to this report.

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Meet the young environmental activist in Los Angeles taking on oil companies

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12 Ago 2016 - 06:33 PM EDT Nalleli Cobo Crédito: People Not Pozos Many of Nalleli Cobo 's recent memories are of being sick. Beginning in 2010, at just nine-years-old, she had constant nosebleeds and headaches. At her school, in University Park, in South Los Angeles, she'd often go to the nurse, complaining of stomach pain.

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10 Young Latinx Activists You Should Know

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10 Young Latinx Activists You Should Know

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10 Young Latinx Activists You Should Know

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They're standing up for immigrants, farmworkers, the environment, and more.

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6 Latina activists leading the way on climate change and the environment

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6 Latina activists leading the way on climate change and the environment

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6 Latina activists leading the way on climate change and the environment — The Mujerista

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More Latinxs demand climate action and are becoming involved in supporting policies and efforts to combat climate change. Here are 6 Latin American women who have made incredible strides in environmental and climate activism.

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8 Afro Latinos Who Made Important Contributions to US History

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8 Afro Latinos Who Made Important Contributions to US History

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Art by Alan López for Remezcla

1

Miriam Jiménez Román

Miriam Jiménez Román's influence is expansive, but perhaps nothing is as strongly felt as her book, The Afro-Latin@ Reader: History and Culture in the United States. Jiménez leads the AfroLatin@ Forum, which is dedicated to raising the awareness of Afro Latin@s in the US. She has used her own experiences as a Black Puerto Rican to educate the world on Afro Latinidad and to bridge the gap between the presence of African-Americans and Latinos in the US.

She created spaces and outlets for Black Latinos that previously didn't exist and addressed issues that often go ignored. Along with her co-editor, Juan Flores, Román conducted informative workshops with middle school students and discovered that many had a hard time understanding Afro Latinidad.

That's why she knew crafting a book like The AfroLatin@ Reader was essential and something that should have always existed. "I said I wanted a book that addressed some of the concerns I felt when I was young," Roman told Los AfroLatinos. "This kind of book should have been around when I was a kid because Blackness was equated with being African-American. This limited view left me concerned about my Blackness because I grew up as a Black Puerto Rican, and I'm very conscious how race and ethnicity have both impacted my life."

2

Piri Thomas

Down These Mean Streets, a memoir written by author Piri Thomas, is a noteworthy work on Afro Latinidad in the United States. Discussing the racism, identity issues and poverty he experienced during his lifetime growing in Spanish Harlem in NYC, the Cuban-Puerto Rican poet created a piece of literature that shone a light on his own community.

As a darker-skinned Latino, he faced discrimination, both from his family and society as a whole. His father reportedly preferred his lighter-skinned children, according to The New York Times. During his youth he used and sold drugs and ended up in prison after he hurt a police officer. During his seven years imprisoned, he finished high school and turned to writing. The work he created was so trailblazing that his editor told him that with Down These Mean Streets, Piri created a new genre, one where " everybody speaks like themselves. "

He also became involved in his community and advocated for at-risk youth. In Carmen Dolores Hernández's Puerto Rican Voices in English: Interviews with Writers, Piri said that if people wanted to know what he had done after writing his novel, all they had to do was to "ask the communities, the schools, the universities, and colleges."

Piri is remembered as an influential voices of the Nuyorican Movement, which captured the experiences of Puerto Ricans in New York through the discrimination and marginalization they faced.

3

José Celso Barbosa

Physician, sociologist and politician José Celso Barbosa was one of the first Puerto Ricans and persons of African descent to receive a medical degree in the US. But he also made history in plenty of other ways. He served in the executive cabinet under Puerto Rican Governor Charles H. Allen and joined the first Puerto Rican Senate. Barbosa, who advocated for statehood, also established El Tiempo, the island's first bilingual newspaper.

4

Gwen Ifill

The late television news anchor Gwen Ifill, whose father was of Panamanian and Barbadian descent - left a mark on American media. As one of the first Black women to host a nationwide televised public affairs program in the United States, she paved the way for other journalists of color. Ifill worked for The Washington Post, The New York Times, NBC, and PBS, and became the first Black woman to moderate a vice presidential debate.

After her death in 2016, PBS published a piece titled "'Dear Gwen: Letters from female journalists of color she inspired," which showed how deep her legacy is. For Gwen, championing diversity in journalism was necessary. "Diversity is essential to the success of the news industry, and journalists must include diverse voices in their coverage in order to reach a broader audience. We have stories to tell, but many in our audience have stopped listening because they can tell that we're not talking about them," Ifill said.

In fall 2018, Simmons College is set to rename its new media arts program after the journalist, calling it the Gwen Ifill College of Media, Arts, and Humanities.

5

Sylvia del Villard

Santurce, San Juan native Sylvia del Villard was no stranger to the performing arts. The actress, dancer, and activist faced discrimination as she pursued her studies at Fisk University in Tennessee.

But it's when she moved to New York City where del Villard began to take an interest in her roots, joining a ballet group called the Africa House. She also went on to establish the Afro-Boricua El Coqui Theater, which the Panamerican Association of the New World Festival named " as the most important authority of Black Puerto Rican culture."

In the 1970s, she and Carmen Bélen Richardson also spoke out about the racism faced by black artists in Puerto Rico's media. In 1971, del Villard released a press release "criticizing racist casting practices in television, the limited opportunities for black actors and actresses, and the ongoing use of blackface."

6

Felipe Luciano

Felipe Luciano is the founder of the Young Lords New York Branch - a Puerto Rican activist group started in Chicago and New York City with the same missions as the revolutionary Black Panther Party. The Young Lords was " indisputably the main catalyst for the second [US-based boricua] generation's baptism into radical politics." Luciano focused on the liberation of oppressed communities.

Luciano grew up underprivileged to a single mother and even through the struggles he was determined enough to go to college and pursue an education. Getting involved in student activism on campus is what led to the creation of the Young Lords and to him joining the Original Last Poets, a coalition of African American and Afro-Puerto Rican poets.

7

Julia de Burgos

Poet and journalist Julia Constanza Burgos García hailed from Carolina, Puerto Rico. From Puerto Rico to New York to Cuba, Julia de Burgos' influence is felt in many places. Her poetry addressed themes of feminism and social equality. Her dynamic poetry profoundly influenced many Afro-Caribbean writers who came after her. By age 19, she graduated from the University of Puerto Rico with a teaching degree.

Joining the Daughters of Freedom and the women's branch of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, she remained committed to supporting feminism and the Nuyorican Movement.

De Burgos celebrated her blackness in her poem Ay, Ay, Ay de la Grifa Negra, which in part reads, "ay ay ay, que soy grifa y pura negra/grifería en mi pelo, cafrería en mis labios/y mi chata nariz mozambiquea."

As Vanessa Perez Rosario's Becoming Julia de Burgos: The Making of a Puerto Rican Icon notes, critics said she symbolized the "wounded cry of our national conscience reflecting the solitude of our darker political hour."

8

Arturo Schomburg

Arturo Schomburg was a historian who raised a significant amount of awareness for the African Diaspora. Reportedly inspired by a teacher who said that African descendants had no history, he dedicated his life to showing how vital their contributions were.

After moving to New York, he became an important figure in the Harlem Renaissance. He also joined the Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico and co-founded the Negro Society for Historical Research, which united African, Caribbean, and African-American scholars. He later served as the president of the American Negro Academy, which focuses on black history and literature.

In 1925, Schomburg found the Negro Literature, History, and Prints Division of the 135th Street Branch Library. It later became known as the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, a "leading cultural [institution] in the world devoted to the preservations of materials focused on African-American, African Diaspora, and African experiences. Recognized for its prominence in digital humanities, scholarly research, and vast collection spanning over 10 million items, the Schomburg Center won the National Media for Museum and Library Service in 2015."

Afro-Latino

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8 Afro Latinos Who Made Important Contributions to US History

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Here are eight Afro Latinos whose important contributions should not go unrecognized.

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From actors and celebrities to music artists and journalists, here are some of the famous Afro-Latinos you should know.

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The Scholar Who Chronicled the Afro-Latino Experience

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The Scholar Who Chronicled the Afro-Latino Experience

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In the early two-thousands, Miriam Jiménez Román set out to produce the book that she had yearned for in her youth. As a Black Puerto Rican growing up in Harlem, in the nineteen-sixties, she saw a degree of diversity among Black folk unknown to many. She began to think of Blackness in terms of a diaspora, encompassing, but not limited to, the African-American, Dominican, and Nuyorican cultures that surrounded her. Inspired by the values and ideas that sprung from the civil-rights and Black-liberation movements, Jiménez Román understood her identity to be as much a question of skin color as a condition within an economic, social, and political hierarchy. Yet, as a student of sociology at Binghamton University, she recognized a disjuncture between her own experience and the literature of the time. Scholarly writings conformed to a binary paradigm of race, but Jiménez Román felt her identity being pulled in three different directions: Latina, African, and American. While much had been said about the experiences of Afro-Latinos in the Americas, where a hundred and thirty million of them reside, their presence in the United States had been altogether disregarded. Jiménez Román was keen on disentangling what she thought of as "three souls, three thoughts, three unreconciled strivings; three warring ideals in one dark body."

"Miriam had an unwavering commitment to bringing Afro-Latinos to the fore," Yamila Sterling-Baker, a close friend of hers, says. After graduating from Binghamton, Jiménez Román returned to New York and was drawn to the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, where she oversaw exhibitions and also coördinated the Scholars-in-Residence Program. Arturo Alfonso Schomburg had moved to New York from Puerto Rico six decades prior to Jiménez Román. Lured by José Martí's commitment to color-blind nationalism, he surrounded himself with Cuban and Puerto Rican activists calling for Cuba's independence from Spain. Schomburg later turned his focus to Pan-Africanism and amassed a collection of historical documents and books detailing the prowess of Black writers, composers, and painters all around the world. In a famed address from 1913, he denounced a notable omission in the telling of history. "Whenever the Negro is mentioned in the text-books, it dwindles down to a footnote," he said. "Where is our historian to give us our side view?" During her time at the Schomburg Center, Jiménez Román taught her first course on the African presence in the Americas and also met her longtime partner, Juan Flores. A faculty member at Hunter College, Flores was looking into the African roots of Puerto Rican identity, and he, too, believed in the need to erase the divide between Black and Latino studies. Together, Flores and Jiménez Román kept coming back to the same question: What about the people who identify as both?

At the time, Blackness and Latinidad were perceived to be mutually exclusive. There was virtually no awareness that the arrival of Afro-Latinos in the United States had predated both the first English settlements and the nation's founding. Nor that the community numbered in the millions. "Do Black Latinos really exist?" scholars would ask Jiménez Román and Flores. In the nineties, the pair's insistence on establishing a field of Afro-Latino studies in its own right was met with disbelief. "It was almost as if you had to prove the existence of people," Flores recalled, in a 2011 panel discussion. The problem wasn't just that Latinidad was seen as non-Black-many contended that it was also anti-Black. As the number of Latinos in the country grew, predictions of a clash among minorities became increasingly common. Ahead of the 2000 census, Latinos were cast as "the nation's largest minority"; analysts described them as on a "collision course" with African-Americans, and started theorizing about their "unspoken conflict." Jiménez Román wasn't oblivious to the existing racial tensions, but she was a firm believer in alliances, and saw Afro-Latinos as the bridge between the two communities. "Miriam was always ahead of her time," Nancy Raquel Mirabal, an associate professor of American studies at the University of Maryland, says. "She was what we now call a public intellectual."

When the idea of a book on Afro-Latinidad arose, Jiménez Román told Flores she wanted it to be the volume that had been missing when her younger self was looking for answers. She brought together sixty-seven contributors to grapple with all of her questions, those of their own, and many more. Some writers focussed on history, others on music, identity, class, and theology. Jiménez Román hosted hours-long deliberations with contributors and scholars in her home in Brooklyn, where she housed a vast library and enjoyed treating guests to Creole specialties. " The Afro-Latin@ Reader," which Jiménez Román edited alongside Flores, was published in 2010, by Duke University Press. The nearly six-hundred-page book tells the story of a triple consciousness-a term inspired by W. E. B. Du Bois's " The Souls of Black Folk." The Reader traces the origins of a community that set foot in what is now the United States more than five hundred years ago, with the arrival of Spanish explorers. "As buffers and cannon fodder, as reconnaissance scouts and militiamen, as intermediaries, and of course as attendants and slaves, Afro-Latin@s have been implicated in the forging of the North American story," Jiménez Román and Flores write, in the Reader's introduction. The authors follow the Afro-Latino footprint with the passing of time, detailing the group's role in everything from the Mexican-American War to the booming cigar-making industry of Southern Florida at the turn of the nineteenth century. "We have always been here," Jiménez Román observed years later. "Invisible, but always there."

Beyond its remarkable breadth, the beauty of the Reader lies in its suffusion of personal and historical accounts. The book shines a light on pivotal moments of communion, such as Schomburg's role in the Harlem Renaissance; the creation, in the nineteen-sixties, of the Young Lords Party, which belonged to the Black Panthers' Rainbow Coalition; and the birth of hip-hop as a genre jointly derived from the Jamaican, Puerto Rican, and African-American cultures. The Reader also recounts the contradictions inherent in the process of "negotiating among invisibilities," as the author Vielka Cecilia Hoy describes it. For some, that process entailed keeping the Black community at a distance. Evelio Grillo, the son of Afro-Cuban cigar makers, writes about overcoming his own family's fear of and prejudice against Black people. Unlike his parents, many members of his generation embraced the African-American community and its culture. "Our choices became clear: to swim in black American society or drown in the Latin ghettoes of New York City, never to be an integral part of American life," he recalls. From Jim Crow to the present, the plight of Afro-Latinos converged with that of Blacks. As Jiménez Román and Flores argue in their book, "Identifying with and becoming part of the African American community turned out to be their most ready access to society in the United States, as well as their most evident recourse in the face of racist rejection by other Latin@s."

For years in Latin America, the myth of "racial democracy" inhibited necessary debates around race. The notion that the peoples of the Americas were mixed concealed a preference for whiteness and a worship of European ancestry. Jiménez Román saw those biases play out in the United States as well. "Latin@s have been allocated an ambiguous racial middle ground that invisibilizes those too dark to conform to the mestizo ideal, while simultaneously distancing them from other communities of color, particularly African Americans," she writes, in an essay published in 2010. It was her lifework not to let Afro-Latinos fall between the cracks in race studies-a task that required her to look within and outside the confines of the academy. In the years leading up to the publication of the Reader, Jiménez Román and Flores founded the Afrolatin@ Forum, a space for the community to come together and straddle the worlds of public policy and academia. Over the years, many generations of scholars, activists, and artists contributed to the Forum, which lives on as a testament to the intellectual vibrancy of Afro-Latinidad.

With the 2010 census approaching, Jiménez Román worried that Afro-Latinos would once again be undercounted, and she launched a campaign calling on the community to "Check Both" on the census form. One of the videos released by the Forum features a group of Black teen-agers casually playing on the street. A boy peeks out from his window, and is called on by the other kids to join them. Soon enough, his grandmother takes his place at the window and orders him back into the house. "You know I don't like it when you play with Black kids," the grandmother, performed by Jiménez Román, says. "But, Grandma, those Blacks are Latino," the grandchild responds indignantly. Then, a single question surfaces on the screen: "Are you Afro-Latino?" Images of people identifying as both Latino and Black on the census follow. "We are Latinos and we are Black," Jiménez Román states, looking straight into the camera with a strong nod. "Miriam's generation focussed on visibility," Zaire Dinzey-Flores, a member of the Forum and a professor of sociology at Rutgers, says. She credits Jiménez Román with having transformed the field of Afro-Latino studies, giving it a place that it didn't previously hold. "Now the question is: How do we move forward?"

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The Scholar Who Chronicled the Afro-Latino Experience

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In the early two-thousands, Miriam Jiménez Román set out to produce the book that she had yearned for in her youth. As a Black Puerto Rican growing up in Harlem, in the nineteen-sixties, she saw a degree of diversity among Black folk unknown to many.

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DC AfroLatino Caucus Founder Manuel Mendez Offers Ideas On How to Learn More About Afro-Latino History

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DC AfroLatino Caucus Founder Manuel Mendez Offers Ideas On How to Learn More About Afro-Latino History

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Manuel Mendez grew up always knowing his Black and Latino identity, but even in Washington, DC, a city affectionately called "The Chocolate City" for its historically large Black population, he spent a lot of time educating others.

Sometimes he'd have classmates over to his house to try a plate of rice, beans, and chicken, which could then lead to a discussion about his Spanish surname, his Dominican heritage and a gentle reminder that ships carrying people stolen from Africa docked all across the Americas. Today Mendez is the founding director of the area's DC Afro-Latino Caucus, and he uses the public library in the city's Mt. Pleasant neighborhood, a community that once hosted many of the capital's Latin American and Caribbean embassies, as a meeting space for special educational events.

ProgressReport.co kicked off Black History Month by asking Mendez to share how he made Afro-Latino history lessons into a career, and how others like him can do that in their own communities.
Q: You were growing up in the District of Columbia during the late 1990s and early 2000s, at a time when the city was just beginning to invest more money into public works like new Metro lines. That, of course, prompted a lot of affluent suburbanites, often White ones, to move back into what was then referred to as the "inner-city." Today, there are about as many White people in what was for decades a predominately Black city. How did that transition shape your worldview?
A: I went to Bell Multicultural High School located between DC's Mt. Pleasant and Columbia Heights neighborhoods, and I was in a group called the Youth Action Research Group. Affordable housing was becoming a big problem in the area, and it was one of the issues affecting young people. When I graduated, I went to Antioch College in Yellow Springs, Ohio-a big activist hippie school-and I majored in Africana Studies with a focus on communications and documentary filmmaking. When I came back home, I wanted to give back, so I became a youth coordinator at the community childcare and youth outreach program Centro Nía working mainly with Latino youth, many of whom were dealing with their Afro-Latinidad.

Then Arturo Griffiths, an Afro-Latino of Panamanian descent who is a longtime advocate of DC statehood and the executive director of Trabajadores Unidos of DC,encouraged me to go to the DC Afro Latino Taskforce meeting at the mayor's Office on Latino Affairs. They had a task force where a lot of Afro-Latino activists had been trying to tell our stories. I was the youngest there, so at first, I was just learning the objective of the taskforce and how they went about finding ways to bring visibility to our issues in the Black Latino community. This is where I also learned from many Afro-Latino activists within the local community such as Dominican-born activist Casilda Luna, a major proponent of affordable housing and the founder of the yearly Hispanic Festival now known as FiestaDC; Vicky Leyva, Founder of the Asociación Cultural Afro-Latina y La Diaspora and President of Asociación Nuestro Peru USA; and Roland Roebuck an Afro-Puerto Rican activist.

Folks don't know the story of Afro-Latinos in DC. The story has been intentionally put to the side, so we decided that's what we were going to focus on. Here in DC, there's a rich history of Afro-Latinidad setting the foundation for the Latino community that had their greatest impact in the 1970s. Most of the oldest Latino-serving organizations that are here today thanks to the contributions to these Afro-Latinos who came to DC, and became part of the change to have their voices heard. For example, Luna founded the Vida Senior Center, and Griffiths founded the Afro-Latino Institute, and the Latin American Youth Center

Out of that task force came the DC Afro Latino Caucus in 2016, which was founded to improve the quality of life of Afro-Latinos in DC and create visibility of the contributions of Afro-Latinos in DC; and bringing it to the collective community. I became the one of the founding members and initially the Vice President of the organization in conjunction with the Mayor's Office of Latino Affairs (MOLA) and some of the activists I've already mentioned. Today as president, I coordinate educational programs showcasing the wealth of local Afro-Latino history and lobby with local government for the Afro-Latino community. Currently, we are working to have Casilda Luna honored with a street named for her. Also, this month I am collaborating with MOLA to highlight every day Afro-Latino community heroes. We also created a podcast, CarasLindas podcast, where we are able to have firsthand narratives from scholars, artists, and Afro-Latinos with a variety of backgrounds. Catch our broadcast on Full Service Radio at the Line Hotel in Adams Morgan, every Friday at 4 p.m.

One of the first books I found was a memoir called Black Cuban, Black American in which Evilio Grillo, a Cuban who grew up in Ybor City outside Tampa, Florida talks about how White folks during that time treated him like an African American. Because of this, he takes on Black American culture. Then he goes on to talk about being Afro-Latino in Washington, DC.
Q: Interesting. So he's born in Ybor City, a community of Cubans who arrived not after the island's 1959 Revolution but in the early 1900s as tobacco rollers, then he moves to Washington and begins a life of civil rights advocacy. Tell us more about that.
A: In 1936, he graduates from DC's historically black high school Dunbar, which is known for graduating people who would become famous judges, professors, economists, and philosophers-folks who really contributed to Black culture.
Q: Evilio Grillo's story seems like an excellent way of showing that Afro-Latinos have been in a community like Washington, DC, for many, many years, even though we see larger numbers of them moving into the area about the middle to the latter part of the last century. You went to high school in the same community about a generation or two later, right at the turn of the new millennium. What was it like by the time you were growing up?
A: Well, first we always have to explain the Spanish-our names, then speaking the language- and then we have to explain to our African American cousins that the boat didn't only land in Virginia and the Carolina Coast. But a lot of African Americans embraced my family and me. It has a lot to do with how open you are to teaching folks about your history-the similarities and the differences. I'd go and learn about their go-go music while telling them about Celia Cruz, Ismael Rivera, and bachata.
Q: So by the time you arrive in high school in the 1990s, gentrification is starting and you and your classmates become more civically engaged, fighting for housing rights for people of color. Today you're helping that community and the general public learn about Afro-Latinos and how to support them. Let's say a delegation of high school or college students is coming to Washington, DC, and wants to know more about Afro-Latino history. In addition to visiting the National Museum of African American History and Culture, what are some ways students can engage organizations like yours to learn more?
A: They should go to U Street, which was once the Black Broadway. A lot of African American artists performed there. In fact, jazz legend Duke Ellington had Afro-Latinos in his band. Columbia Road is another place you'd find Afro-Latinos, and not far from there, in Malcom X Park. On city maps, it's listed as Meridian Hill Park, but the locals have always considered it a place of Black culture and activism. There you'll find drum circles on Sundays and Afro-Latinos playing Latin American music. And in September, there are always Afro-Latinos at the DC Latino Festival here in Mt. Pleasant. They can also come pay me a visit at the Mt. Pleasant Library. I sometimes organize tours, as does our partnering organization Hola Cultura, which promotes Latino arts and culture in the District.
Q: UnidosUS has several youth leadership programs, and many of these young advocates have the chance to visit DC for the UnidosUS Changemakers Summit in March. What are some of the key issues they could be working to advance for Afro-Latinos?
A: I think when folks speak about undocumented immigrants, Afro-Latinos, and others from the African diaspora get lost in the discussion. Folks in Congress really need to pay attention to them. And long-term, we need more representation in all levels of organizations, and we need more folks to run as political candidates. because not enough effort is being placed on our issues. For example, we have enormous public health and housing issues. No one pays it no mind, no one makes it a topic. I mean, I make sure to do it here, but I can only control the spaces that I'm in.
Q: So in terms of starting from the space you're in, what can other Afro-Latino students do in the communities where they're located in this country to create better awareness and advocacy? What do you do, for example, if you're an Afro-Latino in a place like Arkansas, where there are probably a lot less Afro-Latinos than in a place like Washington, DC?
A: Well, find out why you're in Arkansas. One of the first things I have to do is find out why, for example, some Latin Americans chose to come to Washington, DC. You know, a lot of embassies opened mid-way through the last century so a lot of diplomats brought their nannies and their servants, who eventually brought their families, and people stayed. That's one of the ways I got to be here. So we need to start looking at our neighbors and being like "you're important, let me interview you, let me see why you're here." Go out and collect those stories and experiences, talk to the elders.

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DC AfroLatino Caucus Founder Manuel Mendez Offers Ideas On How to Learn More About Afro-Latino History

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Manuel Mendez grew up always knowing his Black and Latino identity, but even in Washington, DC, a city affectionately called "The Chocolate City" for its historically large Black population, he spent a lot of time educating others.

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A Hidden Identity: 10 famous Afro-Latinos to celebrate during Black History Month

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A Hidden Identity: 10 famous Afro-Latinos to celebrate during Black History Month

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The Afro-Latino (or Black Latino) identity is one that still comes with a stigma.

According to the 2010 Census, only around 3 percent of Hispanics identified as "Black alone". This low percentage speaks to a long history of shame and reluctance in the Latino community to identify with their indigenous African roots; mainly due to the negative associations that surround being black in the U.S.

Despite this, there are many notable Afro-Latinos who are known for their contributions to U.S. sports, music, films, and arts. We picked out 10 of them worth remembering this month:

Celia Cruz

Popularly known as the "Queen of Salsa" or the "Queen of Latin Music," this Afro-Cuban proudly embraced her heritage through her music. Her career as a musician started in Cuba in the 1950s, where she first received the name "La Guarachera de Cuba" because of her popularity in singing guaracheras (a type of music originated from Cuba).

When Cuba began to nationalize the music industry in the 1960s, she moved on to Mexico, and later the United States to continue her music career. She became increasingly popular during this time, releasing countless successful songs. These songs were unique in how they brought many different Afro-Cuban music styles into the mainstream. On top of this, she released songs like "La negra tiene tumbao", which allowed the Black Latina identity to be associated with pride and celebration, rather than shame and ridicule. Throughout her life, Cruz gained international success with her 37 studio albums and still remains a household name even after her death in 2003.

Rosie Perez

Born in Brooklyn, New York, this Afro-Latina proudly embraces her identity as a Black Puerto Rican. She got her first major acting role in Spike Lee's hit movie "Do the Right Thing." From there, she went on to continue her acting career in movies like "White Men Can't Jump" and "Fearless." Her career also included being a choreographer, author, dancer, and talk show host.

Perez has also been involved in the Puerto Rican community in a multitude of ways. She co-directed the documentary "¡Yo soy Boricua, pa'que tú lo sepas!", a film that describes the history of Puerto Ricans. Perez also participated in a Spanish AIDS public service annoucement campaign, which later led to her being appointed to the Presidential Advisory Council on HIV/AIDs (PACHA) by Barack Obama in 2010.

Zoe Saldana

Zoe Saldana at 2016 San Diego Comic Con International. Credit: Gage Skidmore

Saldana is most recognized for her roles in two of the largest grossing movies of all-time, "Avatar" and "Avengers: Endgame." Born to a Dominican father and Puerto Rican mother, Saldana makes no apologies for her identity as an Afro-Latina. She has been very outspoken about her experience as a Black Latina. In multiple interviews, she rejects the notion that Afro-Latinas should be ashamed of their heritage, and instead should be proud of their indigenous African roots.

Miriam Jiménez Román

Miriam Jiménez Román during an appearance on CUNY TV. Courtesy The City University of New York

Román used her experience as a Black Puerto Rican to pave the way for Afro-Latinos everywhere. Her book, " The Afro-Latin@ Reader: History and Culture in the United States," gave credibility and recognition to the Afro-Latino identity and it made great strides to promote understanding about what a Black Latino is. During that time, there weren't many attempts to confront the complexities surrounding Afro-Latinidad, so this book was one-of-a-kind.

She also heads the "Afro-Latin@ Forum", which is another way Jiménez Román strives to bring awareness and pride to Afro-Latinidad.

Elizabeth Acevedo

Proudly identifying as a Afro-Latina, Acevedo is not ashamed of her Dominican and Puerto Rican background.

Elizabeth Acevedo
Photo by Stephanie Ifendu

She has found major success as a poet and author. This is largely due to how she involves her own experiences as a Black Latina in her work. Acevedo observed the lack of diversity in children's books (especially for people who looked like her) and saw it as an opportunity to share her voice. So far, Acevedo has written three books: "The Poet X, "With the Fire on High" and "Clap When You Land."

"The Poet X" was especially successful. It is a New York Times Bestseller, Carnegie Medal and National Book Award Winner. Acevedo herself has won multiple awards, including the Boston-Globe Hornbook Award Prize for Best Children's Fiction of 2018.

Maritza Correia McClendon

Maritza Correia McClendon
Photo courtesy of University of Georgia

Correia McClendon has the honor of being the first Black Puerto Rican to join the U.S. Olympic team.

In her youth, her doctor discovered that she had severe scoliosis, and suggested that she take up swimming as treatment. Despite her condition, Correia McClendon went on to make history by setting American and world swimming records. Throughout her career, she has won countless NCAA championships and even brought home a silver medal for her performance in the 400-meter freestyle at the the Summer Games in Athens, Greece.

A marketing executive, Correia McClendon has made it a life's journey to help African-American children around the country learn to swim.

Esteban Hotesse

A recently discovered fact in 2015 by academic Edward de Jesus, Esteban Hotesse was the only known Dominican to serve as a Tuskegee airman during World War II. Though raised in New York City, he immigrated from the Dominican Republic as a child at the age of four.

According to Tuskegee Airmen Inc., the Tuskegee airmen were those who participated in a program aimed at teaching African Americans how to properly operate aircraft. De Jesus learned that Hotesse stood up, alongside 101 other airmen, against the segregationist orders of U.S. Army officials. Hotesse was promoted to second lieutenant and was on his 68th mission with the all Black squadron when he died in July 1945. He was 26 years old.

In 2018, Hotesse was posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal for his bravery by the first Dominican-American U.S. Congressman, Adriano Espaillat.

Esperanza Spalding

Photo courtesy of Esperanza Spalding

Born to an African-American father and part-Hispanic mother, Spalding is comfortable with her identity as a Afro-Latina. As a child prodigy, she began learning and playing instruments at the young age of five years old. Since then, she has become a proficient player of the guitar, bass, violin, clarinet, oboe, and a few other instruments.

Spalding is best known for her work as a jazz bassist and singer. During her career, she has earned multiple Grammys for her jazz music. She is recognized as the first jazz musician to win a Grammy in the Best New Artist category.

Piri Thomas

Piri Thomas is widely known for his title work "Down These Mean Streets," a memoir that documents his experience being Cuban and Puerto Rican in the neighborhood of Spanish Harlem in New York City. In this piece, he confronts a lot of the issues he faced authentically and in-depth. This provided him with insight on the Black Latinos of his community and the struggles that they dealt with.

Later on his life, Thomas continued to write and engage with the at-risk youth of his community. His legacy also includes playing a large role in the Nuyorican Movement, where he, along with other Puerto Rican artists, poets, and writers, fought to instill pride in the Puerto Ricans of New York City. He was 83 when he died in 2011.

Mariano Rivera

Popularly known as "Mo" or "Sandman" during his baseball career, Mariano Rivera is an Afro-Latino from Panama City, Panama.

Mariano Rivera. Photo courtesy of CCho/Flickr

As a reliever for the New York Yankees, he became famous for his impressive pitching statistics. During his time with the Major League Baseball (MLB), Rivera went down in history as a leader in saves and games finished. He played for a total of 19 seasons, was an All-Star 13 times, and won the World Series five times.

In 2019, Rivera was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame and became the first player in the hall's industry to be elected unanimously.

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Black History Month: 10 Afro-Latinos you should know about

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The Afro-Latino (or Black Latino) identity is one that still comes with a stigma. According to the 2010 Census, only around 3 percent of Hispanics identified as "Black alone". This low percentage speaks to a long history of shame and reluctance in the Latino community to identify with their indigenous African roots; mainly due to the negative associations that surround being black in the U.S.

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For National Hispanic Heritage Month, here are 7 Afro-Latino athletes we love

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For National Hispanic Heritage Month, here are 7 Afro-Latino athletes we love

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National Hispanic Heritage Month, which runs from Sept. 15 through Oct. 15, celebrates the histories, accomplishments and contributions of Hispanics and Latinos. Here are seven athletes who have used their platforms to showcase their pride and uplift their communities:
Carmelo Anthony

NBA superstar and three-time Olympic gold medalist Carmelo Anthony never had the chance to grow up with his Boriqua dad, Carmelo Iriarte, who died when he was 2 years old. But it's no surprise that the Houston Rockets guard, outspoken especially when it comes to social inequity, is the son of a former member of the Young Lords, a Puerto Rican nationalist group that worked alongside the Black Panthers in the 1960s and 1970s.

Anthony, who has a Puerto Rican flag tattoo on his right hand, has exhibited his love for the island by building and restoring basketball courts through the Carmelo Anthony Foundation, founding North American Soccer League expansion franchise Puerto Rico FC and putting together relief efforts after the devastation of Hurricane Maria in 2017.

Victor Cruz

Super Bowl XLVI champion turned ESPN analyst Victor Cruz was born to a Puerto Rican mother and an African-American father. The wide receiver played all six of his years in the NFL with the New York Giants and famously celebrated touchdowns by dancing salsa merengue in the end zone. His grandmother, Lucy Molina, taught the Paterson, New Jersey, native how to dance the Caribbean rhythm.

David Ortiz

The 10-time All-Star and three-time World Series champion David Ortiz played most of his MLB career with the Boston Red Sox before retiring in 2016. Ortiz finished 17th on MLB's all-time home run list, hitting 541 home runs over his 20-season career.

Ortiz's nickname is a nod to his native Dominican Republic. On the island, people refer to each other, even strangers, as "papi." When Ortiz became a part of the Red Sox organization, he couldn't remember anybody's name, not even those of his teammates, so he would call them "papi" just as he would back home.

"It's just a friendly thing, a sign of respect," Ortiz said in an interview with The Boston Globe in 2015. "After a while, they started calling me 'Papi' in return, and then it became 'Big Papi.' It took off."

Ortiz, who became a U.S. citizen in 2008, has never forgotten where he came from. He founded the David Ortiz Children's Fund to help children in both Boston and the Dominican Republic receive lifesaving cardiac treatments.

Massy Arias

Celebrity fitness trainer and CoverGirl ambassador Massy Arias identifies as both a black woman and a Latina. When she moved to the United States from the Dominican Republic at 14, she knew almost no English. The 28-year-old now speaks English fluently. But when she addresses her 2.5 million followers on Instagram, she is always sure to communicate in both English and her native Spanish.

Sophina DeJesus

The UCLA gymnast Sophina DeJesus caught the world's attention, including more than 32 million views on Facebook, with a floor routine against Utah in 2016 . The then-21-year-old rocked royal blue ombre box braids and incorporated the most popular dances at the time - Whip, Nae Nae, Quan and Dab - into her performance. The half African-American, half Puerto Rican scored a 9.925, helping her team secure a win.

Maria Isabel Urrutia

In 2000, Maria Isabel Urrutia became the first Colombian to win a gold medal at the Summer Games in Sydney. And she did it after tearing cartilage in her knee the previous year at the Pan-American Games. After winning the women's 75-kilogram weightlifting event, the Colombian used her gold medal to address the guerrillas who kidnapped approximately 80 people from her home city.

"I'm sending a special message to them ... hoping they take pity on the families of all the people they have in captivity," the weightlifter said from Sydney.

After retiring from competition, Urrutia was elected twice to the Chamber of Representatives of Colombia from 2002 to 2010 before transitioning into coaching.

Idalys Ortiz

Idalys Ortiz, a Cuban judoka, won her most recent Olympic medal, a silver, at the 2016 Rio Games. She won the gold medal in the over 78-kilogram division at the 2012 Olympics and won bronze at the 2008 Games in Beijing when she was 18, making her the youngest Olympic medalist in the heavyweight category.

Greydy Diaz is a Contributing Writer for The Undefeated. She hopes to never have to choose between her two favorite movies -- 'Love and Basketball' and 'He Got Game.' She, too, misses the old Kanye.

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For National Hispanic Heritage Month, here are 7 Afro-Latino athletes we love

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National Hispanic Heritage Month, which runs from Sept. 15 through Oct. 15, celebrates the histories, accomplishments and contributions of Hispanics and Latinos. Here are seven athletes who have used their platforms to showcase their pride and uplift their communities: NBA superstar and three-time Olympic gold medalist Carmelo Anthony never had the chance to grow up with his Boriqua dad, Carmelo Iriarte, who died when he was 2 years old.

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Game Changers: 11 Afro-Latino Athletes Who’ve Ruled The Playing Field

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Game Changers: 11 Afro-Latino Athletes Who’ve Ruled The Playing Field

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World-renowned sportsmen like baseball icon Roberto Clemente and soccer legend Pelé were not only star athletes, they were considered heroes in their homeland and nations around the world. Their pioneering careers left an everlasting impact on future athletes, inspiring the Alex Rodriguezes and Ron Riveras of our time.

Cleveland Indians player "Minnie" Miñoso breaking the color line in sports gave others permission to do the same. With New York Knicks forward Carmelo Anthony at a basketball forefront and viral sensation Sophina DeJesus inspiring a new generation of athletes, sports wunderkinds of color from all walks of life will continue to level the playing field in arenas that span the spectrum.

In honor of #BlackHistoryMonth, we acknowledge these Afro-Latinos - some legendary, others on the come up - who will undoubtedly influence and continue to influence the world of sports.

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Game Changers: 11 Afro-Latino Athletes Who've Ruled The Playing Field

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World-renowned sportsmen like baseball icon Roberto Clemente and soccer legend Pelé were not only star athletes, they were considered heroes in their homeland and nations around the world. Their pioneering careers left an everlasting impact on future athletes, inspiring the Alex Rodriguezes and Ron Riveras of our time.

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During Latinx Heritage Month (September 15 to October 15) we celebrate the heritage, culture, and contributions of Latinx Americans to the United States. September 15 is significant because it is the anniversary of independence for Latin American countries Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua. Mexico, Chile, and Belize also celebrate their independence days in September.

This collection includes lessons, videos, artwork, music and many living testaments from diverse Latinx across the United States. The stories embedded in this collection offer students access and perspectives on topics that directly affect them, their families, friends and experiences as a young person in 2018 America. These resources can be incorporated in the lessons you're already teaching during September and through the rest of the school year.

Please note that the files in this collection cannot be downloaded from WeTeachNYC because they link out to an external site.

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During Latinx Heritage Month (September 15 to October 15) we celebrate the heritage, culture, and contributions of Latinx Americans to the United States. September 15 is significant because it is the anniversary of independence for Latin American countries Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua.

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The Story of Jessica Govea from Bakersfield 

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The Story of Jessica Govea from Bakersfield 

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As a little girl, Jessica Govea had become accustomed to rising early and making her way to the fields with her family. During the cotton season, you could find her family dragging sacks of cotton along the long rows of fields in Kern County, California. Her father had travelled a long way from Mexico. He first worked in the United States as a contracted guest worker through the Bracero Program and then later as a migrant farmworker.

Portrait of Jessica Govea. Courtesy of the Govea family

When her family settled in Bakersfield, California, their home became an important place for organizing. Cesar Chavez, who was at that time a leader in the Community Service Organization (CSO), visited her parents a lot and wanted the Goveas to join one of the most important Latinx civil rights organization of the period. The CSO organized voter drives, sponsored citizenship classes, and lobbied for fair employment. Govea's parents became important organizers in the Bakersfield chapter, and her mother was eventually elected CSO chapter president.

Govea followed her parents' lead, often passing out flyers and urging residents to vote. In high school, she became president of the Junior CSO. As a young organizer, Govea not only worked to make adults aware of their rights. but also worked on behalf of children in her community. After her best friend was struck by a car and died, she organized a petition drive, with other 11- and 12-year-old kids, to build a park in her neighborhood. She knew that children in her community needed a safe place to play. She saw a problem and did something about it. She became politicized during her girlhood and was on the front lines of change.

13-year-old Jessica Govea. Courtesy of the Govea family

By the time she graduated high school, Govea knew without a doubt that social justice was her calling, and at the age of 19 she joined Cesar Chavez and the organization that would eventually become the United Farm Workers (UFW). A few years earlier, frustrated that the CSO did not want to support his vision to organize farmworkers, Chavez left the CSO and set his eyes on building a new labor union. Govea became a full-time organizer in the UFW, rising through the ranks so quickly that she was asked to lead the organizing efforts in Montreal, Canada. This was a daunting task, both because California growers had been able to break many efforts to organize unions and because Govea had to make sure Canadians supported American farmworkers.

This is the type of button supporters of the UFW wore in 1977.

Si Se Puede, Boycott Lettuce and Grapes, 1977. Through consumer boycotts, the UFW was able to place pressure on growers and get them to listen to the demands of farmworkers.

Govea's first job was to make Canadians aware of the UFW's international grape boycott and stop grapes from going into local consumers' shopping carts. Together with organizers across the globe, they convinced growers to listen to the demands of the UFW. More importantly, the UFW brought national attention to the plight of farmworkers. Govea was elected to the board of the union in 1977.

Jessica Govea is in the center, front row (wearing poncho) among supporters of the grape boycott during a demonstration in Toronto, Ontario, December 1968. Courtesy of Walter P. Reuther Library, Wayne State University

When she left the union four years later, Govea continued her activism and eventually found her way to college classrooms teaching a generation of students the lessons she learned in labor organizing. Her own experience taught her that young people could change the world around them. She knew this because she brought the lessons she learned as a young girl on her quest to build a more just world. She once explained, "Being a CSO kid helped me grow up with hope and with a belief in myself and my worth." Organizing and changing the world gave Jessica Govea a sense of purpose and hope.
Mireya Loza is a curator in the Division of Work and Industry and an associate professor at Georgetown University. You can learn more about Jessica Govea in this video, "From Girlhood to Inspiring a Movement | Mireya Loza Talks Jessica Govea," part of the Latinas Talk Latinas video series. A collaboration between our museum and the Smithsonian Latino Center, the series explores the stories of 10 Latinas as told by curators, scientists, and educators across the Smithsonian. Educators and caregivers can introduce Govea's story in their classrooms with the help of this educational resource on the Smithsonian's Learning Lab.

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How one girl helped build a Latinx civil rights movement

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As a little girl, Jessica Govea had become accustomed to rising early and making her way to the fields with her family. During the cotton season, you could find her family dragging sacks of cotton along the long rows of fields in Kern County, California. Her father had travelled a long way from Mexico.

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Explore the history of the area’s Mexican business districts and vibrant residential neighborhoods, as well as the challenges this community has faced, including policing, gentrification, urban redevelopment and disruption from the Santa Monica Freeway, which forced out thousands of families.

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Santa Monica Mosaic: The Pico Neighborhood

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During Latinx Heritage Month (September 15 to October 15) we celebrate the heritage, culture, and contributions of Latinx Americans to the United States. September 15 is significant because it is the anniversary of independence for Latin American countries Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua. Mexico, Chile, and Belize also celebrate their independence days in September.

This collection includes lessons, videos, artwork, music and many living testaments from diverse Latinx across the United States. The stories embedded in this collection offer students access and perspectives on topics that directly affect them, their families, friends and experiences as a young person in 2018 America. These resources can be incorporated in the lessons you're already teaching during September and through the rest of the school year.

Please note that the files in this collection cannot be downloaded from WeTeachNYC because they link out to an external site.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
During Latinx Heritage Month (September 15 to October 15) we celebrate the heritage, culture, and contributions of Latinx Americans to the United States. September 15 is significant because it is the anniversary of independence for Latin American countries Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua.

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More Resources for LatinX Heritage Month

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This library provides educators with instructional and professional development resources for improving teaching and learning.

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Check out Parts 2-7 and other reports

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Virginia Sanchez Korrol

The Historical Narrative establishes the cultural roots of the Puerto Rican people, beginning with the development of Taíno indigenous culture followed by the inflow of enslaved Africans brought by the Spanish.

Part 1: Resources

The Historical Narrative
Introduction:
To Angel Rivero, the young Puerto Rican Captain charged with defending Fort San Cristóbal in San Juan that fateful night of August 13, 1898, the signs of peace were all but secured. Articles in praise of the American flag had appeared in La Prensa, and censorship had generally been relaxed. At one thirty in the morning he received the dreaded news that Spain renounced its sovereignty over Cuba and ceded Puerto Rico to the United States. "Such a sad night!" he writes. "I spend it, all of it, seated upon a cannon; as the sun comes out I affirm my resolution, taken before the war. As soon as the peace is signed, I will leave the Spanish army and return to civilian life so as to share in whatever fortunes befall my country".[1]

For close to 3 million American citizens of Puerto Rican ancestry living in the United States, and the 3.5 million who reside in Puerto Rico, 1898 commemorates the historical episode recorded so eloquently in Rivero's Crónica de la Guerra Hispánoamericana. It marks the centenary of official United States-Puerto Rico sociopolitical and economically motivated connections that began one hundred years before, when the Treaty of Paris ceded the Puerto Rican Archipelago to the United States as indemnity to cover the costs of the Spanish-Cuban-American War. The second largest among the Hispanic/Latino population of the United States, Puerto Ricans have figured in the making of U.S. history since before the nineteenth century, when the colony was still a major fortification of defense for the Spanish New World Empire. Puerto Ricans reside in all fifty of the United States, with significant concentrations in New York, New Jersey, Illinois, Florida, Pennsylvania, California, Connecticut and Massachusetts.

Among the earliest of crossroads in the Americas, Puerto Rico reflects the mestizaje that defines the hemisphere and encompasses historical legacies from indigenous, African, European and Anglo American peoples. American citizens by congressional fiat, Puerto Ricans enjoyed a long, well-documented history, before the passage of the Jones Act in 1917. That past incorporates over three millennia of Indigenous experience. Incorporated as well are the importation of enslaved Africans and the landmarks surrounding their struggles for liberation from the moment they set foot on the island until abolition in 1873. The fusion of these major strands molded a people who have historically struggled for political self-definition, determination, and cultural affirmation, first under Spain and in the twentieth century under the United States. In sum, while Puerto Rico was shaped by its own combination of historical forces, it shares an ineffaceable Spanish American and Anglo American heritage. That duality is aptly conceptualized in the statement coined by sociologist Clara Rodríguez when she wrote, "Since 1898, all Puerto Ricans have been born in the U.S.A."[2]

To interpret a balanced history and understand the unique position of mainland Puerto Ricans without distortion requires educators to take several factors into consideration. First, the complexity of the island's political status cannot be underestimated, for it directly impacts the creation of diasporic communities in the United States. Neither a state nor an independent nation, Puerto Rican affairs are as much a part of U.S. history as they are the history of the Puerto Rican people. Indeed, hegemonic deliberations and decisions about commonwealth, statehood or independence status ultimately rest with the Congress of the United States, albeit promoted by a steadfast patriotism on the part of the people of Puerto Rico. Second, the involvement of Puerto Ricans in the United States predates the nineteenth century and refutes popular notions that place this relationship at the moment of the groups' post World War II arrival on U.S. soil, the first airborne migration of American citizens in the mid-century. Third, Puerto Ricans comprise diverse socio-economic mainland communities, two-thirds of which exist outside of the historically significant New York City. Each has its own unique heritage and experience, yet each is connected to the others primarily through cultural identification. Fourth, the study of U.S. Puerto Ricans increasingly incorporates the transnational nature of the Puerto Rican people. Described as a commuter nation, a people without borders, the experience is rooted in a nation with a shifting configuration of mainland settlements. In the words of sociologist David Hernández, "One must begin to take the position that Puerto Rican identity is not a local or insular matter but a transnational reality."[3]

Their story, then, signals a complex process incorporating elements of both conventional manifestations of the immigrant experience in the United States and that of American ethnic and racial minorities. Their role in shaping continental communities and institutions begins in late eighteenth century, when Puerto Rican merchants traded in cities such as New Orleans, Philadelphia, New York, Bridgeport or Boston. The urban and rural sectors in which they interacted nurtured small exile enclaves by the early nineteenth century. These grew to influence migratory patterns and destinations, socio-cultural traditions, political and economic factors, language, literary expression, attitudes and ideas both on the island of Puerto Rico and in the continental United States. American citizenship made possible unencumbered population movements from the island to the U.S. mainland. The twentieth century communities Puerto Ricans forged throughout the United States bear witness to their place in American history, particularly in the arenas of labor, community building, bilingual and higher education, politics and organization. Their struggles for justice, equality and inclusion have strengthened American democratic principles. Too often, these are dismissed, misunderstood or homogenized into the more generic Latino experience.
Migratory Roots:
Some scholars date the earliest contacts between the United States and Puerto Rico to the exploratory voyages of Juan Ponce de León, who set out in 1513 to realize mythic fables in the sixteenth century spirit of Spanish conquest, exploitation and colonization. The island's first governor laid claim instead to the Florida peninsula. Although this historic moment hardly blossomed into reciprocal interactions between island and mainland, the associations between the thirteen original American colonies and the former Spanish colony indeed predate 1898 by several centuries. The eighteenth century revolutions that sparked American independence in the United States found support among Puerto Rican Creoles, as the island harbored American ships flying the stars and stripes and raised money for the war effort. The emergence of the hemisphere's first African American republic, the climax of the Haitian Revolution (1792-1801) and the transfers of French Louisiana (1803) and Spanish Florida (1819) to American sovereignty launched a flow of emigrants from the United States and Hispaniola. Many of the exiles sought and received refuge in Puerto Rico. As a major presidio in the Crown's fortification system, guardians of the Caribbean gateway to the territorial riches of the Spanish New World empire, Puerto Rican immigration was further augmented by Mexican deserters, fugitive enslaved persons, an imported labor force, expanded military personnel and European and South American immigration. By the last half of the century, Spanish colonial ports were thrown open to foreign trade in which the newly created United States of America would play a dominant role.[4]

It was, however, the emigrations of the nineteenth century that set into motion patterns of population movements within the Americas reflected in the diasporic communities of the present day. The Latin American wars for independence (1810-1824) spurred waves of immigration to the Hispanic Caribbean as loyalists and rebels alike opted to leave war-torn regions of the crumbling empire. Many with expertise in plantation economies and capital to invest relocated to Cuba and Puerto Rico, last bastions of conservative Spanish power. In the Hispanic Antilles, especially Puerto Rico, an increased military presence maintained firm control throughout the period of Latin American conflicts, despite repeated attempts to liberate the islands by Venezuelan and Mexican revolutionaries. Expeditions to free Puerto Rico came also from geographic sites in the United States financed by Cuban and Puerto Rican natives who sanctioned New Orleans, New York City and Philadelphia as conspiratorial bases. As late in the conflicts as the 1820s, groups of Puerto Rican men and women joined Cuban counterparts in unsuccessful attempts to include the Hispanic Caribbean in the Latin American struggles for independence. Their covert actions formed an extensive network, with benefactors in the United States, Venezuela, Colombia and Mexico and were centered in ports of call that included the principal cities of San Juan, Caracas and New Orleans.[5]

As independent nations took form throughout Latin America, Spain tightened political and economic control in Cuba and Puerto Rico. Such suppressive acts provoked further departures to the United States and other regions of the hemisphere, even as Puerto Rico witnessed unprecedented immigration from Spain, the Canary Islands and other Catholic European countries. Due in great measure to Crown concessions and grants like the 1815 Cédula de Gracias, a royal decree that encouraged immigration to Spanish possessions, such relocation continued to parallel political and commercial connections established in earlier decades. More significant, legal and clandestine immigration marked a dramatic decline in Spanish exclusivity. When the Crown decreed permission for foreign trade with Puerto Rico and Cuba in 1824, including the establishment of official consular representation, increased commercial bonds between the United States and the islands was all but assured.

Along with Western European countries, the United States supplied the islands with furniture, machinery, steel and iron parts, jute, hemp, wheat, flour and hog by-products. By the last third of the century, Puerto Rican agricultural production depended heavily on American markets, and almost half of the island's imports consisted of U. S. products vital for human consumption. Based initially on a flourishing ultramarine exchange of Puerto Rican rum, molasses, sugar and tobacco for American foodstuffs, Puerto Rican merchants ultimately accompanied cargo across the ocean. As early as the 1830s, trade networks expanded sufficiently to warrant the establishment of commercial brokerage houses in northeastern Atlantic cities including New York, Hartford and Boston. The Cuban-Puerto Rican Benevolent Merchants' Association dates to that period. These commercial establishments facilitated trade and advanced the well being of its merchant members.

Trade routes and their resultant regional ties continued to link Puerto Rican emigrants to New Orleans as well as key cities in the Northeast. Before and just after the Civil War, New Orleans predominated as the center for commercial and political activities, a place where Antillean annexationists and independence seekers could meet under a variety of guises. Among the earliest emigrants involved in trade and other enterprises in the Northeast during that period was the merchant family of José de Rivera, a wealthy sugar and wine trader who lived in Bridgeport, Connecticut from 1844 to 1855. The New Haven, Connecticut census for 1860 lists the names of ten Puerto Ricans, one of whom, Augustus Rodríguez, fought in the Civil War. Records indicate he became a city firefighter following the War.[6] The Puerto Rican abolitionist, Julio Vizcarrondo (1830-1889), scion of a privileged family, found his way to Boston in the 1850s, not for purposes of trade but for political reasons. In Boston he was free to join anti-slavery movements and publish provocative political tracts read throughout Europe and the United States. Along with his Bostonian wife, he returned to continue his abolitionist mission in Puerto Rico in 1854.[7]

The last half of the century witnessed increased emigration from Puerto Rico, as individuals were ousted from the island or left of their own accord to escape tyranny and exploitation or search for economic opportunity. Like Julio Vizcarrondo, many emigrated as political exiles. Others were artisans in search of opportunity or labor leaders disenchanted with the island's political authoritarianism. Still others comprised contingents of contract and non-contract workers. A few left the island to enroll as students in American universities. Who were the Puerto Rican students and what was their role in the fledgling communities?

Among those who attained university degrees in the nineteenth or early twentieth centuries were well-known figures who changed the course of history through their leadership and actions and lesser-known individuals whose legacies were equally as important. Puerto Ricans earned degrees from a number of colleges and universities, including St. Joseph's Academy in Brooklyn, New York. A handful, among them Rafael Janer, established educational institutions directed towards fulfilling the intellectual aspirations of Caribbean or Latin American students.[8]

José Celso Barbosa (1857-1921) studied in the United States and saw political alternatives for the future of the rigidly stratified colony, particularly in the practice of democratic ideals, race relations and the treatment of American blacks in the North. Celso Barbosa was born into an extended family of free black artisans and rose to graduate first in his medical studies at the University of Michigan in 1882. Returning to Puerto Rico, he founded the Republican Party pledged to promote statehood, prosperity and civil liberties. His daughter, Pilar Barbosa de Rosario (1898-1997), the first woman to teach at the University of Puerto Rico, received master's and doctorate degrees from Clark University. Celso Barbosa's contemporary, Felix Córdova Dávila(1878-1938), provides another example. Córdova Dávila studied at Howard University and later at National University in Washington, D.C., earning a degree in jurisprudence. Córdova Dávila served as the fourth Resident Commissioner for Puerto Rico in the U.S. Congress, from 1917 until 1932.[9]

From the early 1920s on, numerous Puerto Rican students, like the aforementioned Barbosa de Rosario and her contemporary Amelia Agostino del Río (1896-1996), who likewise earned impressive credentials from American educational institutions, opted to study in the United States. The venerable nationalist and independentista leader, Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos, was a product of the University of Vermont and Harvard Law School. He completed his studies in the first decades of the twentieth century. Albizu Campos' contemporary, Luis Muñoz Marín, the statesman whose leadership defined the epoch of Puerto Rican modernization and industrialization, was educated at Georgetown University. Similarly, the leader of the island's Union Republican Party, Celso Barbosa's successor, Rafael Martínez Nadal, graduated from Johns Hopkins University.

Agostino del Río is among the many interesting people excluded from the textbooks. Nonetheless, she personifies the growing numbers of young men and women whose careers directly affected continental communities. She was born in Yauco in 1918, and moved to New York after teaching in island schools. A Spanish teacher, she worked her way through Vassar College. By 1929, she had received a master's degree from Colombia University and an appointment to the faculty of Barnard College. She is credited with writing more than 45 books of essays, plays, poetry, short stories and art history. Along with her husband, Mrs. del Río authored Antología de la Literatura Española, considered a classic in the teaching of Spanish literature.[10]

A survey of Puerto Ricans educated in the United States would undoubtedly reveal that they too comprised an important human resource for developing continental communities. Some, like Luis Muñoz Marín, a young Bohemian poet in Washington, D.C., and later in New York City, participated wholeheartedly in the affairs of U.S. enclaves; others did not. Many lived full lives in the service of advancing diasporic communities, while others chose to make their marks in the island society. Yet others emigrated because of harsh political or economic conditions beyond their control and were forced to divide their lives between island and U.S. communities. Among these were significant numbers of political exiles and workers, whose experience bridged the transfer of power from Spanish to American possession.

An émigré colony of Puerto Rican and Cuban political exiles, believed to date to the first stirrings for liberation in the late 1820s, surfaced again as the focal point for Antillean independence activities in the late 1860s and again in the 1890s. There were many reasons for political unrest in nineteenth century Puerto Rico, not the least of which was the failure of the Spanish Juntas Informativas in 1867. These representative commissions to the Córtes in Madrid assembled to draft provincial ultramarine legislation, Leyes Especiales, for governing Cuba and Puerto Rico. Rejection of the special laws' framework fueled renewal of political activism in New York. A key figure in the liberation movement was Segundo Ruiz Belvis, emissary to the Juntas, but his arrival in New York in 1867 with the patriot, Ramón Emeterio Betances, considered the architect of Puerto Rico's abolitionist and independence movement, signaled a rethinking of political priorities. Determined to achieve Puerto Rican independence through whatever means necessary, Betances and Ruiz Belvis believed that liberation could no longer depend on Spain's good intentions. Two years later Eugenio María de Hostos, leading educator, philosopher and liberal reformer, and Dr. J. J. Henna, as well-known for his involvement in politics as he was for humanitarian deeds, joined the exile group in the New York colonia. The earliest political and socio-cultural organizations stem from these encounters and indicate close connections between Cuba and Puerto Rico. The Puerto Rican arm of the Sociedad Republicana de Cuba y Puerto Rico, headed by Cuban Juan Manuel Macías and Puerto Rican Dr. José Francisco Basora, offers a good example.[11]

Along with New York City, the Floridian cities of Tampa and Key West comprised a pivotal triangle of revolutionary action from 1892 to 1898. Support for Antillean liberation came from several sources, including some five hundred Hispanic-owned cigar factories in New York-bodegas, barbershops, restaurants and boarding houses. Associations sprang up dedicated to supporting the war effort. These provided arms and medical essentials, disseminated propaganda and raised funds. They proliferated in the cities of New York and Brooklyn, not yet incorporated into the larger metropolis. Similar groups were also found in other cities, such as Boston, Philadelphia and Hartford. Tobacco workers, tradesmen, skilled and unskilled laborers constituted the bulk of the membership. This was of particular importance, as cigar makers and others in the tobacco industry were known to be at the vanguard of workers' movements in the Hispanic Antilles. Such experience would aid in the formation of stateside communities.

Key to radicalization and consciousness-raising among the workers was the practice of la lectura (the readings) in the cigar factories. In firsthand accounts, chronicler Bernardo Vega and essayist Jesús Colón convey the significance of the lectura in island society and in the New York communities.[12] The readings stirred a sense of camaraderie among the workers, regardless of national origin, and engendered political reformist ideologies as well as literary erudition. In New York, la lectura flourished in Hispanic-owned factories that maintained the custom of reading aloud to the workers as they engaged in the various tasks of cigar making. Readers came from among the workers themselves; they organized the readings into current events and other non-fiction material, literature or political tracts. Vega recalls:

During the readings at "El Morito" and other factories, silence reigned supreme-it was almost like being in church. Whenever we got excited about a certain passage we showed our appreciation by tapping our tobacco cutters on the tables.... At the end of each session there would be a discussion of what had been read. Conversation went from one table to another without our interrupting our work. Though nobody was formally leading the discussion, everyone took turns speaking.[13]

For Puerto Ricans and Cubans alike, New York continued to be a choice site for expatriation. The diverse community in exile found in that city included banished Latin Americans as well as individuals from the Hispanic Caribbean, with whom Puerto Ricans could form alliances. Associations connected with Antillean independence reflected diversity, cutting a wide swath across class and racial lines. They recruited recent arrivals into their midst, among them former landowners, women, seasoned political activists, skilled and unskilled laborers and professionals. A notable example is the poet, Lola Rodríguez de Tió, staunch supporter of Puerto Rican independence, who lived much of her life in exile because of her liberal political convictions. A New York resident at the height of the conflict, she enhanced the cultural dimensions of exile community groups with piano recitals, poetry readings and fiery discourses for political change.

The emigration to New York in 1891 of the young Puerto Rican, Arturo Alfonso Schomburg, coincided with such political activities. The future archivist of the African diaspora devoted his life to fighting injustice against Africans and their American descendants. Schomburg proved instrumental in the development of the barrio Latino in his early years by founding associations dedicated to Antillean liberation. Although faced with racial discrimination from the wider, non-Hispanic society and institutionalized residential segregation, black Puerto Ricans, like Schomburg, interacted in the fraternal life of the Puerto Rican community. Along with Rosendo Rodríguez, he headed Las Dos Antillas, a racially integrated organization, and participated in the activities of numerous others. Among others, these groups formed bulwarks of the revolutionary movement.

In 1895 conflicts between Spain and Cuba erupted into open warfare. In New York, the composition of the Puerto Rican branch of the Cuban Revolutionary Party ranged from avowed independence supporters to annexationists, testimony to the growing diversity of the colonia. Typesetter and essayist Sotero Figueroa, journalist Antoñio Vélez Alvarado, and the poet who would give his life for the cause, Francisco Gonzalo (Pachín) Marín, joined forces with annexationists Dr. José Julio Henna, Roberto H. Todd and Manuel Besosa, who favored tighter U.S. political connections. Finally, community presses were particularly instrumental in disseminating revolutionary ideology. The first issue of Patria surfaced in March 1892. Edited by Figueroa, Patria, the newspaper of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, followed in the traditions of earlier newspapers published in the U.S., La Revoluciòn (1870s), La Voz de Puerto Rico (1874), and El Porvenir (1888).[14]

Clearly, the historical antecedents of community development are laid with the alliances and activities of U.S.-based revolutionary enclaves from 1860 to 1898. Exile colonia aspirations firmly grounded in homeland concerns articulated an independent Antillean future for which U.S. settlements were merely stepping-stones. However, the culmination of Spanish colonialism in 1898 arrested many individual and communitarian agendas. New coalitions sprang forth prepared to broker the plight of continental communities, particularly in New York, which would garner the bulk of the migratory flow until the 1960s. These groups would increasingly turn towards appeasing the circumstances of Puerto Ricans in the United States. Pioneer twentieth century hometown and social clubs, mutual aid societies and political, professional and social-cultural groups bridged the gap between associations that hinged on Antillean independence and those that followed in the wake of the new political order: the colonization of Puerto Rico under the United States. Emergent and experienced leadership forged from past organizational encounters stimulated a nascent communal structure poised to cushion and mold the migration experience, ameliorating its inherent ruptures, relocation and renewals. Inasmuch as they continued to articulate Puerto Rican interests on both sides of the ocean, individuals and the organizations they spawned stabilized and advanced important communities within the North American setting.
TEACHER RESOURCES: SUGGESTED READINGS: PRIMARY SOURCES:
The Foraker Act, 1900-1917.

The Jones Act, 1917-1952.

Iglesias, C.A. Memoirs of Bernardo Vega (N.Y.: Monthly Review Press, 1984).

Capetillo, Luisa. A Nation of Women: An Early Feminist Speaks Out. Felix V. Matos Rodriguez, ed. (Houston: Arte Público Press, 2004).

Wagenheim, Kal and Olga Jimenez de Wagenheim, eds. The Puerto Rican: A Documentary History (Princeton, N.J.: Markus Weiner Publishers, 1996).
Secondary Sources:
Scarano, Francisco A. Puerto Rico: Cinco Siglos de Historia (N.Y.: McGraw-Hill, 1993).

Morales Carrion, Arturo. Puerto Rico and the Non-Hispanic Caribbean: A Study in the Decline of Spanish Exclusivism (Rio Piedras, P.R.: University of Puerto Rico Press, 1952).
ON-LINE RESOURCES:
La Escuela Electronica

Center for Puerto Rican Studies, Hunter College, CUNY
http://www.archives.nysed.gov/projects/escuela/index.shtml
Latinas in History
http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/latinashistory/latinashistory.html
Continue to Part 2

Kal Wagenheim and Olga Jiménez de Wagenheim, eds., The Puerto Ricans: A Documentary History (Princeton, New Jersey: Markus Weiner Publishers, 1996), 100.

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History of Puerto Ricans In the US - PART ONE

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Virginia Sanchez Korrol The Historical Narrative establishes the cultural roots of the Puerto Rican people, beginning with the development of Taíno indigenous culture followed by the inflow of enslaved Africans brought by the Spanish.

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Although Puerto Rico had just begun its experiment with self-government granted by the Spanish rulers in 1897, its citizens initially greeted the transfer of ultimate authority from Spain to the United States in 1898 with much enthusiasm because of the promise of the expansion of American democratic values and economic development. However, while the transfer led to dramatic socioeconomic transformation, Puerto Ricans' dreams of political and economic development faded during the first three decades of the twentieth century. The promises of self-government and better conditions for Puerto Rico had to wait almost fifty years.

In the first years of U.S. military occupation, political and economic power centered in San Juan and all former Spanish administrative bodies were dismantled. Most local landowners lost their economic power to North American companies which came to own the principal centers of sugarcane production. Following two years of U.S. military occupation (1898-1900), a civilian government was established in 1900 by the Foraker Law (April 12, 1900) imposing trade tariffs, denying American citizenship, and creating a local government led by a governor, an Executive Council, and a judiciary appointed by the president of the United States. Nevertheless, local politics flourished as Puerto Ricans were given the right to elect the lower chamber of the legislature. In that forum, the local elite continued their demands for a more open and democratic political arrangement between Puerto Rico and the United States. Thus began Puerto Rico's political struggle for a definition of its status, a struggle that has lasted into the twenty-first century. And thus the national political parties came to divide around three fundamental alternatives: statehood, self-government, and independence.

"The Star Spangled Banner - Puerto Rico's Flag." [Detail] A little journey to Puerto Rico; for intermediate and upper grades. General Collections, Library of Congress.

In 1917, the U.S. Congress passed the Jones Act, which brought Puerto Rico the first significant political changes under U.S. colonial rule. With this law, Congress established a popularly elected legislative branch (a Senate and a House of Representatives) and extended American citizenship to Puerto Rican citizens. At about the same time, the island's economy experienced its first radical change. Although it continued to have an agrarian base centered in sugar production, it changed from a mercantilist system under Spain to a capitalist system under the United States.

Increasing American investments in the sugar and tobacco industries led to unprecedented economic growth but failed to bring social change. Poverty, malnutrition, illiteracy, and disease permeated the population. Such social stresses induced a wave of low-income Puerto Rican workers to migrate to the United States, particularly during the 1930s when unemployment on the island was approximately 65 percent.

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Puerto Rico and the United States | In Search of a National Identity: Nineteeth and Early-Twentieth-Century Puerto Rico | Articles and Essays | Puerto Rico at the Dawn of the Modern Age: Nineteenth- and Early-Twentieth-Century Perspectives | Digital Collections | Library of Congress

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Although Puerto Rico had just begun its experiment with self-government granted by the Spanish rulers in 1897, its citizens initially greeted the transfer of ultimate authority from Spain to the United States in 1898 with much enthusiasm because of the promise of the expansion of American democratic values and economic development.

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Either way, Puerto Ricans lack some of the key rights of mainland Americans. They send delegates to presidential nominating conventions, but they can't cast electoral votes in the general election. They are subject to federal laws, but lack voting representation in Congress: Though the Puerto Rican delegate in the U.S. House of Representatives may serve on committees and introduce bills, they cannot vote. Meanwhile, residents of Puerto Rico do still contribute to Social Security and Medicare. (See vintage pictures of life in Puerto Rico 100 years ago.)

But a contingent of scholars and policymakers believe that Puerto Ricans are not full U.S. citizens due to the 14th Amendment of the United States Constitution, which declares that all people born or naturalized in the U.S., or subject to its jurisdiction, are citizens. Since the territory isn't technically in the U.S., proponents of the constitutional theory believe Puerto Rican-born citizens aren't subject to the clause. Opponents say that while Puerto Rican-born citizens lack citizenship status on a constitutional basis, they received it on a statutory basis from the Nationality Act.

Despite a modern statehood movement-which includes an attempt to gain recognition from Congress, and an upcoming statehood referendum in November-it seems unlikely that Puerto Rico will become a state any time soon. In a 2017 Morning Consult poll, only 54 percent of mainland Americans knew Puerto Ricans are American citizens, and the United States has resisted calls from the United Nations to fully decolonize its territory. Past referenda on the subject of statehood have also been highly contested. he most recent, in 2017, delivered a non-binding result that favored statehood, but turnout was just 23 percent-in a nation that averages about 80 percent turnout-and there were questions about the election's validity.

The idea of statehood remains divisive in a territory that has long bristled at the decisions of the nation that claimed it in 1898. "Puerto Ricans never asked to be colonized, never asked to be denied their Puerto Rican citizenship and never asked to have U.S. citizenship imposed on them," writes legal professor Jacqueline N. Font-Guzmán for the Washington Post. "They are colonial subjects of the United States."

For Puerto Rico to become a state, it will need the support of U.S. citizens on the island and off. Until then, it will continue to be a little understood territory with a contentious history.

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Why Puerto Rico has debated U.S. statehood since its colonization

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This territory in the Caribbean has been fighting for autonomy and full citizenship rights for more than a century.

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Acosta, José Julian

(1825--1891), journalist and a leader of the Puerto Rican abolishement movement, was born in on May 27, 1825 in San Juan. He received his primary and secondary education from Rafael Cordero. In 1867, he was a member of the Puerto Rican commission, which participated in the Overseas Information Committee in Madrid, Spain. The commission advocated for the abolition of slavery and political reforms at the local level. On November, 1870, he became a leading member of the Liberal Reformist Party. He also collaborated to the foundation of " El Progreso" (Progress) newspaper, of which he was editor. In 1873, he became the president of the Liberal Reformist Party. He died on August 26, 1891 in San Juan.

Acosta, Juan F.

(1890--1968), musician, composer, and music teacher, was born on May 27, 1890 in San Sebastián. Acosta wrote over 844 musical pieces, including 127 religious hymns. Among Acosta's may composition are " Bajo La Sombra de un Pino" (Under the Shade of a Pine) , " Asi es la Vida" (That's Life), and " Glorias del Pasado" (Glories of the Past). Acosta died in 1968 and buried in Quebradillas.

Agrelot, Jose Miguel

(1927--2004), radio and television show host, and a notorious comedian, better known as Don Cholito, was born on April 21, 1927 in San Juan. Agrelot started working on radio stations when he was 14. Some of Agrelot's long list of shows include: " El Colegio de la Alegría" (The School of Joy), " El Profesor Colgate", " La Criada Malcriada" (The Nasty Maid), " Desafiando a los Genios" (Challenging the Geniuses), and " El Show del Mediodia" (The Midday Show).

In 2003, his radio show, " Su Alegre Despertar" (Joyful Awakening), broke the world's record for the longest run non stop radio show in history, reaching its 53rd year to run non-stop and making Agrelot the second person from Puerto Rico, after Wilfredo Benitez, to join the Guinness Book of World Records. He died on January 28, 2004.

Albizu Campos, Pedro

(1891--1965), politician, was born on September 12, 1891 in Tenerias Village, Ponce. The son of Alejandro Albizu and Juana Campos. He was the nephew of Juan Morel Campos. Terrorist to his enemies and critics, hero to the most fervent Puerto Rican nationalist. After service in an African-American unit during World War I he developed a lasting enmity for the United States and became the fiery champion of Puerto Rican independence. Educated at Harvard (BS 1916, LL B 1923), he joined the Nationalist Party in 1924 and was the most prominent " independentista" of his time. In 1930, he was elected president of the Nationalist Party of Puerto Rico. Convicted of seeking to overthrow the U.S. government, he was imprisoned (1937-43) before returning to Puerto Rico in 1947. His party made a poor showing in the 1948 election. He masterminded a nationalist attack to the governor's mansion in Puerto Rico and was accused of being behind the October 31, 1950, assassination attempt on President Truman at Blair House in Washington. After he was sentenced to prison for 53 years, Governor Luis Muñoz Marín offered him a conditional pardon in 1953, but withdrew it after the nationalist attack on the U.S. House of Representatives the next year. Campos spent his final years in prison. While in prison, he claimed that he was the subject of human radiation experiments. He suffered a stroke in 1956 and was again pardoned in 1964. Died in Hato Rey, on April 21, 1965.

Alegría, Ricardo E.

(1921--), cultural antropologist and archeologist, was born on April 14, 1921 in San Juan. He was the driving force behind the creation of the influential Institute of Puerto Rican Culture, which he headed from its foundation in 1955 to 1972. In 1993 he was the first Latin-American to win the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization's Picasso Medal, the same year that President Clinton awarded him the Charles Frankel Award of the Humanities.

Alers, Rafael

(1903--1978), musician, notorious orchestra director, and composer, was born on October 16, 1903 in Aguadilla. He received his first musical instructions from Juan F. Acosta. In 1956, Alers became the first Puerto Rican to compose the music score for a Hollywood movie, " Crowded Paradise". His best known work is "Violeta" . Other works include: " Recuerdos," " Serenata Galante," " Estrella de Borinquen," " Rosita," and " Juanita". He died on March 20, 1978 in San Juan.

Alonso y Pacheco, Manuel A.

(1822--1889), writer, poet and journalist, was born on October 22, 1822 in San Juan. He is considered to be the first Puerto Rican writer of notable importance. He received his primary education in Cayey and in the San Idelfonso Seminary in San Juan. In 1842, he moved to Barcelona, Spain where he enrolled in the University of Bercelona to study medicine, specializing in mental disorders. He finished his medical studies in 1845 and practiced medicine in Barcelona. In 1844, he published the " Album Puertorriqueño" (Puerto Rican Album), which was the second anthology of poems published in the island. In 1848, he returned to Puerto Rico and setup his medical practice in Caguas. In 1849, he published " El Gíbaro" (now is spelled " Jibaro"), a book that is part prose and part poetry and centered on the life as a poor Puerto Rican country farmer and Puerto Rican traditions. Alonso died on November 4, 1889 in San Juan.

Baldorioty de Castro, Román

(1823--1889), politician, was born on February 23, 1823 in Guaynabo. He considered to be Puerto Rico's foremost abolitionist and spokeperson for the islands right to self-determination. Baldorioty received his elementary schooling in San Juan. He went to Madrid on a scholarship and completed studies in Physical and Mathematical Sciences. He then went to France and studied in the Central School of Arts and Manufactures in Paris. In 1853 he returned to Puerto Rico and became a teacher in Botany and Maritime Sciences at the School of Commerce, Agriculture, and Maritime Studies in San Juan. From 1860 to 1865 he also was a delegate to the Spanish parliament. He is considered the father of Puerto Rican Autonomy from Spain, although his achievement was superseded by the U.S. annexation. The statesman fought to abolish slavery and establish a constitution guaranteeing the rights of islanders. In 1870 he was elected to be a deputy to the Spanish Cortes, supporting abolitionist and autonomist causes. He founded and edited the magazine " Asuntos de Puerto Rico" and contributed to " Correo de Española." He returned to Puerto Rico in 1873 where he founded the newspaper "El Derecho" in Ponce. In 1878, he started a political weekly again in Ponce, "La Crónica," as a vehicle for his autonomist ideology. In 1887, he founded the Autonomist Party, whose platform advocated home government for Puerto Rico and representation in the Spanish parliament. But that year also saw a crackdown against political dissenters and Baldorioty was accused of publishing seditious propaganda and jailed in El Morro Castle. Despite his rapid release, his imprisonment affected his health and he died soon after on September 20, 1889 in Ponce.

Barbosa, José Celso

(1857--1921), doctor and politician, was born on July 27, 1857 in Bayamón. A gifted mulatto medical doctor, Barbosa is better known as the father of the Statehood for Puerto Rico movement. He formed the pro-statehood Republican Party (July 4, 1899) in the aftermath of the Spanish-American War. He was the first black to attend Puerto Rico's prestigious Jesuit Seminary. In 1893, he founded the first Puerto Rican " Cooperativa," named " El Ahorro Colectivo." In 1899, he founded the Republican Party of Puerto Rico, advocating for statehood for the island. In 1907, he established the newspaper "El Tiempo." He was a member of the Executive Cabinet from 1900 to 1917 and held a seat in the Puerto Rican Senate from 1917 until his death on December, 1921 in San Juan.

Batista, Tomás

(1935--), sculptor, was born in Luquillo. Batista, a notorious sculptor has created several famous Puerto Rican monuments such as: "El Jíbaro Puertorriqueño" Monument in Cayey, Luis A. Ferré Highway, Eugenio María de Hostos in Mayagüez, Nemesio R. Canales in Jayuya, Chuíto el de Cayey in Cayey, Rafael Hernández in Bayamón, among others. In 1991, Luquillo City Hall assigned permanent exhibits for some of Batista works.

Benitez, Maria Bibiana

(Maria Bibiana Benitez Constanza)

(1783--1873), poet, was born on December 10, 1783 in Aguadilla. She is known as the first Puerto Rican woman poet. In 1832, Maria published her first poem, " La Ninfa de Puerto Rico". She also became the first Puerto Rican woman to write a dramatic play, " La Cruz del Morro" (The Cross of El Morro), inspired in the defense of San Juan against the Dutch attack in 1625. Among her best known poems are " Soneto" (1839), " Diálogo Alegórico" (1858) and " A La Vejez." She died on April 18, 1873 in San Juan.

Berrios Martínez, Rubén

(1930--), lawyer, politician and current president of the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP), was born on June 21, 1939 in Aibonito. He was the head of the Puerto Rican Independence Party (1970-93) and a member of the Puerto Rican Senate (1972-1973). In 1971 he was jailed for three months for a sit-in on the island of Culebra protesting the US military presence there.

Betances, Ramón Emeterio

(1827--1898), politician, was born on April 8, 1827 in Cabo Rojo. He received his primary and secondary education in private schools. His mother died when he was young and his father sent him to France. After receiving his medical degree from the University of Paris in 1855, Betances returned to Puerto Rico and founded a hospital and worked to save Puerto Ricans from the ravages of a cholera epidemic. He also founded a clandestine society dedicated to the liberation of the slaves. The Spanish colonial government exiled him for these activities several times. In 1867, he fled to the present-day Dominican Republic where he founded the Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico. The following year he organized an armed expedition that led to the abortive insurrection of September 23, known as the Grito de Lares. When the insurrection failed Betances went back to Paris where he dedicated to work for the independence of Puerto Rico. His works " La Viérge de Borinquen" (1859) and " Les Voyages de Scaldado" (1890), written in French, and " La Botijuela" (1863), in Spanish, symbolically portrayed the political aspirations of Puerto Rico during this period. Although he spent his remaining years away from his homeland, he viewed the abolition of slavery there on March 22, 1873 with great satisfaction. For his contributions to literature, the French government awarded him its Legion of Honor. Died on September 18, 1898 in Nevilly, France and is remains returned to Puerto Rico in 1920 where they were buried in his birthplace.

Birriel, Felipe

(1916--1994), was the tallest man in Puerto Rican history, with an unconfirmed height of 2.413 meters or seven feet eleven inches (7' 11"), was born in Carolina on August 16, 1916. He was known as "El Gigante de Carolina" (The Giant of Carolina). He died from a heart attack on March 15, 1994, at the age of 77, in Carolina.

Blanco, Tomás

(1900--1975), was a writer, historian and essayists, was born on December 9, 1900 in San Juan. Blanco received his primary and secondary education in Catholic schools. He moved to the United States where he enrolled in the Georgetown University to study medicine. He traveled throught Europe and in Spain he started writing literary and music criticism. After his return to the island, he wrote about Puerto Rican subjects. Blanco is best known for writing what is considered to be one of the best histories of the island, "Prontuario Historico de Puerto Rico" (1935). Among other Blanco's recognized works are " El Prejuicio Racial en Puerto Rico" (Racial Prejudice in Puerto Rico), " Los Aguinaldos del Infante" (Christmas Stories for Children), " Cuentos sin Ton ni Son" and " Los Vates." He died on April 12, 1975 in San Juan.

Bracetti, Mariana

(1825--1903), patriot and leader of the Puerto Rico independence movement in the 1860's, was born in Añasco. She is believed to have crafted the first Puerto Rican flag. The flag was considered a symbol of revolution and a call to overthrow the Spanish government on the island and establish a sovereign republic.

On September 23, 1868, the flag was flown on the Lares church during a revolt, later known as the Grito de Lares. The flag was designed by Dr. Ramón Emeterio Betances. Many years later, in 1952, the flag's design was adopted as the official flag of Lares. The flag was divided in the middle by a white cross. The two lower corners were red and the two upper corners were blue. There was a white star in the upper left blue corner. Mariana Bracetti died in Aasco in 1903 and was buried in the Plaza of Aasco. There is a monument honoring her on the spot where she is buried.

Brau, Salvador

(1842--1912), historian, journalist, sociologist, novelist, and essayists, was born on January 11, 1842 in Cabo Rojo. He wrote an earlier history of the island, " Historia de Puerto Rico" (1904). He was named the Official Historian for Puerto Rico from 1903 until his dead. His books are considered an important contribution to the study of Puerto Rican history, including " Puerto Rico and its History" (1894), " The Colonization of Puerto Rico," and " The Foundation of Ponce."

Other works include: " Writings on the Puerto Rican Flora", " Report on the Sugar Cane Disease," " Puerto Rican Flora," " The Puerto Rican Indians," " Fertility of Puerto Rican Women," " Demographic Study," " The Foundation of Aguadilla," and " The Foundation of Bayamon"." He died on November 5, 1912 in San Juan.

Burgos, Julia de

(Julia Constancia Burgos García)

(1914--1953), teacher, journalist and poet, was born on February 17, 1914 in Carolina. One of Puerto Rico's leading 20th-century poets, influenced by Luis Llorens Torres, Clair Lair, Rafael Alberti and Pablo Neruda, she was a prominent member of the literary Vanguard movement in San Juan in the late 1930s. She was also an advocate for the independance of Puerto Rico. She graduated from the University of Puerto Rico with a teaching degree. Her literary work placed her among the greatest poets of Hispanic-America. Her best-known poem is " El Río Grande de Loiza" . Other well-known poems are " Canción Desnuda," " Te Quiero," " A Julia de Burgos," " Yo Misma fui mi Ruta," and " Tres Caminos." She published several books among which are; " Poemas exactos de mi misma," " Poemas en Veinte Zurcos," and " Cancién de la verdad sencilla." Burgos died on July 6, 1953 in New York City, at age 39.

Campeche y Jordan, José

(1752--1809), painter, was born on January 6, 1752 in San Juan. Son of a freed slave and a Canary Islander. This "Sanjuanero" became one of Puerto Rico's most eminent painters. Trained by Luis Paret, a court painter banished from Spain, Campeche produced approximately 400 paintings, thereby earning a reputation as "the most gifted of Latin American Rococo artist." Devoutly religious, he often painted for churches but was also a noted portrait painter of subjects ranging from leading politicians to the local landed gentry. Some of his most famous paintings are: the portraits of Ramón de Castro and Miguel A. de Ustáriz, The Virgin of Belen, The Virgin of the Rosary, Saint John the Baptist, The Sacred Family, The Bishop of San Francisco de la Cuerda, and The Vision of Saint Anthony. Campeche died on November 7, 1809 in San Juan.

Canales, Nemesio

(1878--1923), essayist, poet, journalists, novelist, playwright and politician, was born on December 18, 1878 in Jayuya. He was a member of the Puerto Rican House of Representatives and he wrote a column called "Paliques" for the newspaper of which this article formed part. He published a selection of these articles in a book by the same name. He died on September 14, 1923 in New York.

Capetillo, Luisa

(1879--1922), labor organizer in Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and the U.S., was born on October 28, 1879 in Arecibo. A free thinker, a feminist, an anarchist and a workers' and women's rights activist, in the early 1900's. She believed that good wages were a worker's right and insisted that women should have the same right to vote as men. Although she is best known today for being the first woman to wear pants in public. In 1919, she challenged the mainstream society by wearing pants in public and sent to jail for what was then considered to be a "crime", but, the judge later dropped the charges against her. On April 10, 1922, Capetillo died of tuberculosis in Ro Piedras, Puerto Rico, at the age of 42.

Carreño, Victor A.

(1956--), a NASA Aerospace Engineer and Aerospace Technologist, was born in Guaynabo in 1956. He holds the patent for the Single Frequency Multitransmitter Telemetry System. Dr. Victor A. Carreño received a Bachelor of Science degree in Electrical Engineering from the University of Puerto Rico in 1979. Upon graduation, he applied to and was hired by the NASA Langley Research Center.

Carreño is credited with inventing and developing the Single Frequency Multitransmitter Telemetry System in 1983.

In 1985, Victor obtained his Masters Degree in Electrical Engineering from Old Dominion University. In 1997, he received a Ph.D. in Computer Science from the University of Cambridge in England. His primary research is the verification of safety critical systems.

Clemente, Roberto

(1934--1972), baseball player, was born on August 18, 1934 in Carolina. He was a baseball player with the Pittsburgh Pirates (1955-1972), he compiled a lifetime batting average of .317, hit 240 home runs and was considered baseball's premier defensive outfielder. Clemente won four National League batting titles (1961, 1964, 1965, 1966). He was the league's Most Valuable Player in 1966 and was selected to the All-Star team 12 times. He also won 12 Gold Glove awards as the NL's premier right fielder, and he was frequently cited by experts as having the best outfielder's throwing arm they had ever seen. After he obtained his 3,000th hit in the last game of the 1972 season. On December 31, 1972, Clemente's life was tragically cut short when an airplane loaded with supplies for earthquake victims in Managua, Nicaragua, crashed off the Puerto Rican coast. He was elected to the Hall of Fame in 1973.

Coll y Toste, Cayetano

(1850--1930), historian and writer, was born on November, 30 1850 in Arecibo. Among his many written works are: " El Boletin Historico de Puerto Rico" (Historical Boletin of Puerto Rico), " Cronicas de Arecibo" (Cronicals of Arecibo) and " Legendas y Tradiciones Puertorriqueñas" (Puerto Rican Legends and Traditions). In 1913, Toste was named Official Historian of Puerto Rico. His research into the history of Puerto Rico gave people an insight into the island from the times of the Tainos up until 1927. One of his works "The Indo-Antillano Vocabulary" is valuable in understanding the way of live of the Tainos. His works are required reading in Puerto Rican high schools and Universities. He died on November 19, 1930 in Madrid, Spain.

Colón, Jesús

(1901--1974), writer, was born in Cayey. Jesus Colon is credited as being the intellectual founding father of the "Nuyorican" movement, a group of New York Puerto Rican writers who flowered in the 1960s and '70s, including playwright Miguel Piñero and poets Miguel Algarin and Tato Laviera. He died in 1974 in New York.

Cordero, Angel Tomás, Jr.

(1942--), jockey, was born on November 8, 1942 in Santurce. Cordero is considered one of the most successful jockeys, he won 7,057 races over 22 years before he retired in 1992. Cordero also won six Triple Crown races, including three Kentucky Derbies.

Cordero, Rafael

(1790--1868), educator, was born on October 24, 1790 in San Juan. His great interest and love for reading prepared and helped him to develop the skills and the capabilities to perform as a primary teacher. Since the beginning of XIX century he dedicated himself to the children teaching in his own house, without payment. For 58 years he maintained this educational center, at Luna Street in San Juan. He taught them to read, calligraphy, arithmetic and christian (catholic) instruction. Among the students were: Román Baldorioty de Castro, Alejandro Tapia y Rivera, José Julian Acosta, Francisco del Valle Atiles and others. He died on July 5, 1868 in San Juan.

Corretjer, Juan Antonio

(1908--1985), poet, journalist and politician, was born on March 3, 1908 in Ciales. Corretjer is considered as one of Puerto Rico's greatest poets of the '30s. He received his primary education in Ciales. From early age Corretjer showed interest about the island's political situation. He joined the "Literary Society of José Gautier Benitez," which later renamed to "Nationalist Youth", while he was still in elementary school. When he was in the 8th grade, he organized his first student protest against the American authority in Ciales. As a result, he was expelled from school and he was forced to go to school in Vega Baja. In 1920, when he was only 12 years old, Corretjer wrote his first poem " Canto a Ciales" (My song to Ciales). In 1924, he published his first booklet of poems. In 1927, he worked as a journalist for several newspapers and publications in Puerto Rico, Cuba and the U.S. He travelled to New York, Cuba, Haiti and Dominican Republic to endorse other political groups opposed to U.S. dominion and look for support for Puerto Rico's independance movement. In 1929, he returns to Puerto Rico and soon after, in 1930 he met Pedro Albizu Campos and joins him to work with the Nationalist Party. He was named the Administrative Secretary of the Nationalist Party. Since then, he became a faithfull figther for nationalism. Corretjer was jailed several times because of his political views and activities.

During his reclusion he authored several publications: " Amor de Puerto Rico" and " Cántico de Guerra" (Song of War), both published in 1937.

During his long carrier he published several books of poems: " Agüeybana" (1932), " Versos al Mar de un Hombre de Tierra Adentro" (1933), " El Leñero" (Timberman; 1944), " Imagen de Borinquen: Los Primeros Años" (1950), "Tierra Nativa" (Native Land; 1951), " Alabanza en la Torre de Ciales" (1953), "Yerba Bruja" (Bewitched Grass; 1957) and many more.

In 1978, the Institute of Culture published " Obras Completas", Volume I. He died on January 19, 1985 in San Juan.

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(1825--1891), journalist and a leader of the Puerto Rican abolishement movement, was born in on May 27, 1825 in San Juan. He received his primary and secondary education from Rafael Cordero. In 1867, he was a member of the Puerto Rican commission, which participated in the Overseas Information Committee in Madrid, Spain.

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The International Alliance of Youth Writing Centers

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Iman Abdul, born and raised in Brooklyn, New York, has been dedicating her life to empowering New York City youth from a young age, championing the right of every child to a free, culturally responsive, equitable, and just education. Abdul has conducted research on school segregation, led youth-centered projects around resource allocation, engaged in a city-wide school exchange, co-written a national curriculum on integration and leadership, organized a student-led march at City Hall, and has participated in numerous panel and policy discussions with New York City government officials and the deputy chancellor of education. Abdul has experienced the unfortunate reality of public school segregation herself, noting that her bi-racial identity has led to different interactions with students and school administration and deeply impacted her academic experience. Below is an example of her activism through writing.

Education & the Puerto Rican Civil Rights Movement

Latinos are the largest and most rapidly growing ethnic minority in the country, but, academically, they are lagging pretty far behind their non-Hispanic peers. It is a known fact that there are major issues and challenges that students of color face. They are constantly underestimated and not treated fairly in the public school system. Their schools are not well funded compared to a predominantly white public school. Due to this issue, there are various programs in place to help these underprivileged students within the educational world.

During the Puerto Rican Civil Rights Movement, in 1961, Dr. Antonia Pantoja and a group of Puerto Rican educators and professionals created ASPIRA. ASPIRA is a program that was created to address the exceedingly high dropout rate and low educational attainment of Puerto Rican youth at the time. "Students of color may already believe that the educational system is stacked against them, leading them to a defeatist relationship with the educational process" (Brown-Jeffy, S. & Cooper, J.). They were convinced that the only way to free the Puerto Rican community from poverty and to promote its full development was by focusing on the education of young people, and developing their leadership potential, self esteem and pride in their cultural heritage. This was the best way, they believed, of ensuring that youth would become not only productive members of society, but leaders in the development of their own community. Giving the example of ASPIRA to the students is a strong example of culturally-relevant pedagogy. It can be relevant to the females or feminists in the classroom as the movement was led by a woman. It can also be relevant to students of the LGBTQ+ community as Dr. Pantoja identified as lesbian. It'll also be relevant to Latinx students and/or students of color as the program was created by a minority for minority youth. It can even be relevant to ELL students as Dr. Antonia Pantoja supported bilingual education. There are various connections that students from all minority groups can make to the education movement during the Puerto Rican CRM, specifically the ASPIRA movement in order for students to feel like them and their history is included and important. "Therefore, teachers should be sensitive on how culture, race, and ethnicity influence the academic, social, emotional, and physiological development of students" (Brown-Jeffy, S. & Cooper, J.).

Hip-Hop was included in my lesson plan as well. I incorporated Hip-Hop in the "Do Now," where I allowed students to write a poem or lyrics about a social issue they deal with and allowing them to present it to the class. The example of the "Do Now" given would be a few verses from a hip-hop/rap song that addresses a social issue; possibly a Kendrick Lamar or J. Cole stanza. "I believe that MI theory is useful heuristic or window for understanding why it is important to consider the structure of the learning environment, in addition to the content of the lessons" (Banks, D.). "Hip Hop was produced in a crucible that collided cultural richness with severe economic marginalization" (Banks, D.). Hip-hop/rap is culturally relevant as it was created by people of color, both Black and Puerto Ricans and it's a genre of music where students can expand on their vocabulary and practice their presentation skills. It is also helps promote self-confidence. For their project, the students have the opportunity to express their social issue through any form of art and Hip-Hop/rap is a most definite option.

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Education & the Puerto Rican Civil Rights Movement by Iman Abdul, Age 20, Brooklyn, New York - The International Alliance of Youth Writing Centers

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Iman Abdul, born and raised in Brooklyn, New York, has been dedicating her life to empowering New York City youth from a young age, championing the right of every child to a free, culturally responsive, equitable, and just education.

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Puerto Ricans, African Americans, and the Pursuit of Racial Justice: An Interview with Sonia Lee

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With the recent election of Donald Trump and the very public hate speech and violence against people of color that accompanied his campaign, it seems fitting to revisit some of the best works on black and brown community organizing against white supremacy. This month I had the pleasure of interviewi

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Besides César Chávez, in schools in the U.S., we don't learn much about Latino heroes who championed civil rights in the Americas. Who else advocated for meaningful change for their people, beyond Chavez? Who was the Malcolm X of Puerto Rico? Who was the Muhammad Ali of the Chicano movement?

These figures exist. Their stories are just largely erased from the American history narrative. You have to dig a little deeper to find them.

For Hispanic Heritage Month, we asked Latino writers and thinkers to share the one Latino activist they think more people should know about. We told them their choice could be someone who was born here or someone who lived primarily in a Latin American country but influences Latino communities in the United States today.

Here are 15 icons well worth reading up on.

Julia de Burgos

"One of the early pioneers of New York City's Latinx literary scene, Julia de Burgos was an activist and poet who was devoted to uplifting her community and was guided by an unwavering commitment to social justice. Her experience of migration from Puerto Rico to New York City was central to her work, and her poems often celebrated her Afro-Latinx, feminist identity at a time when literary tradition was dominated by masculine conventions. Her poem 'A Julia de Burgos (To Julia de Burgos)' was written in the 1930s to denounce colonial injustices and oppressive norms but can still be an anthem for any young Latinx student finding their voice." ― Stephanie Jimenez, author of "They Could Have Named Her Anything"

"There are so many incredible island writers whose work is not known in the United States, but de Burgos managed to bridge that divide and was an award-winning poet on the island and in New York City, where she was considered a foremother of the Nuyorican literary movement. In her poetry, she was as fearless and unapologetically authentic as she was in life. She published three collections of poetry (one posthumously) and struggled with depression and alcoholism. Tragically, she died penniless on a street in Spanish Harlem but became an icon in Puerto Rican history. In her poem "Yo Misma Fui Mi Ruta," ("I Was My Own Route"), she beautifully captured the struggles facing a biracial, Puerto Rican, woman poet who was born way before her time: 'At each advancing step on my route forward / my back was ripped by the desperate flapping wings / of the old guard.'" ― Ann Dávila Cardinal , author of young adult novels "Five Midnights" and "Category Five"

Emma Tenayuca

"Emma Tenayuca was born in 1916 in San Antonio, where I live. I never heard her name in school, despite her passionate advocacy on behalf of migrants and the working poor preceding the work of Cesar Chavez and Sylvia Rivera. At age 16, at the height of the Great Depression and at a time when Mexican Americans were afforded few rights and even less dignity, Emma was arrested for joining a picket line of workers striking against Finck Cigar Co. By 21, she was known as the most effective organizer for the National Workers' Alliance. She led a strike of 12,000 pecan shellers, most of them women, that forced a necessary pay rise. It's still considered the first significant victory for Mexican American laborers' fight for equal rights.

The next year, when giving a speech at what would ignite San Antonio's largest riot, Emma was effectively chased out of town under threat of lynching. But she continued her social justice work in Houston and San Francisco, returning to San Antonio in her 60s as an educator for migrant children. She said, 'I never thought in terms of fear. I thought in terms of justice.' These words should inspire all of us in the run-up to this election, when the rights of women and marginalized communities are under direct threat ― and after, because we have a long way to go to achieve Emma's vision for fairness and equality for the poorest of us." ― Katie Gutierrez, a writer and editor

Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales

Dave Buresh via Getty Images

Luisa Moreno

Jessica Govea Thorbourne

"Jessica Govea Thorbourne grew up in central California and was a farmworker child. From age 4 to 15 she performed backbreaking work in cotton fields, prune orchards and grape vineyards. After graduating high school, she joined César Chávez and Dolores Huerta's National Farm Workers Association (later renamed the United Farm Workers/UFW) and became a caseworker helping union families. She was convinced that some farmworkers' illnesses were caused by pesticide poisoning and was the first to force the union to start advocating for farmworkers' pesticide protection, which became a hallmark of its platform. She was such a charismatic organizer that the union sent her to Montreal, Canada, at the age of 21 to direct an international grape boycott (Canada was a top market for California table grapes). Her success at drawing millions of Canadians to the cause gave the UFW the critical leverage it needed to finalize labor contracts with top U.S. grape growers.

After her involvement with the UFW ended, Govea Thorbourne moved to the East Coast and taught organizing skills at Rutgers and Cornell universities. Her dedication to training workers of all kinds (from health care workers in the U.S. to coffee-processing workers in El Salvador) continued right up until she died in 2005 at the age of 58 from a long battle with breast cancer. Her persistent voice and international organizing made her truly special and a role model for other women in union movements." ― Lori A. Flores, associate professor of history at Stony Brook University

Roberto Clemente

"As a Puerto Rican, and because the topic of racism has been so prevalent the last several months, baseball great Roberto Clemente comes to mind for this. He's an idol in his native Puerto Rico and one of the first Latin American baseball stars in the United States. Not only was he mocked by the media for his strong accent in those days, but he was an advocate for equality and one of the most generous human beings. Roberto died in a plane filled with food, medicines and other essentials on his way to Nicaragua to help earthquake victims on New Year's Eve, 1972. I remember when he died. I was 15. The whole island was devastated, as was the baseball world. To me, he was more than a baseball player, he was a champion of Latinos in a world that was still pretty green in regards to equality and inclusion. He was really a true hero and a role model for children all over the world." ― Maritere R. Bellas, author and the host of the Mamás411 podcast

Francisco P. Ramirez

"I am a writer, my words are my activism. Growing up, I didn't read many books or news articles written by Latinos or that centered our stories, our struggle, our frustrations or our triumphs. Then I came across Francisco P. Ramirez, who in 1855 at the age of 17 owned and published his own newspaper, El Clamor Público (The Public Outcry). Imagine, 165 years ago, there was a Latino using his words as his power, to bring attention to issues affecting Mexican Americans in California. He pushed against the status quo and critically examined what freedom meant in America. In July 1855, he wrote an editorial where he questioned liberty in the United States. He called it 'truly curious' that some people had no liberty at all. 'It is denied by the courts,' he wrote. 'But there is the great liberty of any white man to buy a human being in order to arbitrarily hand him or burn him alive,' he strongly stated. He called slavery the 'vilest despotism.'

He knew in 1856 what many of us still don't: 'We have enough votes among ourselves to control the election in this country and we have the power to elect candidates who will work for our interest,' he wrote. He was a writer, publisher, activist. He knew the power of the Latino vote. He knew we could demand a different system, one that recognized our strength and contributions." ― Julissa Arce, writer and immigrant rights advocate

Sylvia Rivera

"Sylvia Rivera is a Puerto Rican and Venezuelan trans woman who has become celebrated for her role in the Stonewall Riots in 1969, which helped launch trans and queer liberation movements for decades to come. She was a sex worker, she was houseless, she was a survivor, she was booed while advocating for incarcerated queers at the Christopher Street Liberation Day Rally in 1973. Her life was not easy. She fought tirelessly for the most marginalized people in the trans and queer community. Alongside her friend and activist, Marsha P Johnson, they founded STAR in order to house trans youth and sex workers. When thinking about Sylvia Rivera, I often think about her quote, 'We always felt that the police were the real enemy.' I think Sylvia's legacy of fighting against police violence is an especially important legacy to follow today. Her life story demands that we confront police violence as a central component of fighting for trans and queer liberation. For me, Sylvia Rivera is a powerful inspiration for the abolitionist imagination." ― Christopher Soto, poet and lecturer at the University of California, Los Angeles

Bianca Jagger

"The image of Bianca Jagger astride a white horse -- razor-sharp cheekbones and off-the-shoulder neckline daring you to question her authority -- inside a packed Studio 54 is seared into the cultural consciousness. Whether she rode the horse into the club or whether she simply mounted it for a photo-op is irrelevant, as are many of the glamorous things for which she is best known. Warhol parties and Rolling Stones affiliations aside, the Nicaraguan Blanca Pérez-Mora Macías has made an even bigger (if less flashy) impact on the world stage as a longtime human rights advocate.

Raised by a struggling single mother under the country's Somoza dictatorship, Jagger parlayed her Paris Institute of Political Studies scholarship and glamorous social capital into a multifaceted career of intersectional activism. She has chased after Honduran death squads, opposed U.S. intervention in Central America, championed women's rights and education, campaigned for more sustainable environmental practices and proposed abolishing death penalties around the world. It hasn't been just issue-of-the-week dilettantism, either, and if it sounds like a lot, well, it is. But 50 years of goodwill later, she has the humanitarian awards (and inimitable style) to prove it." ― Juan A. Ramirez, writer and critic

Maria Irene Fornes

"Pulitzer Prize winner Paula Vogel says, 'In the work of every American playwright at the end of the 20th century, there are only two stages: before she has read Maria Irene Fornes and after.' For me, the stages are before and after I met Fornes. In my first-ever playwriting class at age 20, she told me that I could be a playwright like her, which I had never imagined. I pursued that dream, only to find that theater classes were almost entirely focused on her white male peers (like Tennessee Williams, Edward Albee and Sam Shepard). Despite having won numerous awards for her 40 plays, Fornes was never on the syllabus.

Antonia Navarro Huezo

"Antonia Navarro Hueza at age 19 became the first woman to graduate from a Ph.D. program in Central America and El Salvador in 1886. She came from a family of intellects; as she defended her thesis on the illusions of the harvest moon, she was recognized worldwide for her work. Although she was brilliant, she was restricted from practicing her profession or teaching at any university. She has influenced me by my work teaching financial literacy and my dream to earn my Ph.D.

With the death of Ruth Bader Ginsburg, I am reminded what sacrifices our ancestors have made, especially women like Antonia. We must see positive representation of what leaders look like, sometimes risking their lives to educate and inspire the rest of the world." ― Natalie Torres-Haddad, author and host of the podcast "Financially Savvy in 20 Minutes"

Pedro Albizu Campos

"When I was growing up, there were only two historical figures prominently displayed on the living room wall of my family's home: A framed portrait of Jesus and one of Pedro Albizu Campos. If you're Puerto Rican, you pretty much grew up knowing who Pedro 'El Maestro' Albizu Campos was and why he was so important to the island's history. Not only was Campos the first Puerto Rican in 1913 to attend and eventually graduate from Harvard Law School and a second lieutenant in the Army during World War I, he became the most outspoken leading activist in the Puerto Rican independence movement and the president of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. A powerful orator, he led strikes against monopolies taking over the island and spoke passionately against the United States' colonial control. He was arrested multiple times for his activism, including being tortured with radiation in his last stint in jail. He died on April 21, 1965.

If I had to equate who Pedro Albizu Campos was, he was Puerto Rico's Nelson Mandela and Malcolm X. Most Puerto Rican history is barely taught in schools, with Campos never getting a mention. A good start in learning more about Campos and Puerto Rico is by reading Nelson Denis's book 'War Against All Puerto Ricans' and watching Democracy Now's short video that ran on the 50th anniversary of Campos's death. ― Lilliam Rivera, author of "Never Look Back"

Carlos Russell

Gloria Anzaldúa

″'To survive the Borderlands / you must live sin fronteras / be a crossroads.' The first time I read Gloria Anzaldúa's poem 'To Live in the Borderlands,' I was a 21-year-old man, a new father, holding my baby at home as my partner worked the morning shift. Mixed-race and unsure of so many things I wanted to be or do, I felt thwarted by the rigidity of the world: college bureaucracies and cultural traditions and familial expectations. Gloria Anzaldúa's work, especially Borderlands/La Frontera, offered a way out. Her work pioneered the genre-blending, creative nonfiction that is so popular in texts today; it embraced multilingualism, resisted dualities, called for new men and new women, new genders. The book demanded a new way of thinking about spirituality, about colonialism, about identity and, more importantly, about the intersectionality of it all.

Decades later, as a community college teacher, I continually return to her work with my students, offering selections like 'How to Tame a Wild Tongue' because the writing and self-reflection she inspires in students is so revealing of the necessity of her work at this time: it's a text students can see their complicated lives and experiences in, that honors all the facets." ― Tomas Moniz, teacher and author of "Big Familia: A Novel"

The Mirabal sisters

" The Mirabal sisters ― Minerva, Patria and María Teresa ― are three revolutionary mothers and wives who sought to overthrow the repressive dictatorship of Leonidas Trujillo, one of the most violent dictators in the history of the Dominican Republic. Their fearless underground movement challenged his authority and shed light on human rights violations during his regime. In 1960, they sacrificed their lives in the name of democracy, and through their struggles to regain civil liberties for their community they re-envisioned the role of women in society, education and politics.

Minerva was a brilliant leader who studied the work of Che Guevara and Fidel Castro in the Cuban Revolution. She was the first woman in the Dominican Republic to study law. However, Trujillo refused to confer her degree after she denied his sexual advances. Despite being jailed, having their property seized and being oppressed by patriarchal structures, they continued their fight for social justice. Their brutal murder at the hands of Trujillos' henchmen on Nov. 25, 1960, led to the creation of the International Day for the Elimination of Violence Against Women. The sisters' death paved the way for Trujillo's assassination a few months later.

Their story is a symbol of the power of a woman's voice in democracies across the world. Stories of Latinx revolutionaries are critical now more than ever as we need youth who are willing to challenge laws and policies for the betterment of society and are invested in civic responsibility. Latinx history is transnational and just, as its influence transcends borders it should also transcend American history books." ― Natalie Muñoz, a public speaker and doctoral student in social work at Howard University

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Latinx Heritage Month 2020 Heroes National Hispanic Heritage Month Roberto Clemente Pedro Albizu Campos

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15 Latino Activists You Should Know And Read About

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Besides César Chávez, in schools in the U.S., we don't learn much about Latino heroes who championed civil rights in the Americas. Who else advocated for meaningful change for their people, beyond Chavez? Who was the Malcolm X of Puerto Rico? Who was the Muhammad Ali of the Chicano movement?

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Besides César Chávez, in schools in the U.S., we don't learn much about Latino heroes who championed civil rights in the Americas. Who else advocated for meaningful change for their people, beyond Chavez? Who was the Malcolm X of Puerto Rico? Who was the Muhammad Ali of the Chicano movement?

These figures exist. Their stories are just largely erased from the American history narrative. You have to dig a little deeper to find them.

For Hispanic Heritage Month, we asked Latino writers and thinkers to share the one Latino activist they think more people should know about. We told them their choice could be someone who was born here or someone who lived primarily in a Latin American country but influences Latino communities in the United States today.

Here are 15 icons well worth reading up on.

Julia de Burgos

"One of the early pioneers of New York City's Latinx literary scene, Julia de Burgos was an activist and poet who was devoted to uplifting her community and was guided by an unwavering commitment to social justice. Her experience of migration from Puerto Rico to New York City was central to her work, and her poems often celebrated her Afro-Latinx, feminist identity at a time when literary tradition was dominated by masculine conventions. Her poem 'A Julia de Burgos (To Julia de Burgos)' was written in the 1930s to denounce colonial injustices and oppressive norms but can still be an anthem for any young Latinx student finding their voice." ― Stephanie Jimenez, author of "They Could Have Named Her Anything"

"There are so many incredible island writers whose work is not known in the United States, but de Burgos managed to bridge that divide and was an award-winning poet on the island and in New York City, where she was considered a foremother of the Nuyorican literary movement. In her poetry, she was as fearless and unapologetically authentic as she was in life. She published three collections of poetry (one posthumously) and struggled with depression and alcoholism. Tragically, she died penniless on a street in Spanish Harlem but became an icon in Puerto Rican history. In her poem "Yo Misma Fui Mi Ruta," ("I Was My Own Route"), she beautifully captured the struggles facing a biracial, Puerto Rican, woman poet who was born way before her time: 'At each advancing step on my route forward / my back was ripped by the desperate flapping wings / of the old guard.'" ― Ann Dávila Cardinal , author of young adult novels "Five Midnights" and "Category Five"

Emma Tenayuca

"Emma Tenayuca was born in 1916 in San Antonio, where I live. I never heard her name in school, despite her passionate advocacy on behalf of migrants and the working poor preceding the work of Cesar Chavez and Sylvia Rivera. At age 16, at the height of the Great Depression and at a time when Mexican Americans were afforded few rights and even less dignity, Emma was arrested for joining a picket line of workers striking against Finck Cigar Co. By 21, she was known as the most effective organizer for the National Workers' Alliance. She led a strike of 12,000 pecan shellers, most of them women, that forced a necessary pay rise. It's still considered the first significant victory for Mexican American laborers' fight for equal rights.

The next year, when giving a speech at what would ignite San Antonio's largest riot, Emma was effectively chased out of town under threat of lynching. But she continued her social justice work in Houston and San Francisco, returning to San Antonio in her 60s as an educator for migrant children. She said, 'I never thought in terms of fear. I thought in terms of justice.' These words should inspire all of us in the run-up to this election, when the rights of women and marginalized communities are under direct threat ― and after, because we have a long way to go to achieve Emma's vision for fairness and equality for the poorest of us." ― Katie Gutierrez, a writer and editor

Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales

Dave Buresh via Getty Images

Luisa Moreno

Jessica Govea Thorbourne

"Jessica Govea Thorbourne grew up in central California and was a farmworker child. From age 4 to 15 she performed backbreaking work in cotton fields, prune orchards and grape vineyards. After graduating high school, she joined César Chávez and Dolores Huerta's National Farm Workers Association (later renamed the United Farm Workers/UFW) and became a caseworker helping union families. She was convinced that some farmworkers' illnesses were caused by pesticide poisoning and was the first to force the union to start advocating for farmworkers' pesticide protection, which became a hallmark of its platform. She was such a charismatic organizer that the union sent her to Montreal, Canada, at the age of 21 to direct an international grape boycott (Canada was a top market for California table grapes). Her success at drawing millions of Canadians to the cause gave the UFW the critical leverage it needed to finalize labor contracts with top U.S. grape growers.

After her involvement with the UFW ended, Govea Thorbourne moved to the East Coast and taught organizing skills at Rutgers and Cornell universities. Her dedication to training workers of all kinds (from health care workers in the U.S. to coffee-processing workers in El Salvador) continued right up until she died in 2005 at the age of 58 from a long battle with breast cancer. Her persistent voice and international organizing made her truly special and a role model for other women in union movements." ― Lori A. Flores, associate professor of history at Stony Brook University

Roberto Clemente

"As a Puerto Rican, and because the topic of racism has been so prevalent the last several months, baseball great Roberto Clemente comes to mind for this. He's an idol in his native Puerto Rico and one of the first Latin American baseball stars in the United States. Not only was he mocked by the media for his strong accent in those days, but he was an advocate for equality and one of the most generous human beings. Roberto died in a plane filled with food, medicines and other essentials on his way to Nicaragua to help earthquake victims on New Year's Eve, 1972. I remember when he died. I was 15. The whole island was devastated, as was the baseball world. To me, he was more than a baseball player, he was a champion of Latinos in a world that was still pretty green in regards to equality and inclusion. He was really a true hero and a role model for children all over the world." ― Maritere R. Bellas, author and the host of the Mamás411 podcast

Francisco P. Ramirez

"I am a writer, my words are my activism. Growing up, I didn't read many books or news articles written by Latinos or that centered our stories, our struggle, our frustrations or our triumphs. Then I came across Francisco P. Ramirez, who in 1855 at the age of 17 owned and published his own newspaper, El Clamor Público (The Public Outcry). Imagine, 165 years ago, there was a Latino using his words as his power, to bring attention to issues affecting Mexican Americans in California. He pushed against the status quo and critically examined what freedom meant in America. In July 1855, he wrote an editorial where he questioned liberty in the United States. He called it 'truly curious' that some people had no liberty at all. 'It is denied by the courts,' he wrote. 'But there is the great liberty of any white man to buy a human being in order to arbitrarily hand him or burn him alive,' he strongly stated. He called slavery the 'vilest despotism.'

He knew in 1856 what many of us still don't: 'We have enough votes among ourselves to control the election in this country and we have the power to elect candidates who will work for our interest,' he wrote. He was a writer, publisher, activist. He knew the power of the Latino vote. He knew we could demand a different system, one that recognized our strength and contributions." ― Julissa Arce, writer and immigrant rights advocate

Sylvia Rivera

"Sylvia Rivera is a Puerto Rican and Venezuelan trans woman who has become celebrated for her role in the Stonewall Riots in 1969, which helped launch trans and queer liberation movements for decades to come. She was a sex worker, she was houseless, she was a survivor, she was booed while advocating for incarcerated queers at the Christopher Street Liberation Day Rally in 1973. Her life was not easy. She fought tirelessly for the most marginalized people in the trans and queer community. Alongside her friend and activist, Marsha P Johnson, they founded STAR in order to house trans youth and sex workers. When thinking about Sylvia Rivera, I often think about her quote, 'We always felt that the police were the real enemy.' I think Sylvia's legacy of fighting against police violence is an especially important legacy to follow today. Her life story demands that we confront police violence as a central component of fighting for trans and queer liberation. For me, Sylvia Rivera is a powerful inspiration for the abolitionist imagination." ― Christopher Soto, poet and lecturer at the University of California, Los Angeles

Bianca Jagger

"The image of Bianca Jagger astride a white horse -- razor-sharp cheekbones and off-the-shoulder neckline daring you to question her authority -- inside a packed Studio 54 is seared into the cultural consciousness. Whether she rode the horse into the club or whether she simply mounted it for a photo-op is irrelevant, as are many of the glamorous things for which she is best known. Warhol parties and Rolling Stones affiliations aside, the Nicaraguan Blanca Pérez-Mora Macías has made an even bigger (if less flashy) impact on the world stage as a longtime human rights advocate.

Raised by a struggling single mother under the country's Somoza dictatorship, Jagger parlayed her Paris Institute of Political Studies scholarship and glamorous social capital into a multifaceted career of intersectional activism. She has chased after Honduran death squads, opposed U.S. intervention in Central America, championed women's rights and education, campaigned for more sustainable environmental practices and proposed abolishing death penalties around the world. It hasn't been just issue-of-the-week dilettantism, either, and if it sounds like a lot, well, it is. But 50 years of goodwill later, she has the humanitarian awards (and inimitable style) to prove it." ― Juan A. Ramirez, writer and critic

Maria Irene Fornes

"Pulitzer Prize winner Paula Vogel says, 'In the work of every American playwright at the end of the 20th century, there are only two stages: before she has read Maria Irene Fornes and after.' For me, the stages are before and after I met Fornes. In my first-ever playwriting class at age 20, she told me that I could be a playwright like her, which I had never imagined. I pursued that dream, only to find that theater classes were almost entirely focused on her white male peers (like Tennessee Williams, Edward Albee and Sam Shepard). Despite having won numerous awards for her 40 plays, Fornes was never on the syllabus.

Antonia Navarro Huezo

"Antonia Navarro Hueza at age 19 became the first woman to graduate from a Ph.D. program in Central America and El Salvador in 1886. She came from a family of intellects; as she defended her thesis on the illusions of the harvest moon, she was recognized worldwide for her work. Although she was brilliant, she was restricted from practicing her profession or teaching at any university. She has influenced me by my work teaching financial literacy and my dream to earn my Ph.D.

With the death of Ruth Bader Ginsburg, I am reminded what sacrifices our ancestors have made, especially women like Antonia. We must see positive representation of what leaders look like, sometimes risking their lives to educate and inspire the rest of the world." ― Natalie Torres-Haddad, author and host of the podcast "Financially Savvy in 20 Minutes"

Pedro Albizu Campos

"When I was growing up, there were only two historical figures prominently displayed on the living room wall of my family's home: A framed portrait of Jesus and one of Pedro Albizu Campos. If you're Puerto Rican, you pretty much grew up knowing who Pedro 'El Maestro' Albizu Campos was and why he was so important to the island's history. Not only was Campos the first Puerto Rican in 1913 to attend and eventually graduate from Harvard Law School and a second lieutenant in the Army during World War I, he became the most outspoken leading activist in the Puerto Rican independence movement and the president of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. A powerful orator, he led strikes against monopolies taking over the island and spoke passionately against the United States' colonial control. He was arrested multiple times for his activism, including being tortured with radiation in his last stint in jail. He died on April 21, 1965.

If I had to equate who Pedro Albizu Campos was, he was Puerto Rico's Nelson Mandela and Malcolm X. Most Puerto Rican history is barely taught in schools, with Campos never getting a mention. A good start in learning more about Campos and Puerto Rico is by reading Nelson Denis's book 'War Against All Puerto Ricans' and watching Democracy Now's short video that ran on the 50th anniversary of Campos's death. ― Lilliam Rivera, author of "Never Look Back"

Carlos Russell

Gloria Anzaldúa

″'To survive the Borderlands / you must live sin fronteras / be a crossroads.' The first time I read Gloria Anzaldúa's poem 'To Live in the Borderlands,' I was a 21-year-old man, a new father, holding my baby at home as my partner worked the morning shift. Mixed-race and unsure of so many things I wanted to be or do, I felt thwarted by the rigidity of the world: college bureaucracies and cultural traditions and familial expectations. Gloria Anzaldúa's work, especially Borderlands/La Frontera, offered a way out. Her work pioneered the genre-blending, creative nonfiction that is so popular in texts today; it embraced multilingualism, resisted dualities, called for new men and new women, new genders. The book demanded a new way of thinking about spirituality, about colonialism, about identity and, more importantly, about the intersectionality of it all.

Decades later, as a community college teacher, I continually return to her work with my students, offering selections like 'How to Tame a Wild Tongue' because the writing and self-reflection she inspires in students is so revealing of the necessity of her work at this time: it's a text students can see their complicated lives and experiences in, that honors all the facets." ― Tomas Moniz, teacher and author of "Big Familia: A Novel"

The Mirabal sisters

" The Mirabal sisters ― Minerva, Patria and María Teresa ― are three revolutionary mothers and wives who sought to overthrow the repressive dictatorship of Leonidas Trujillo, one of the most violent dictators in the history of the Dominican Republic. Their fearless underground movement challenged his authority and shed light on human rights violations during his regime. In 1960, they sacrificed their lives in the name of democracy, and through their struggles to regain civil liberties for their community they re-envisioned the role of women in society, education and politics.

Minerva was a brilliant leader who studied the work of Che Guevara and Fidel Castro in the Cuban Revolution. She was the first woman in the Dominican Republic to study law. However, Trujillo refused to confer her degree after she denied his sexual advances. Despite being jailed, having their property seized and being oppressed by patriarchal structures, they continued their fight for social justice. Their brutal murder at the hands of Trujillos' henchmen on Nov. 25, 1960, led to the creation of the International Day for the Elimination of Violence Against Women. The sisters' death paved the way for Trujillo's assassination a few months later.

Their story is a symbol of the power of a woman's voice in democracies across the world. Stories of Latinx revolutionaries are critical now more than ever as we need youth who are willing to challenge laws and policies for the betterment of society and are invested in civic responsibility. Latinx history is transnational and just, as its influence transcends borders it should also transcend American history books." ― Natalie Muñoz, a public speaker and doctoral student in social work at Howard University

Related...

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Latinx Heritage Month 2020 Heroes National Hispanic Heritage Month Roberto Clemente Pedro Albizu Campos

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15 Latino Activists You Should Know And Read About

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Besides César Chávez, in schools in the U.S., we don't learn much about Latino heroes who championed civil rights in the Americas. Who else advocated for meaningful change for their people, beyond Chavez? Who was the Malcolm X of Puerto Rico? Who was the Muhammad Ali of the Chicano movement?

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Art by Alan López for Remezcla

1

Miriam Jiménez Román

Miriam Jiménez Román's influence is expansive, but perhaps nothing is as strongly felt as her book, The Afro-Latin@ Reader: History and Culture in the United States. Jiménez leads the AfroLatin@ Forum, which is dedicated to raising the awareness of Afro Latin@s in the US. She has used her own experiences as a Black Puerto Rican to educate the world on Afro Latinidad and to bridge the gap between the presence of African-Americans and Latinos in the US.

She created spaces and outlets for Black Latinos that previously didn't exist and addressed issues that often go ignored. Along with her co-editor, Juan Flores, Román conducted informative workshops with middle school students and discovered that many had a hard time understanding Afro Latinidad.

That's why she knew crafting a book like The AfroLatin@ Reader was essential and something that should have always existed. "I said I wanted a book that addressed some of the concerns I felt when I was young," Roman told Los AfroLatinos. "This kind of book should have been around when I was a kid because Blackness was equated with being African-American. This limited view left me concerned about my Blackness because I grew up as a Black Puerto Rican, and I'm very conscious how race and ethnicity have both impacted my life."

2

Piri Thomas

Down These Mean Streets, a memoir written by author Piri Thomas, is a noteworthy work on Afro Latinidad in the United States. Discussing the racism, identity issues and poverty he experienced during his lifetime growing in Spanish Harlem in NYC, the Cuban-Puerto Rican poet created a piece of literature that shone a light on his own community.

As a darker-skinned Latino, he faced discrimination, both from his family and society as a whole. His father reportedly preferred his lighter-skinned children, according to The New York Times. During his youth he used and sold drugs and ended up in prison after he hurt a police officer. During his seven years imprisoned, he finished high school and turned to writing. The work he created was so trailblazing that his editor told him that with Down These Mean Streets, Piri created a new genre, one where " everybody speaks like themselves. "

He also became involved in his community and advocated for at-risk youth. In Carmen Dolores Hernández's Puerto Rican Voices in English: Interviews with Writers, Piri said that if people wanted to know what he had done after writing his novel, all they had to do was to "ask the communities, the schools, the universities, and colleges."

Piri is remembered as an influential voices of the Nuyorican Movement, which captured the experiences of Puerto Ricans in New York through the discrimination and marginalization they faced.

3

José Celso Barbosa

Physician, sociologist and politician José Celso Barbosa was one of the first Puerto Ricans and persons of African descent to receive a medical degree in the US. But he also made history in plenty of other ways. He served in the executive cabinet under Puerto Rican Governor Charles H. Allen and joined the first Puerto Rican Senate. Barbosa, who advocated for statehood, also established El Tiempo, the island's first bilingual newspaper.

4

Gwen Ifill

The late television news anchor Gwen Ifill, whose father was of Panamanian and Barbadian descent - left a mark on American media. As one of the first Black women to host a nationwide televised public affairs program in the United States, she paved the way for other journalists of color. Ifill worked for The Washington Post, The New York Times, NBC, and PBS, and became the first Black woman to moderate a vice presidential debate.

After her death in 2016, PBS published a piece titled "'Dear Gwen: Letters from female journalists of color she inspired," which showed how deep her legacy is. For Gwen, championing diversity in journalism was necessary. "Diversity is essential to the success of the news industry, and journalists must include diverse voices in their coverage in order to reach a broader audience. We have stories to tell, but many in our audience have stopped listening because they can tell that we're not talking about them," Ifill said.

In fall 2018, Simmons College is set to rename its new media arts program after the journalist, calling it the Gwen Ifill College of Media, Arts, and Humanities.

5

Sylvia del Villard

Santurce, San Juan native Sylvia del Villard was no stranger to the performing arts. The actress, dancer, and activist faced discrimination as she pursued her studies at Fisk University in Tennessee.

But it's when she moved to New York City where del Villard began to take an interest in her roots, joining a ballet group called the Africa House. She also went on to establish the Afro-Boricua El Coqui Theater, which the Panamerican Association of the New World Festival named " as the most important authority of Black Puerto Rican culture."

In the 1970s, she and Carmen Bélen Richardson also spoke out about the racism faced by black artists in Puerto Rico's media. In 1971, del Villard released a press release "criticizing racist casting practices in television, the limited opportunities for black actors and actresses, and the ongoing use of blackface."

6

Felipe Luciano

Felipe Luciano is the founder of the Young Lords New York Branch - a Puerto Rican activist group started in Chicago and New York City with the same missions as the revolutionary Black Panther Party. The Young Lords was " indisputably the main catalyst for the second [US-based boricua] generation's baptism into radical politics." Luciano focused on the liberation of oppressed communities.

Luciano grew up underprivileged to a single mother and even through the struggles he was determined enough to go to college and pursue an education. Getting involved in student activism on campus is what led to the creation of the Young Lords and to him joining the Original Last Poets, a coalition of African American and Afro-Puerto Rican poets.

7

Julia de Burgos

Poet and journalist Julia Constanza Burgos García hailed from Carolina, Puerto Rico. From Puerto Rico to New York to Cuba, Julia de Burgos' influence is felt in many places. Her poetry addressed themes of feminism and social equality. Her dynamic poetry profoundly influenced many Afro-Caribbean writers who came after her. By age 19, she graduated from the University of Puerto Rico with a teaching degree.

Joining the Daughters of Freedom and the women's branch of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, she remained committed to supporting feminism and the Nuyorican Movement.

De Burgos celebrated her blackness in her poem Ay, Ay, Ay de la Grifa Negra, which in part reads, "ay ay ay, que soy grifa y pura negra/grifería en mi pelo, cafrería en mis labios/y mi chata nariz mozambiquea."

As Vanessa Perez Rosario's Becoming Julia de Burgos: The Making of a Puerto Rican Icon notes, critics said she symbolized the "wounded cry of our national conscience reflecting the solitude of our darker political hour."

8

Arturo Schomburg

Arturo Schomburg was a historian who raised a significant amount of awareness for the African Diaspora. Reportedly inspired by a teacher who said that African descendants had no history, he dedicated his life to showing how vital their contributions were.

After moving to New York, he became an important figure in the Harlem Renaissance. He also joined the Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico and co-founded the Negro Society for Historical Research, which united African, Caribbean, and African-American scholars. He later served as the president of the American Negro Academy, which focuses on black history and literature.

In 1925, Schomburg found the Negro Literature, History, and Prints Division of the 135th Street Branch Library. It later became known as the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, a "leading cultural [institution] in the world devoted to the preservations of materials focused on African-American, African Diaspora, and African experiences. Recognized for its prominence in digital humanities, scholarly research, and vast collection spanning over 10 million items, the Schomburg Center won the National Media for Museum and Library Service in 2015."

Afro-Latino

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8 Afro Latinos Who Made Important Contributions to US History

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Here are eight Afro Latinos whose important contributions should not go unrecognized.

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An activist, storyteller, librarian, and folklorist, Pura Belpré revolutionized the library experience for the Spanish-speaking community in New York City. Belpré became the first Puerto Rican librarian at the New York Public Library in 1921, and began instituting bilingual story hours, implementing Spanish-language books and programs based on traditional holidays like Three Kings Day. After not being able to find any books for children in Spanish, she wrote Perez y Martina, a tale of a romance between a cockroach and a mouse. It was published in 1932, becoming the first Spanish language book for children published by a mainstream U.S. press.

Nicknamed "Big Papi", David Ortiz is a Dominican-American former professional baseball player who played 20 seasons in Major League Baseball, primarily with the Boston Red Sox. During his 14 seasons with the Red Sox, he was a ten-time All-Star, a three-time World Series champion, and a seven-time Silver Slugger winner. Ortiz also holds the Red Sox single-season record for home runs with 54, which he set in 2008.

3. Tato Laviera, poet and playwright (1951 - 2013)

Jesús Abraham "Tato" Laviera was nine years old in 1960 when his family moved to New York City from Puerto Rico. Knowing no English, he waded into the totally new environment of the Lower East Side and graduated from high school with honors to earn a place atCornell University. After three weeks, the poet decided to leave college return to City University of New York's Brooklyn College to put his efforts into his community, directing the University of the Streets, an educational project that helped adults obtain a high school diploma and attend college. His life was a beautiful amalgamation of his creativity and his commitment to his people. La Carreta Made a U-Turn, his first poetry book, published in 1979, received much praise. His second book Enclave (1981) made him the first Hispanic author to win the American Book Award of the Before Columbus Foundation, and poems from his third publication, AmeRícan (1986), have been included in more than thirty anthologies. He learned so successfully to move within two cultures and two languages that he became an iconic Nuyorican, and the best-selling Hispanic poet in the United States.

4. Gwen Ifill. journalist and news broadcaster (1955 - 2016)

Born to a Panamanian father, Ifill was one of the first Black women to host a national public affairs program in the United States and the first to moderate a vice presidential debate. While at Simmons College, Ifill interned for the Boston Herald-American. One day at work, she discovered a note on her desk that read, "Nigger go home." After showing the note to editors at the newspaper, who "were horrified", they offered her a job when she graduated from college in 1977.[13][10] Ifill's close friend Michele Norris stated that Ifill said "that was really unfortunate, but I have work to do. And that's how she got the job. She didn't get the job out of sympathy. She got the job because she didn't let that slow her down." She went on to work on The New York Times and The Washington Post before becoming, in 199, the moderator of the PBS program Washington Week in Review, the first black woman to host a national political talk show on television. The Panamanian journalist paved the way for many others and Afro-Latino journalists today have Ifill to thank for the path she blazed.

5. Felipe Luciano, comunity activist and journalist (1947 - )

Two time Emmy award winning journalist and poet Felipe Luciano is considered one of the top Afro-Latinos who have made huge contributions to the history of the United States. As articulate is he was visionary Felipe was a voice for the Latino community in New York and elsewhere at a time when they had no voice. Through student activism on campus, Felipe Luciano co-founded the Young Lords Organization New York Branch - a Puerto Rican activist group that started in Chicago with the same missions as the Black Panther Party. Shortly after starting the New York chapter, Felipe was elected as their chairman. He was also a member of the Original Last Poets.

6. Rosa Clemente, community activist and journalist (b. 1972)

In 2008, Rosa became the first ever Afro-Latina to run for Vice-President of the United States. On for the Green Party, she and her running mate, Cynthia McKinney, were to this date the only women of colour ticket in American presidential history. Rosa first sprung into the public light in 2001 with a groundbreaking article, 'Who is Black?'. Since then, from universities to prisons, Rosa has continued to be a leading scholar, speaker and writer on issues of Afro/Black-Latina/Latino/Latinx identity as well as media justice, United States Political Prisoners and the end of colonial rule in Puerto Rico. As a co-founder and national coordinator of the first ever National Hip-Hop Political Convention in 2003, Rosa helped bring together more than 3000 activists to create and implement a national political agenda for the Hip-Hop generation.

7. Adriano Espaillat Rodriguez, politician (1954-)

Adriano Espaillat is the Dominican-American to be elected to Congress. He is the U.S. Representative for New York's 13th congressional district and the first formerly undocumented immigrant to ever serve in Congress.

8. Lazaro Alonso, actor (b.1974)

Born to Cuban parents Lazaro Alonso is an American film and television actor known for playing Tsu'tey in James Cameron's science fiction film Avatar and Fenix Calderon in the film Fast & Furious. As of 2019 Alonso is part of the main cast of Amazon Prime Video's original series The Boys based on the comic book series of the same name playing the character known as "MM" (Mother's Milk). Alonso was born in Washington, D.C. and is of Afro-Cuban descent. After graduating from Howard University. Laz has publically urged both South and North Americans of African descent to "I am black first...we get caught up in where the ship dropped us off versus where the ship picked us up," he insists. "We all come from the same root. When I get stopped by the police its because I'm black not because I'm Cuban"

9. Orlando Cepeda, baseball player

Orlando Manuel "Peruchin" Cepeda Pennes is a Puerto Rican former Major League Baseball first baseman and a member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame. The 1958 National League Rookie of the Year, Cepeda was voted the National League Most Valuable Player in 1967, the year that his team, the St. Louis Cardinals, won the World Series. Overall, he appeared in three World Series and was the first winner of the American League's Outstanding Designated Hitter Award in 1973.

10. Rosario Dawson, Zoe Saldana and Gina Torres, actors and activists

All of these actors have battled against the double prejudices of being not only Latinas but black Latinas. It's difficult enough to get good roles as women, let alone Latina women and then...another hurdle, as Gina Torres bluntly ..."It took me a while to realise that in the Entertainment world, casters wanted their Latinas to look Italian and not black..."

Gina Torres (1969 )is best known for her starring roles as Zoe Washburne in the Fox science fiction series Firefly (2002-2003) and its feature film sequel Serenity (2005), and as Jessica Pearson in the USA Network legal drama series Suits (2011-2018) and its spin-off series Pearson (2019). She also appeared in The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix Revolutions, The Vampire Diaries (2009) and has appeared in supporting roles in numerous television series, including Hercules: The Legendary Journeys, Xena: Warrior Princess, Cleopatra 2525, Alias, Angel, 24, The Shield, Gossip Girl, Hannibal, Revenge, and Westworld. Torres was born to Cuban parents in Manhatten and grew up briefly in Washington Heights before moving to The Bronx. She attended Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts in New York City. She also trained in opera and jazz and performed in a gospel choir. Though accepted to several colleges, Torres cound't afford to attend and chose to pursue her dream of being a performer.

Rosario Dawson (1979) was born in in New York City. Her mother, Isabel Celeste, of Puerto Rican and Afro-Cuban descent, is a singer, and her stepfather, who raised her, Greg Dawson, of Irish descent, is a construction laborer. She's known for Sin City (2005) and Sin City: A Dame to Kill For (2014), Claire Temple in five of the Marvel/Netflix series (2015-2018). In 2020, she portrayed Ahsoka Tano in the second season of The Mandalorian, and will star in the upcoming Disney+ original series Ahsoka. Dawson has long been a political activist and was arrested in 2004, while protesting against president the Iraq war and was a supporter of both Barack Obama for re-election in 2012,[41] and Bernie Sanders swell as also endorsing her boyfriend Cory Booker first African-American U.S. Senator from New Jersey.in the 2020 presidential.

Zoe Saldana is most recognized for her roles in two of the largest grossing movies of all-time, "Avatar" and "Avengers: Endgame." Born to a Dominican father and Puerto Rican mother, Saldana makes no apologies for her identity as an Afro-Latina. She has been very outspoken about her experience as a Black Latina.

11. ELIZABETH ACEVEDO, poet and writer

ELIZABETH ACEVEDO is the New York Times-bestselling author of The Poet X, which won the National Book Award for Young People's Literature, the Michael L. Printz Award, the Pura Belpré Award, the Carnegie medal, the Boston Globe-Horn Book Award, and the Walter Award. She is also the author of With the Fire on High-which was named a best book of the year by the New York Public Library, NPR, Publishers Weekly, and School Library Journal-and Clap When You Land, which was a Boston Globe-Horn Book Honor book and a Kirkus finalist.

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Things You Should Know About...Inspiring US Afro-Latinxs

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An activist, storyteller, librarian, and folklorist, Pura Belpré revolutionized the library experience for the Spanish-speaking community in New York City. Belpré became the first Puerto Rican librarian at the New York Public Library in 1921, and began instituting bilingual story hours, implementing Spanish-language books and programs based on traditional holidays like Three Kings Day.

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Black people, in all of our various forms, are a mighty and indispensable entity. Our presence, contributions and influence go far beyond U.S. borders.

While Blackness and the Black experience vary according to where you are on the map, our country is one that has conditioned us to view Blackness as synonymous with "African-American," glossing over the cultures, agencies, contributions and overall experiences of people across the African diaspora.

For instance, award-winning actor and playwright Ruben Santiago-Hudson's experience as a Black man - one born to a Puerto Rican father and African-American mother - is dichotomous and diasporic in disposition, and points to the negotiations many like him have often been forced to make with home. According to the New York Times:

"When he came to New York in 1983, he was known as Ruben Santiago. He tried to get a part at the Puerto Rican Traveling Theater and was asked if he spoke Spanish. (He does not.) When he wanted to work at the Negro Ensemble Company, 'they laughed and said, "We don't have Puerto Ricans,"' he said. So he added his mother's name, Hudson, and eventually won a part in A Soldier's Play at the Ensemble Company."

In honor of Latino Heritage Month - often touted as Hispanic Heritage Month - BET shines light on a slew of Afro-Latino figures prolific in their respective fields of literature, performing arts, film, acting, writing, music, sports and aviation.

Jharrel Jerome

Jharrel Jerome is an actor born and raised in the Bronx, New York, to Dominican and African-American parents. His starring role in Barry Jenkins' Oscar-winning blockbuster Moonlight helped catapult his career to the Hollywood stratosphere, before earning the role of Korey Wise of the Exonerated 5 in Ava DuVernay's Netflix miniseries When They See Us. The latter won Jerome, 21, his first Emmy, becoming the first Afro-Latino to win an Emmy Award for acting.

Jean-Michel Basquiat

Jean-Michel Basquiat was a visual artist born and raised in Brooklyn, New York, to Haitian and Puerto Rican parents. The origins of his artistic legacy take root in SAMO, a graffiti duo that went around tagging up the cultural breeding grounds of the Lower East Side in the late '70s, when rap and street art played integral roles in the evolution of hip-hop culture. By the '80s, his works of neo-expressionism (not just mysterious epigraphs) were being exhibited in galleries and museums internationally, with his paintings focusing on the Black experience and social dichotomies like wealth and poverty. He died of a heroin overdose at 27.

Elizabeth Acevedo

Elizabeth Acevedo is an author and poet born and raised in uptown New York City to Dominican immigrants. Before becoming the award-winning author she is today, Acevedo spent the better part of her youth performing at poetry slams and open mics in places like the Nuyorican Poets Cafe and Bowery Poetry Club. Her novel debut, The Poet X, earned her a spot on the New York Times best-seller list and a National Book Award. In June of this year, Acevedo became the first writer of color to win the Carnegie Medal in its 83-year history.

Celia Cruz

Celia Cruz was a singer and recording artist born and raised in Havana, Cuba. When she lost her life to cancer nearly 16 years ago, Cruz left behind an incomparable legacy. Today, the "Queen of Salsa" (a title she earned after rising to fame in Cuba during the 1950s as a singer of guarachas) lives on in radio stations, television programs and internet memes. Not to mention in the hearts of fans from around the globe who find joy, solace and pride in her music. Cruz, known for hits like "La Negra Tiene Tumbao" and "La Vida es un Carnaval," was one of the most iconic artists of the 20th century.

Cardi B

Belcalis "Cardi B" Almánzar is a rapper and recording artist born and raised in the Bronx, New York, to Dominican and Trinidadian parents. A social media mainstay, Cardi appeared as a regular cast member on VH1's Love & Hip Hop: New York. Using reality television as a stepping stool for her music aspirations, she released a pair of mixtapes between 2015 and 2017 titled Gangsta Bitch Music, Vol. 1 and Vol. 2. Her debut album, Invasion of Privacy, won the Grammy Award for Best Rap Album, making Cardi B the only woman to win as a solo artist.

Arturo Alfonso Schomburg

Where the late, great Carter G. Woodson committed the better part of his life to bringing African-American history front and center, Schomburg dedicated his to procuring, documenting and preserving the artistic, scholarly, intellectual, scientific and technological contributions of Black peoples from around the globe. Cited as the "original Father of Black History," Schomburg was born and raised in Santurce, Puerto Rico. A multilingual autodidact and bibliographer, Schomburg was a critical intellectual figure in the Harlem Renaissance. His African findings and collections form the basis of the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture at the New York Public Library branch in Harlem.

Rosie Perez

Actress, choreographer and community activist Rosie Perez was born and raised in Brooklyn, New York, to Puerto Rican parents. Best known for her film breakthrough in Spike Lee's comedy-drama Do the Right Thing, Perez went on to star in the cult classic White Men Can't Jump alongside Wesley Snipes and Woody Harrelson. Among many awards in film, Perez has also been nominated for a slew of Emmys for her choreography work on In Living Color, an iconic '90s sketch comedy that birthed the careers of some the biggest stars we know and love today. A Soul Train darling, Perez appears on endless throwback internet memes that recall her famous swagger down the Soul Train line. Her career came full circle when she reprised her role in Do the Right Thing for the second season of Spike Lee's She's Gotta Have It on Netflix.

Roberto Clemente

Born and raised in Carolina, Puerto Rico, Roberto Clemente has been heralded as the first Latin American superstar in Major League Baseball. Battling racial and language barriers, Clemente found his way on the Pittsburgh Pirates, where he won four National League batting titles, the 1966 NL Most Valuable Player Award and a series of Gold Glove Awards as a right-fielder, before leading his team back to the World Series in 1971. He was inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame, becoming the first Latin American and Caribbean player to be honored. Clemente died on a flight to Puerto Rico carrying aid for Nicaraguans left ravaged by the massive earthquake of December in 1972.

Dascha Polanco

Born in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, Dascha Polanco is an actress raised between Brooklyn, New York, and Miami, Florida. A product of the performing arts, Polanco's professional acting breakthrough is seen in Netflix's award-winning serial drama Orange Is the New Black, where the mother of three starred alongside a wildly diverse cast that featured a large Caribbean Latino demographic. An Instagram darling and overall social media sensation (see #ismellgood, #selflovery, #sheisdash), Polanco on numerous occasions has used social commentary on popular platforms like The Breakfast Club to discuss the politics of Afro-Latinidad.

Esteban Hotesse

Hundreds of Dominican-born soldiers served in the United States armed forces, but one known recently discovered name even served as a key member of the Tuskegee Airmen, the first Black military aviators in the U.S. Army Air Corps. Esteban Hotesse was born and raised in Moca, Dominican Republic, and was among a group of soldiers who fought against racial segregation in the military. His protest and those of his teammates have been cited as models for the civil rights movement in the 1950s. His life was cut short at 26 due to an accident.

Ruben Santiago-Hudson

Ruben Santiago-Hudson is a Tony Award-winning actor, an award-winning playwright and director and the recipient of the NAACP Lifetime Achievement Theatre Award. He was born and raised in Lackawanna, New York, to Puerto Rican and African-American parents. Best known for his role of Captain Roy Montgomery on ABC's Castle, Santiago-Hudson has notable roles in big-screen movies like Coming to America, The Devil's Advocate and Selma. Most recently, he starred in BET's own The Quad as Cecil Diamond.

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Black Latinos Who Made US History, Impacted Popular Culture

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Black people, in all of our various forms, are a mighty and indispensable entity. Our presence, contributions and influence go far beyond U.S. borders. While Blackness and the Black experience vary according to where you are on the map, our country is one that has conditioned us to view Blackness as synonymous with "African-American," glossing over the cultures, agencies, contributions and overall experiences of people across the African diaspora.

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Find the Resources from our session Sept. 16th

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Caribbean Connections: Puerto Rico introduces students to the history, economy, environment, and culture of Puerto Rico through essays, poetry, and fiction.

We are pleased to share the third edition of our book Caribbean Connections: Puerto Rico edited by Marilisa Jiménez García. The first edition was released in 1990 and the second in 2006.

This third edition includes many new pieces and updates to the original text to reflect the political, social, and environmental events of the past decade. Selected pieces are available individually online (they are linked in the table of contents below) and the entire book can be downloaded as a PDF for free.

Donate

Please make a donation so that we can promote and continually update Caribbean Connections: Puerto Rico. In addition to support for the book, we encourage direct support for people in Puerto Rico. Here are recommendations: " Puerto Rico Still Needs Our Help. Here's What You Can Do. "

More Resources

Table of Contents

Part 1: History and Geography

Part 2: Identity

Introduction

Child of the Americas

Borincan Lament/Lamento Borincano

Black and Latino

Arturo Alfonso: Our Forgotten Scholar

Eric Velasquez: An Afro-Puerto Rican Illustrator of Our Times by William Garcia-Medina

Our Mother's Struggle Has Shown Us the Way

Quinceañera

A Warrior Am I

In the Shade of the Níspero Tree

The Puerto Rican Coquí

In My Old San Juan/En la calle San Sebastián

Part 3: Government, Economy, and Civic Life

Part 4: Land and Environment

Part 5: Culture and Traditions

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Caribbean Connections: Puerto Rico - Teaching for Change

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Caribbean Connections: Puerto Rico introduces students to the history, economy, environment, and culture of Puerto Rico through essays, poetry, and fiction. We are pleased to share the third edition of our book Caribbean Connections: Puerto Rico edited by Marilisa Jiménez García. The first edition was released in 1990 and the second in 2006.

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Here are films and organizations for teaching and learning about Puerto Rico. This is a supplemental list for the publication Caribbean Connections: Puerto Rico.

In addition, read Puerto Rican Children's Literature for Social Justice: A Bibliography for Educators by Marilisa Jimenez and follow #prsyllabus.

Organizations

The ASPIRA Association, Inc. is a national nonprofit organization devoted to the education and leadership development of Puerto Rican and other Latino youth. ASPIRA takes its name from the Spanish verb aspirar, "aspire."
Brigada Solidaridad del Oeste
Volunteer in activities organized by the Brigada Solidaria del Oeste or ISER Caribe.
Casa Pueblo
Casa Pueblo is a community self-management project that is committed to the appreciation and protection of natural, cultural and human resources.
Cenadores PR
Cenadores PR is a non-profit organization that harnesses the cross-sector connections, technical expertise and passion for Puerto Rico in the diaspora to strengthen civil society on the island. 'Cenadores' members meet once a month in salon-style 'cenas' to break bread, share ideas, and collaborate on projects.

Center for Puerto Rican Studies/Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños.

Centro is a research institute that is dedicated to the study and interpretation of the Puerto Rican experience in the United States and that produces and disseminates relevant interdisciplinary research. Centro also collects, preserves, and provides access to library resources documenting Puerto Rican history and culture. Centro seeks to link scholarship to social action and policy debates and to contribute to the betterment of the Puerto Rican community and the enrichment of Puerto Rican studies.
Centro de Periodismo Investigativo, Puerto Rico
The Centro de Periodismo Investigativo (CPIPR) is a non-profit organization that promotes investigative journalism in Puerto Rico. Founded in 2007, it was the first non-profit group wholly dedicated to investigative journalism in the Caribbean. The CPIPR has done award-winning investigations, works for freedom of information in Puerto Rico, and trains young journalists. Also, the Center has an active legal program in which it uses the law to fight for documents and information access.
Defend Puerto Rico
Defend PR is a multimedia project designed to document and celebrate Puerto Rican creativity, resilience, and resistance. Recognizing the complex and dynamic landscapes that comprise Puerto Rican daily life and struggle, Defend PR seeks to deepen connections between Puerto Ricans on the island and throughout the diaspora, in the hopes of nurturing greater solidarity, collaboration, and kinship.

An electronic monthly cultural magazine "dedicated to our descendants, the children of Puerto Ricans-where ever they might be-so that they can remember our culture, learn about their roots and history, and be proud to call themselves Boricuas and Puertorriqueños."
Latino Justice: Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund (PRLDEF)
Latino Justice: PRLDEF is a national civil rights organization that acts on behalf of domestic and international civil and human rights. It supports Puerto Rican students' legal education and promotes the development of community-based organizations.
Museo del Barrio
Found in 1960, El Museo del Barrio is dedicated to collecting, preserving, exhibiting and interpreting the artistic heritage of Latinos and Latin Americans in the U.S. El Museo hosts a collection of over 8,000 objects, varied contemporary and historical exhibitions, public programs, publications and educational activities and events.
Music of Puerto Rico Foundation
The foundation publishes a Website and mounts other programs to enhance social and cultural relations with the people of Puerto Rico through an appreciation of the island's music. The foundation was also established to encourage Puerto Rican participation in the arts by instilling a sense of pride in Puerto Rican music.
Puerto Rico Community Foundation.
A longstanding Puerto Rico based organization that works closely with nonprofits throughout the island.
Puerto Rico on the Map Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture - New York Public Library
#PRontheMap is a grassroots media delegation devoted to reporting on, reimagining, and reviving Puerto Rico.

The Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, founded by Arturo Alfonso Schomburg, is a national research library devoted to collecting, preserving and providing access to resources documenting the experiences of peoples of African descent throughout the world.

Documentary Films

The Connecticut Experience: Puerto Rican Passages. Hartford, CT. 1995. Connecticut Public Television. Frank Borres, producer/director. Connecticut Humanities Council, coproduction. Bruce Fraser, Larry Rifkin, executive producers. 59 minutes.

Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America. 2012. Directed by Eduardo López and Peter Getzels. 90 min. Documentary that examines the direct connection between the long history of U.S. intervention in Latin America and the immigration crisis we face today.

La operación. Puerto Rico. 1982. Ana María García, director. 40 minutes.

Mi Puerto Rico. New York City. 1996. Raquel Ortiz and Sharon Simon, producers. Sharon Simon, director. 90 minutes.

Palante, Siempre Palante: The Young Lords Party. New York City. 1996. Latino Education Network Service. Iris Morales, producer/director. 45 minutes.

Plena is Work, Plena is Song. New York City. 1989. Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños-Hunter College/CUNY. Pedro Rivera and Susan Zeig, producer/directors. 37 minutes.

Puerto Rico: Paradise Invaded. Puerto Rico. 1977. Latin American Film Project. Alfonso Beato, director. 30 minutes. This film analyzes the economic relationship between Puerto Rico and the United States, including short term economic changes (brief migrations of farm workers) and exploitation of people on the island by large corporations. Puerto Rican life in New York City and Puerto Rican nationalism are also discussed. View for free online.

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Caribbean Connections: Puerto Rico - Social Justice Books

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Here are films and organizations for teaching and learning about Puerto Rico. This is a supplemental list for the publication Caribbean Connections: Puerto Rico. In addition, read Puerto Rican Children's Literature for Social Justice: A Bibliography for Educators by Marilisa Jimenez and follow #prsyllabus. Organizations ASPIRA The ASPIRA Association, Inc.

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Puerto Rican Children’s Literature | Social Justice Books

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These books are meant to facilitate discussion on various issues in Puerto Rican history and culture, including colonialism, race, gender, and environmental justice. This list is only a sample, and teachers are encouraged to search for further resources and continue challenging students to critique…

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Puerto Rican Children’s Literature for Social Justice: A Bibliography for Educators

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Designed by: Paulette Thompson
Ida B. Wells School for Social Justice, Seattle Public Schools
University of Washington

Summary
Maps, music and video-recordings can be effectively used to discuss the present and historical incidence of the plena. In the way that rap music is referred to as 'the people's CNN', plena, an Afro-Puerto Rican musical form that has much in common with other Caribbean musical expressions, is sometimes referred to as "the newspaper of the people" as it expresses what is going on in the lives of working class people.

Suggested Grade Levels: 9-12
Country: Puerto Rico
Region: Caribbean
Culture Group: Puerto Rican, Caribbean, Caribbean American
Genre: plena
Instruments: Plena drum (pandareta), güiro, güiro pick (pua)
Language: Spanish
Co-Curricular Areas: Social Studies, Humanities, Language Arts, Spanish
National Standards: 4, 6, 8, 9
Prerequisites: Students will do well to know the following vocabulary terms: verse, refrain, chorus, stanza, stigmatized.

Objectives:

Students will listen to and begin to analyze music.

Students will understand music in relation to history and culture.

Students will describe the music that they hear.

Students will learn about the history and purpose of plena, and about contemporary pleneros, or plena musicians.

Pictures of pandereta and güiro,

Pandereta and güiro

Map of Puerto Rico, Map of the Caribbean

"Ahora Sí" by Viento De Agua Unplugged on Materia Prima SFW40513_101-DT.

Liner notes Viento De Agua Unplugged: Materia Prima (SFW CD 40513)

"El León" by Viento De Agua Unplugged on Materia Prima SFW40513_102-DT.

Artist Spotlight: Tito Matos of Viento de Agua

Artist Spotlight: Los Pleneros de 21 (Afro-Puerto Rican tradition)

Information about Plena in the section on rhythm

Soundscapes from Smithsonian Folkways

Videos from Smithsonian Folkways
"Carmelina" performed by Pleneros de 21
"Drums in the Plena"
"Puerto Rican Community"
"Musical Traditions"

Folksongs of Puerto Rico (FW04412)
Liner notes on Plena

Flores, Juan. From Bomba to Hip-hop: Puerto Rican Culture and Latino Identity. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.

Moore, Robin. Music in the Hispanic Caribbean: Experiencing Music,Expressing culture. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Menkart, Deborah(ed.). Caribbean Connections: Puerto Rico. Washington, D.C.: Network of Educators of the Americas, 1992.

***Strongly encouraged-if available- is the documentary film "Plena is work, Plena is song".

Lesson Segments:

1. Introduction to Plena (1, 6, 7)

2. Plena: History and Tradition (6, 7, 9)

3. Creating and Sharing Plenas for Social Justice (1, 2, 4, 9)

1. Introduction to Plena

1. Attentive Listening: Students will listen to "Ahora sí", a recording by Viento de Agua Unplugged.
"Ahora Sí" by Viento De Agua Unplugged on Materia Prima SFW40513_101-DT.
Liner notes Viento De Agua Unplugged: Materia Prima (SFW CD 40513)
First listening before song begins can be guided by the question. What instruments do you hear? (Drums and guiro.)

2. Attentive Listening: Second listening with singing: Where do you think this music is from? (The Caribbean, Puerto Rico.)

3. Integrating World Music: Teacher shows pictures of a plena drum (pandareta), güiro, güiro pick. The guiro is from Puerto Rico's native or indigenous heritage and the drums come from Puerto Rico's African heritage.

Integrating World Music: Teacher shows maps of Puerto Rico and the Caribbean

1. Integrating World Music: Teacher says and writes the name of the musical genre on the board: "plena" (pronounce as 'play-nah')

2. Engaged Listening: Students will listen to "Ahora sí", another time while clapping their hands or tapping the table.

3. Integrating World Music: Teacher asks what the plena musicians or pleneros are singing about. Here is the refrain:

Ahora sí, yo te traigo plena.
Ahora sí, que yo venga a cantar
Ahora sí, mi güiro y su cadencia
Ahora sí, mi quinto a cantar(Quinto is a type of drum, a pandereta)

In English: All right now, I bring this plena
All right now, I come to sing
All right now, my [güiro] and its rhythm (Substitution of term güiro rather than rasp)
All right now, my drum will sing...

Share the liner notes from "Ahora sí" on the Viento de Agua

1. Engaged Listening: Students will sing the refrain in Spanish with the teacher.

2. Integrating World Music: Students and teachers discuss the refrain.

Assessment:
'Quick write' (Students are invited to write a 'five - sentence exit ticket'): What is plena? Where does it come from? What are the instruments? Is there anything you notice about the form of the music? (Plena is an African - influenced musical form from Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico is in the Caribbean. Plena uses drums and guiros. The music is rhythmic. The lyrics are in Spanish. )
Extension (Optional): Connecting to students' musicà hiphop culture

1. Attentive Listening: What does this music remind you of? Why do you say this? (This music sounds like rap music or hip hop. Plena sounds like early or 'old school' rap music. People are not quite singing; it sounds almost as if they are rapping.)

2. Integrating World Music: Teacher explains that in fact, this music is a foremother of hiphop. Discussion: Why do you think this is so? (The music provides a way for people to express what is going on in their lives and in their communities.)

3. Integrating World Music: Research the history of Caribbean migration to New York City and musical contribution. In the early days of rap music in New York City, young people of Caribbean background played a significant role in hip hop's formation. Why has the Puerto Rican influence in the roots of hip hop been overlooked? (Early rap music from the U.S. mainland tends to be associated with people of African descent who speak English, not Spanish. This is largely because music companies did not know exactly how to market this new urban popular musical, preferring to promote rap as solely an African American -rather than African - influenced- musical form. A good source for this topic is Juan Flores' book From Bomba to Hip-hop: Puerto Rican Culture and Latino Identity.)

2. Plena: History and Tradition

1. Integrating World Music: Review maps, instruments and concept and form of the plena.

2. Attentive listening: Students will listen and watch the video of the Pleneros de 21 perform the plena "Carmelina".

3. Integrating World Music: Students will learn about the history of the plena. Students may read this as a handout.

(The following information for teachers and their students is adapted from Plena http://americanhistory.si.edu/.)
Plena is a twentieth century African Puerto Rican musical form that is both distinctively Caribbean and Puerto Rican. Plena is often called "newspaper," because it talks about contemporary events, protest and struggle, scandals, elections, and other aspects of everyday life. Plena instruments include three or more panderetas, handheld frame drums, of different sizes: seguidor, segundo, and requinto, each playing a different rhythm, and a güiro. With roots in West Africa, plena also reflects music from other Caribbean Islands and is now a source of national pride and cultural identity for Puerto Ricans. After slavery was abolished in the Caribbean, the labor migration of freedmen, emancipated people, and other workers increased throughout the entire region. Puerto Rico was no exception; landless Puerto Ricans left the countryside to find jobs in the cities. People moved to Puerto Rico from English - speaking Caribbean islands such as Jamaica , St. Thomas, St. Kitts, and Barbados. A large number of these migrants of African descent joined Puerto Ricans of African descent in Ponce, a city in the south. Plena was born in the Ponce area's working-class neighborhoods about 1898. Plena was a stigmatized musical form as a result of its class and African origins. It was also at this time that the U.S. became Puerto Rico's colonial ruler instead of Spain as a result of the War of 1898.

1. Integrating World Music: Students discuss why it is that plena was stigmatized as a low status musical form and also why it is undergoing a resurgence today.

2. Engaged listening: Students will watch the short videos from the Smithsonian Folkways: "Drums in the Plena", "Puerto Rican Community, and "Musical Traditions".

Students are encouraged to drum desks during music. While watching, students should jot down what is salient to them about the videos. Then students will discuss what they thought was important about the videos.

Integrating World Music: Other instruments can be used along with these for plena. Why might the drums and the güiro be more common or popular than other instruments? (It is more that pandareta drums and guiros are small and easy to carry. People can also easily find items to use as percussive or rasp instruments.)

Assessment:
Write one paragraph about the purpose that plena serves for Puerto Ricans today.

1. Integrating World Music/Engaged listening: Students will listen to "Ahora sí" again and remind themselves of the pattern of plena in the song. Students may clap and dance in seats. Students are encouraged to play with pandereta and guiro along with the recording.

2. Attentive Listening: "El Leon" by Viento De Agua Unplugged on Materia Prima. SFW40513_102-DT

3. Enactive: Students are encouraged to play with pandereta and guiro along with the recording.

4. Integrating World Music: Students will note that the plenas looked at here have not been "newspapers" in the way that plenas have traditionally been used.

5. Creating World Music: Students will create and perform their own plenas as newspapers.

Two students will receive a slip of paper with the same topic. Students with the same topic have thirty minutes to come up with a plena.
For each plena, students will need at least 4 stanzas (together) with a refrain or chorus.
Topics: Puerto Rico: Statehood/Commonwealth/Independence, the Tea Party, No Child Left Behind, Student activism here and in Egypt, Social Security, Gentrification, Mortgage/Economic crisis, Wall Street, War in Libya, War in Afghanistan, Healthcare/Social Security, Lack of representation for the people in Washington, D.C., Climate change, President Barack Obama, Former President George W. Bush, Democratic party, Republican Party, etc.
Creating World Music: Students are encouraged to play with pandereta and guiro in inventing a rhythm that works well with the rhythmic recitation of the stanzas they have composed.

Assessment:
Students are required to write plenas and perform them. What makes these compositions plenas?

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Plena, the People's Newspaper: Puerto Rican Music for the Classroom

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Maps, music and video-recordings can be effectively used to discuss the present and historical incidence of the plena. In the way that rap music is referred to as “the people's CNN”, plena, an Afro-Puerto Rican musical form that has much in common with other Caribbean musical expressions, is sometimes

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By NAfME Member Vimari Colón-León This article appeared in the April 2021 issue of Journal of General Music Education.
Abstract

Bomba is an emblematic Puerto Rican musical genre that emerged 400 years ago from the colonial plantations where West African enslaved people and their descendants worked. It remains one of the most popular forms of folk music on the island and serves as significant evidence of its rich African heritage. This article explores the main components of bomba by making them more accessible to those that have not experienced it from an insider's perspective. The material presented in this article provides a learning sequence that could take the form of several lessons, or even a curricular unit. Transcriptions of rhythms typically learned aurally are also included.

If you walk through the streets of Old San Juan, a historic district in the capital of Puerto Rico, on the weekend, you will probably see people proudly playing and dancing bomba. This genre is considered one of the oldest musical traditions on the island. It is fascinating to witness it is still thriving after many years, serving as significant evidence of Puerto Rico's African heritage. In fact, in recent years, bomba has been experiencing a resurgence thanks to the interest of young Puerto Ricans in knowing, understanding, preserving, and enjoying this distinctive part of their culture.

Bomba dates back to the beginning of the Spanish colonial period (1493-1898). The practice was developed by West African enslaved people and their descendants, who worked in sugar plantations along the coast of Puerto Rico (Ferreras, 2005). The towns of Mayagüez, San Juan, Loíza, and Ponce, among others, were the cradle of the various styles that make up this genre. In these areas, cane workers released feelings of sadness, anger, and resistance through fiery drums played in dance gatherings called Bailes de Bomba (Bomba Dances). Enslaved people also used them to celebrate baptisms and marriages, communicate with each other, and plan rebellions (Cartagena, 2004). The roots of this tradition can be traced to the Ashanti people of Ghana, and the etymology of the word "bomba" to the Akan and Bantu languages of Africa (Dufrasne-González, 1994; Vega-Drouet, 1970).

Bomba in General Music Classrooms

This article considers three arguments to support the inclusion of bomba in the general music classroom. First, this musical expression incorporates elements that form part of most general music curricula, such as singing, dancing, drumming, and improvising. These components make bomba an engaging tool for introducing students to important music concepts, develop critical thinking and creativity, and expand their aural experiences (Blair & Kondo, 2008; Fung, 1995). Second, music is at the heart of Puerto Rican culture. Bomba remains one of the most popular forms of folk music on the island, and many cultural events highlight this genre for entertainment. By studying bomba, students get a glimpse into the life and traditions of this country, which positions it as a powerful source for developing intercultural understanding. Last, this musical art allows teachers to practice diversity, equity, and inclusion by providing musical experiences that are culturally responsive (Lind & McKoy, 2016). There has been an unprecedented migration from residents of the Caribbean island of Puerto Rico to the mainland United States during the past 10 years. This trend increased recently in part to the catastrophic effects of Hurricane Maria in September 2017. Federal data suggest that after the impact of this hurricane, people moved from Puerto Rico to every state in the United States (Sutter & Hernandez, 2018).

Initial Analysis

The main principles of ethnomusicology can be used as a framework to explore music from other cultures in the general music classroom. Ethnomusicology examines the relationship between music and culture (Merriam, 1960) and, consequently, contributes a more holistic view of multicultural music education practices. An examination of the bomba tradition through this lens could help teachers understand the musical aesthetics, behaviors, and cultural values associated with it (Table 1). This type of analysis will ensure that the music expression's authenticity is preserved and will provide different pedagogical angles to approach the learning experience (Sarrazin, 2016).

Table 1. Analysis of the Primary Components of the Puerto Rican Bomba (Ferreras, 2005; Peña-Aguayo, 2015)

Pedagogies
· Aural

· Call and Response

· Traditional model of apprenticeship

· Multilayered rhythms in simple and compound meters

· Simple chant-like melodies in major or minor keys sang in unisons, parallel octaves, and occasional consonant harmonies.

· Lyrics are mostly in Spanish but often feature words or expressions borrowed from former African languages and Caribbean dialects.

· Songs often include place names, names of styles, and names of individual persons within the local culture.

Values/Beliefs
· Music and dance are used to express the experience of slavery and social marginalization.

· Music is also a form of entertainment and a vehicle for creating community and identity.

· Dance and music are highly integrated.

· Improvisation and creativity are highly valued.

Behaviors
· Playful competition between a dancer and a lead drummer

· Participatory music-making

· Lead singers play the maracas and mark the length of the song.

Call and Response

Tócame la bomba, tócamela bien (Play me the bomba, play it to me well)

Tócamela la bomba, la de Mayagüez (Play me the bomba, the one from Mayagüez)

Toe-kah-may lah bom-bah, lah day Ma-ya- gooez

Mayaguez is a town on the west coast of Puerto Rico. It was one of the places where bomba was born and, subsequently, is often mentioned in songs. Féliz Alduén (1926-2003) is considered one of the most important contemporary exponents of this town's bomba.

Three-Part Basic Instrumentation

Bomba ensembles are made of a percussion section that includes the following: (a) two or more drums of two different diameters called barriles de bomba (bomba barrels); (b) one large gourd maraca; and (c) one cuá-a stick drum made of a hollow bamboo log (Figure 1). Drums, traditionally made with rum barrels and goatskin, have a hierarchy established by their role in the ensemble. The larger drum is called a buleador and is in charge of keeping the steady beat by playing a foundational rhythm. The high-pitched drum is called a subidor and is responsible for improvising above the large drum. This drum is also used to mark dancers' movements by producing a type of conversation with each other. The name buleador is used in the north of Puerto Rico, while the same drum is called segundo (second) in the south. The use of alternate names happens again with the subidor drum, also called primo (principal) in the north and tambor primero (first drum) in the south (Cartagena, 2004).

The other two instruments, the cuá and maraca, add additional rhythmic layers that complement the large drum's rhythm. The cuá is usually placed on a stand and played with two sticks, and in most cases, the lead singer plays the maraca. In a classroom setting, most likely, teachers will not have access to the traditional instruments mentioned here, but others could replicate the sounds they produce. The stick drum could be represented by a woodblock or by hitting a chair with a pair of drumsticks. The maraca rhythms could be performed by any shaker and the bomba barrels by a small and a large drum.

Styles of Bomba

It is important to specify that bomba encompasses more than 16 rhythmic styles and that their popularity varies by region. Each rhythm sets the pace of the singing and dance and calls for a different attitude. Some styles, such as sicá, yubá, güembé, belén, corvé, and cunyá, have names that recall their African origin. Others like holandés (from Holland) and leró (the roses) are labeled after European terms and French creole words adopted from neighboring Caribbean islands (Brill, 2017).

From the myriad of bomba styles, there are three that most people recognize and know. These are the sicá, yubá, and holandés. Sicá is an ideal introductory subgenre because it is the most popular and widespread of the entire tradition (Peña-Aguayo, 2015). To teach students to play this basic style, teachers can start by modeling the large drum's rhythm using speech and body percussion. The maraca and stick drum rhythms can be introduced once the large drum's pattern is mastered, and students can keep the steady beat with ease (Figure 2a and b). Subsequently, the group could be divided into three equal parts to combine the layers of sounds. The final step could involve transferring all rhythms to their respective instruments and providing students opportunities to rotate. The high-pitched drum in charge of improvising will be added in the next section.

Yubá is the prevailing 6/8 rhythm of bomba. It is played at a moderate tempo and is an essential component of any ensemble's repertoire (Peña-Aguayo, 2015). The holandés is connected to Dutch slave cultures brought to Puerto Rico from the islands of Curaçao, Aruba, Bonaire, and St. Croix and is characterized by being one of the fastest bomba styles (Ferreras, 2005). The symphonic band piece Tres Ritmos de Bomba (Three Bomba Rhythms) masterfully showcases the rhythms discussed in this section ( sicá, yubá, and holandés). It could be used to aurally expose students to the most common bomba styles, including the one they will learn to play (sicá). This work, composed by Angel "Lito" Peña (1921-2002), can be accessed through the Puerto Rico Institute of Culture's virtual archive, linked at the end of this article. The rhythmic patterns of Yubá (Figure 3) and Holandés (Figure 4) are included below for reference.

Figure 2. (a) Sicá rhythms. (b). Common variation of the rhythm played by the large drum in sicá.

Improvised Bomba Steps

Dancing is another of the central features of bomba. As a song unfolds, dancers break off from the group and step into the drums' space to challenge the high-pitched drum player to mark their dance moves. The most important terms associated with these practices are paseo and piquetes. Paseo (promenade) refers to the primary dancing step that corresponds to the ensemble's ostinato rhythm, without calling for improvised beats from the high-pitched drum. It is used when a dancer is about to engage in a dialogue with the lead drummer and waits for its turn. Barton (2004) explains that "this basic step consists of a stylized walk, alternating arms with a toe-touch on each step forward." (p. 76). Piquetes (accents) are the improvised steps produced by moving a long skirt (females) or different body parts (females and males).

The idea of having to create spontaneous movements and rhythms can be challenging, but some steps could be taken to help students find their creative potential. To prepare them well for this, teachers can start by showing videos of bomba dancers. Later, students can be asked to comment on the dance steps and compare how the interaction between dancer and drummer resembles other types of dances. Teachers could then model the basic promenade step and provide examples of improvised movements (access the videos included in the suggested resources for reference). When students feel comfortable, they could be invited to create other spontaneous steps while using scarves to mirror the skirt's action. It is important to emphasize that all contributions will be welcomed and celebrated. As the group takes turns to dance, the high-pitched drum's role could be demonstrated by drumming or clapping patterns that resemble the improvised movements (Scheff et al., 2010). The following patterns (Figure 5a-d) could be used as examples:

Eventually, students could be given turns to take the part of the dancer and the high-pitched drum. While this happens, some could be tasked with playing the sicá rhythm learned previously. Teachers should explain that the high-pitched drum is always in charge of improvising and that this role should be maintained even when there are no dancers on the floor.

Figure 5. (a) Example 1. (b) Example 2. (c) Example 3. (d) Example 4.

Song Structure

All the steps discussed so far should prepare students to perform bomba with all its traditional components. To keep progressing, teachers could retake the song Tócame la bomba to combine all the elements. This song was recorded by Felix Alduén using a style known as cuembé or güembé (Figure 6). Those interested in challenging their students further could teach them this new pattern. If students are not ready for it, they could also perform it with the sicá rhythm previously learned. Transitioning to this new style should not be difficult because the large drum's pattern is the only line that changes.

To perform the entire song, teachers should decide the general structure that they will use. The most traditional option would be to start with the lead singer's call, echoed by the ensemble. Two other options could be to layer the sounds by starting each instrument separately or to begin with the drummers playing a short introduction. In practice, these introductions are called cortes (breaks) or llamadas (calls). Figure 7 provides an example of a possible break.

The final step would be to do a series of call and response interactions over the rhythmic ostinato. After several rounds, options include opening the space for dancers to take turns improvising. Teachers can explain that dancers typically greet the high-pitched drum player with a head nod when they enter the circle in front of the drum section. To conclude the performance, the ensemble could do one last round of the song's chorus.

Conclusion

Bomba is one of the most emblematic and enduring genres of the island of Puerto Rico. Its history serves as a reminder of the strength and resilience of its people. Its sounds carry stories that are still relevant and deserve to be told. Bomba ultimately represents Puerto Rico's rich African heritage-one that should be remembered and affirmed by all. The inclusion of this genre and the experiences that it involves enrich the general music curriculum and provide opportunities to learn about cultures that might otherwise not be represented in the classroom. Introducing diverse musical cultures to students provides great benefits for all (Wong et al., 2016).

This article provides a step-by-step approach to introduce students to the exciting world of bomba. This process starts with an initial analysis, an explanation of the concept of call and response, and its three-part instrumentation. The progression advances with an introduction to the genre's main substyles, steps for elaborating an improvisation, and the different ways to structure a song. With this material, music teachers are invited to empower students to value the diversity of this country and this world.

Suggested Resources
Lesson Plans Children's Books about Bomba

Ortiz, R. (2019). When Julia danced bomba/ cuando julia bailaba bomba. Pinata Books.

Tucker, M. (2018). Bomba Puertorriqueña (M. Roman, Illus.). Bombazo Dance Co.

Dancing Examples Song "Tócame la Bomba" Bomba Rhythms Symphonic Band Piece (With Sicá, Yubá, and Holandés Rhythms) Terms and Definitions

Buleador/segundo = Large drum

Subidor/primo = High-pitched drum

Laina = Lead singer in charge of calls

Cuá = Stick drum made of a hollow bamboo log

Paseo = Basic dance step that involves alternating arms with a toe-touch on each step forward

Piquetes = Improvised dance steps that are marked by the high-pitched drum

Cortes/Llamadas = Several measures of a rhythmic pattern played to start the ostinato of the percussion section

References

Barton, H. (2004). A challenge for Puerto Rican music: How to build a Soberao for Bomba. Centro Journal, 16(1), 68-89.

Brill, M. (2017). Music of Latin America and the Caribbean (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315167213

Cartagena, J. (2004). When Bomba becomes the national music of the Puerto Rico Nation. Centro Journal, 16(1), 14-35.

Dufrasne-González, J. E. (1994). Puerto Rico también tiene tambó: Recopilación de artículos sobre la plena y la bomba [Puerto Rico also has a drum: Compilation of plena and bomba articles]. Paracumbé.

Mills, L. (2009). ¡Salta conejo! A collection of Latin American Children's Songs for teachers and parents. n.p. AQ

Peña-Aguayo, J. J. (2015). La bomba puertorriqueña en la cultura musical contemporánea (Puerto Rican bomba in the contemporary musical culture) [Doctoral dissertation]. http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/54067

Sarrazin, N. (2016). Music and the child. State University of New York at Genesco.

Scheff, H., Sprague, M., & McGreevy-Nichols, S. (2010). Exploring dance forms and styles: A guide to concert, world, social, and historical dance. Human Kinetics.

Sutter, J. D., & Hernandez, S. (2018, February 21). "Exodus" from Puerto Rico: A visual guide. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2018/02/21/us/puerto-rico-migration-data-invs/index.html

Vega-Drouet, H. (1970). Historical and ethnological survey on probable African origins of the Puerto Rican bomba, including a description of Santiago Apostol festivities at Loíza Aldea (Order No. 7920645) [Doctoral dissertation, Wesleyan University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Supplemental Material About the author
NAfME member Vimari Colón-León is an assistant professor at Bridgewater College in Bridgewater, Virginia. Her teaching and research interests include teaching music to special populations, parental involvement, and multicultural music education.
Did this blog spur new ideas for your music program? The National Association for Music Education (NAfME) provides a number of forums for the sharing of information and opinion, including blogs and postings on our website, articles and columns in our magazines and journals, and postings to our Amplify member portal. Unless specifically noted, the views expressed in these media do not necessarily represent the policy or views of the Association, its officers, or its employees. Share them on Amplify! Interested in reprinting this article? Please review the reprint guidelines.

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Bomba: The Sound of Puerto Rico's African Heritage - NAfME

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Bomba: The Sound of Puerto Rico's African Heritage By NAfME Member Vimari Colón-León This article appeared in the April 2021 issue of Journal of General Music Education. Join NAfME today Abstract Bomba is an emblematic Puerto Rican musical genre that emerged 400 years ago from the colonial plantations where West...

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In a city as a diverse as Los Angeles, there is one thing we almost all have in common - traffic. While stuck at intersections or on freeways, pondering the heritage of our fair city is probably not on the forefront of everyone's minds. However, the history and diversity of Los Angeles is reflected all around us, and the street names are a good example of the past coinciding with the present. Many of these street names serve as reminders of the Latino influence in shaping the city we know today.

Some of these streets are:

Biography of Juan Alvarado, available for checkout in the History & Genealogy Department.

Alvarado Street: Named for Juan Bautista Alvarado (1809-1882). Born in the Monterey area to parents of Mexican lineage, Alvarado served as governor of Alta California from 1836 -1842.

Frances Figueroa, great-great grandniece of Don Jose Figueroa, and Neil Petree, president of Barker Bros. are shown in 1950 placing of historical marker on the Figueroa St. side of the Barker Bros. building. (Valley Times Collection)

Figueroa Street: Named for José Figueroa (1792 - 1835), who from 1833 - 1835, also served as governor of Alta California.

Four people gather around a tar pit near the Hancock oil field, circa 1910. (Security Pacific National Bank Collection)

La Brea Avenue: Spanish for "the tar," La Brea runs through the area that at one time encompassed the La Brea Rancho which contained numerous ponds of tar, rich with the fossils of Ice Age animals.

View of buildings on the Rancho La Cienega O' Paso de la Tijera in 1924, located near what is now the 2400 block of S. Crenshaw Boulevard. (Security Pacific National Bank Collection)

La Cienega Boulevard: Similar to La Brea, La Cienega takes its name from a rancho. Derived from, ciénaga, the Spanish word for "swamp," La Cienega references the marshes that were prominent between Baldwin Hills and Beverly Hills.

Aerial view of Los Feliz Boulevard in Atwater Village, circa 1924. Part of the Tam O'Shanter Restaurant can be seen in the bottom center. (Security Pacific National Bank Collection)

Los Feliz Boulevard: This east-west street which runs past Griffith Park, before turning into Western Avenue, also pays homage to the rancho period. Namesake José Vicente Feliz (ca 1741-1822), who was born in Mexico, came to reside in the area after being awarded a 6,000+ acre land grant by King Carlos III when California was under Spanish control.

A 1925 view of Olvera Street, before its transformation to a tourist destination. (Security Pacific National Bank Collection)

Olvera Street: This small, but well known street takes its name from Augustin Olvera (1818-1876), an early Los Angeles pioneer who in 1850 became the first judge of the newly formed County of Los Angeles.

Undated portrait of Pio Pico. (Security Pacific National Bank Collection)

Pico Boulevard: This major thoroughfare is one of many places in Los Angeles County bearing the name of Pio Pico (1801-1894). Pico served two terms as Governor of Alta California, and the last to serve under Mexican rule.

An artist rendering of Francisco Xavier Sepúlveda. (Security Pacific National Bank Collection)

Sepulveda Boulevard: The longest street in both the City and County of Los Angeles, takes its name from the prominent Sepúlveda Family, of who Francisco Xavier Sepúlveda (1742-1788) was the patriarch.

1949 Ord Survey, showing Calle Primavera. (Los Angeles Public Library Map Collection)

Spring Street: According to Los Angeles legend, when Lieut. Edward O. C. Ord (for whom Ord Street was named) was tasked with surveying Los Angeles streets for the first time in 1849, he was also asked to name one of the streets. As many of the roads bore Spanish names, he opted for Primavera which happened to be the nickname for his sweetheart, Senorita Trinidad de la Guerra. As the city grew, "Primavera" endured, though was later translated to the English "Spring."

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Los Angeles Street Names: The Past Coinciding with the Present

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In a city as a diverse as Los Angeles, there is one thing we almost all have in common - traffic. While stuck at intersections or on freeways, pondering the heritage of our fair city is probably not on the forefront of everyone's minds.

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The Los Angeles Plaza Historic District, also known as El Pueblo de Los Angeles State Historic Park, is located at the oldest section of Los Angeles, known for many years as "El Pueblo de la Reina de Los Angeles". The district, centered on the old plaza, was the city's center under Spanish (1781-1821), Mexican (1821-1847) and United States (after 1847) rule through most of the 19th Century.

The one person most responsible for the founding of Los Angeles was the new Governor of California, Felipe de Neve. In 1777 Neve toured Alta California and decided to establish civic pueblos for the support of the military presidios. The new pueblos would reduce the secular power of the missions by reducing the dependency of the military on them. At the same time, they would promote the development of industry and agriculture. Neve identified Santa Barbara, San Jose, and Los Angeles as sites for his new pueblos.*

Historical Notes

It wasn't until April 4, 1850 that Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality, five months before California achieved statehood.

In 1850, the population of Los Angeles was only 1610.*

Click HERE to see more in an Interactive Map of Early Los Angeles as it appeared in 1850.

Historical Notes

The site of the Plaza today is not the original location. It is the second, third, or maybe even the fourth. One of the earlier plots is believed to be around where the current Pershing Square sits. It's also thought that at least one of the first three was washed away in a flood. The current Plaza dates from as early as 1815.

When early settlers arrived at the Los Angeles River by way of Mission Road, they picked as a nearby gathering point a huge sycamore (upper right-center of photo) that gave them shelter and became a landmark, "El Aliso." That Spanish word for sycamore was later used to name the road carved out near the river (Aliso Street in 1854).

El Aliso (upper center-right of photo) sprang from the ground near the western bank of the Los Angeles River in the late fifteenth century, about the same time Columbus arrived in the Americas. As it matured, the sycamore -- located at the juncture of the Los Angeles coastal plain and the San Fernando and San Gabriel valleys -- became a gathering place for Los Angeles' indigenous Tongva people. Local leaders traveled from their villages across Southern California to confer under the shade of the tree's canopy. By the mid-eighteenth century, the mighty sycamore stood at the center of one of the largest Tongva villages, Yangna. By the 1830s, due to the encroachment of the pueblo, El Aliso had ceased to function as the symbolic center of daily Tongva life as Yangna changed locations twice before dissolving into historical oblivion.*

Historical Notes

In 1857, the city council granted William Dryden a franchise to deliver water to homes through a system of wooden pipes beneath the streets. Dryden and his newly incorporated water company, Los Angeles Water Works Co., erected a forty foot water wheel to lift water from the LA River to the city's main water ditch.

In 1858, the LA Water Works Co. constructed a large brick and wood storage tank in the center of the city plaza as seen above. It would remain there for about 10 years and then replaced by a fountain. Water would be continued to be stored in other tanks on the periphery of the plaza as well as in other nearby reservoirs.

In 1860, the population of Los Angeles was 4385, almost three times what it was 10 years earlier.*

Click HERE to read more about Water in Early L.A. Also, click HERE to see more Early LA Water Reservoirs.

Historical Notes

The 'Church of Los Angeles' was founded on August 18, 1814 by Franciscan Fray Luis Gil y Taboada. He placed the cornerstone for the new church in the adobe ruins of the original "sub-station mission" here, the Nuestra Señora Reina de los Ángeles Asistencia (founded 1784), thirty years after it was established to serve the settlement founding Los Angeles Pobladores (original settlers).*

Historical Notes

The completed new structure was dedicated on December 8, 1822. A replacement chapel, named La Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de los Ángeles - for Mary, mother of Jesus or "The Church of Our Lady of the Angels" - was rebuilt using materials of the original church in 1861. The title Reina, meaning "Queen," was added later to the name. For years, the little chapel, which collected the nicknames "La Placita" and "Plaza Church," served as the sole Roman Catholic church in emerging immigrant Los Angeles.*

Historical Notes

The 'Old Plaza Church' was one of the first three sites designated as Historic Cultural Monuments by the City of Los Angeles, and has been designated as a California Historical Landmark No. 144. Click HERE to see the complete listing of California Historical Landmarks in L. A.

Historical Notes

The original 1822-built "Church of Our Lady of the Angels" incoporated a three-bell campanario, or "bell wall" which was replaced by a gazebo-like structure (seen above) when the Church was rebuilt in 1861. The "bell wall" or "bell tower" would once again return when the Plaza Church was repaired/remodeled circa 1901.*

Historical Notes

Calle Principal is now Main Street and follows the old Bath Street, while the upper portion of Calle Principal became Upper Main and later Spring Street, and no longer exists below Sunset Boulevard. (Its remnants can be seen in El Pueblo de Los Angeles Parking Lot Number 2.)

Calle de los Negros (then disparagingly called "Nigger Alley") is now the east side of Los Angeles Street.

Wine Street is now Olvera Street.

Sunset Boulevard (at one time called Short Street) originally ran down Church (Bread) and Marchessault Streets; now it follows a more direct path to connect with Macy Street, and this portion was recently renamed Cesar E. Chavez Street.

Calle Alta (old High Street) is now Ord Street.

Church (Bread) Street is now an alley.

Calle Corto (Short Street) no longer exists.

Historical Notes

The Zanja Madre is shown here from the river at the right edge of the map, running along the bluffs in the proximity of current day North Broadway, completely open to the elements. A few years after this rendering, a brick tunnel enclosed the Zanja Madre in an attempt by the Common Council and the Los Angeles City Water Company to preserve the precious water flowing down from the river. The map includes the Campo Santo cemetery (the second one) at the end of Eternity Street, the water wheel that propelled the flow toward the pueblo, and the homes of pioneers like Jose Sepulveda, Abel Stearns, and Bernardo Wilson.

Click HERE to see more in Zanja Madre - LA's Original Aqueduct

William Moore, the rendering's rather robust and tireless cartographer, was county surveyor for two separate terms and a man with such drive that he once tired of waiting for a ship from San Francisco and walked to Los Angeles. Because he was bi-lingual and reportedly quite charming he was involved in many important projects in the days after California gained statehood, including the planning of reservoirs, a sewer system, creation of sidewalks, the Farmers and Merchants Bank, and even orange growing for a time.*^^

Historical Notes

The Lugo Adobe, said to have been built in the 1840s by Don Vicente Lugo, was one of the very few two-story houses in the pueblo of Los Angeles. In 1867, Lugo donated this house on the Plaza to St. Vincent's School (forerunner of Loyola University).^^

Click HERE to see more of St. Vincent's College (later LMU).

Historical Notes

Between 1868 and 1870, Pio Pico constructed the three story, 33-room hotel, Pico House (Casa de Pico) on the old plaza of Los Angeles, opposite today's Olvera Street.

Pío de Jesús Pico was the last Governor of Alta California under Mexican rule. In 1821 Pico set up a tanning hut and dram shop in Los Angeles, selling drinks for two Spanish bits (US 25 cents). His businesses soon became a significant source of his income.

By the 1850s Pico was one of the richest men in Alta California. In 1850 he purchased the 8,894-acre Rancho Paso de Bartolo, which included half of present day Whittier. Two years later, he built a home on the ranch and lived there until 1892. It is preserved today as Pio Pico State Historic Park. Pico also owned the former Mission San Fernando Rey de España, Rancho Santa Margarita y Las Flores (now part of Camp Pendleton), and several other ranchos for a total of over one half-million acres, or 800 mi². *

(ca. 1880s)*#^ - View shwoing the Pico House's French restaurant dining room.

(ca. 1873)** - View looking east showing the showing the Pico House, the Merced Theater, and the Masonic Lodge, located on Main Street. Two tanks of the City's first gas works are seen in the foreground. They were located just south of the Plaza Church (out of view to the left) and across the street from the Pico House.

The gas tanks were built in 1867 when the City installed its first streetlighting system consisting of 43 gas lamps along Main Street. By 1873, 136 gas lamps provided the outdoor night lighting for the City.

Things would change in 1882 when electricity was introduced. Click HERE to see more in Early Los Angeles Streetlights.

In 1868, John S. Griffen, Solomon Lazard, and Prudent Beaudry, three of the city's more successful businessmen, submitted a proposal to the city council to develop and operate the city's water system. In turn they asked for all of the city's water rights and control over the water rates. They also promised to construct a reservoir for the city, lay twelve miles of iron pipe, install fire hydrants at major street crossings, provide free water to public buildings, and to erect an ornamental fountain in the Plaza.

Click HERE to see more in Water in Early Los Angeles.

Fort Hill (also known as Fort Moore Hill) was a prominent hill overlooking the pueblo of Los Angeles. Its commanding view of the city made it a strategic location.

Fort Moore was an historic U.S. Military Fort during the Mexican-American War. Its approximate location was at what is now the Hollywood Freeway near the intersection of North Hill Street and West Cesar Chavez Avenue, downtown. The hill on which it was built became known as Fort Moore Hill, most of which was removed in 1949 for construction of the freeway. The hill was located one block north of Temple Street and a short distance south of present day Cesar Chavez Avenue, between the Los Angeles Civic Center and Chinatown.

The fort is now memorialized by the Fort Moore Pioneer Memorial, 451 North Hill Street.*

Historical Notes

L.A.'s first streetcars ran under horsepower. Steam locomotives were considered too dirty and dangerous for use on city streets still teeming with easily spooked horses, and cable car technology was still new and expensive. Electric-powered traction railways, meanwhile, remained more than a decade off.

On July 1, 1874, the modest, horse-drawn cars of the Spring and Sixth Street Railroad became the first streetcars to roll down Los Angeles streets. Founded by lawyer Robert M. Widney, the Spring & Sixth operated a regular schedule, running cars hourly on weekdays between 6:30 a.m. and 10 p.m. For a ten-cent fare, passengers could ride the one-and-a-half-mile route from the intersection of Temple and Spring south to Sixth, and then west to Figueroa.

Soon, L.A.'s streetcar network expanded as new railways opened and existing lines extended their tracks across the city. The Plaza functioned as a central hub for the city's growing streetcar network, with lines radiating out in several directions.*^^*

(ca. 1878)*** - View of Main Street looking south. A horse-drawn wagon with two men in it is parked in front of the Pico House near the Merced Theatre on the left. The road is unpaved and a streetcar track runs down the middle. Both sides of the street are lined with imposingly large buildings. At center on the left side of the street is an especially big building topped by three prominent towers ( Baker Block ). Most of the other buildings are somewhat Romanesque, with large columns and archways dominating their facades. Click HERE to see more in Early Views of the Historic 300 Block of N. Main Street

(1870s)^^ - Lafayette Hotel stagecoach near the adobes in Calle de los Negros, presently Los Angeles Street and Arcadia Street. The old Antonio Coronel adobe is in the background. Numerous horse-drawn wagons and carriages are parked along the street. The above area was the scene of a Chinese massacre in 1871.

(ca. 1882)** - View looking toward the Baker Block on the east side of Main Street north of Commercial Street showing one of the first of seven electric street lights installed in the City of Los Angeles in 1882. It stood 150 feet tall! A man can be seen standing on a platform half way up the street light mast.

Floating some 9,000 feet above the city in a hot-air balloon in 1887, Edwin H. Husher took what may be the first aerial photo of Los Angeles.^#^*

By 1887 the City's population had grown to over 20,000 people with most of the new development having taken place south of the orignal Pueblo and LA Plaza as seen in the above photo.

Historical Notes

Agustín Olvera arrived from Mexico in 1834 where he had been a Justice of the Peace, and held various offices in the Mexican administration. In 1842 he was granted Rancho Mission Viejo, and three years later, was also granted the 35,501-acre Rancho Cuyamaca.

Olvera is noted for helping to bridge the gap between the governance of California by Mexico and the U.S.; helping sign the Treaty of Cahuenga, thus ending the war in California; was appointed to be Judge of the First Instance in 1849; was elected as the first county judge of the newly formed County of Los Angeles in 1850; and eventually entered private practice law.

In 1877, the Los Angeles City Council changed the name of Wine Street to Olvera Street in his honor. Marchessault Street is named for French Canadian, Damien Marchessault, who served as mayor of Los Angeles from 1859-1860, and again from 1861-1865. During his term in office, the Plaza Church was rebuilt and the City Gas Company was organized. Marchessault committed suicide in the city council chamber in 1868, after becoming despondent over public criticism of the water system and over gambling debts.**

The Lugo Adobe has been designated as a California Historical Landmark No. 301. Click HERE to see more in Early Views of California Histrorical Landmarks in L.A.

(ca. 1887)* - A view of the Los Angeles Plaza looking southwest with the Pico House to the left and the Old Plaza Church on the right. The 2-story 'Plaza House' (built in 1883) sits directly across the Plaza on the west side of Main Street. The Vickrey-Brunswig Building, one of the City's first 5-story buildings, would be built within a year of this photo just to the left (south) of the Plaza Building.

In 1887, during the height of the real estate boom, investor William Vickrey bought a parcel of land on North Main Street, on which he commissioned construction of the Vickrey-Brunswig Building. Originally the site of an adobe owned by Jesus Dominguez, the land was purchased by Vickrey from the City of Los Angeles for a total cost of $3,925.

Los Angeles city directories from the mid-1880s list Vickrey's occupation as "capitalist." He established and served as president of the East Side Bank, which was located at 510 Downey Avenue in downtown Los Angeles.^^^^

Construction of the Vickrey-Brunswig Building took place in 1888, the year marking the abrupt collapse of the real estate boom that had driven rapid construction and market speculation through the 1880s. Soon after completion of the building, Vickrey would be forced to declare insolvency and then lose the property to his lender.^^^

The Victorian-era brick Vickrey Building was among the earliest five-story buildings in Los Angeles. When it opened in 1888, the building housed ground floor retail with lodging on the upper floors. #*#*

The two-story Plaza House (built in 1883) was commissioned by Frenchman Philippe Garnier, whose name appears at the base of the decorative false gable parapet rising above the roofline. It was once the site of La Esperanza Bakery.

(ca. 1890s)** - Closer view showing the new 5-story Vickrey-Brunswig Building located on N. Main Street across from the LA Plaza and also across the street from the Pico House. Men are seen strolling in front of the Plaza.

Historical Notes

In 1868, the City of Los Angeles approved a franchise water agreement on a 30 year lease basis with the private Los Angeles City Water Company.

In 1899, after the end of the lease, a $2.09 million bond measure for the purchase of LA City Water Co.'s system was approved by city voters by a margin of nearly eight to one. After over two years of litigation the City of Los Angeles finally regained control of its water system on February 3, 1902. A new department was created called the Los Angeles Water Department.

Once the purchase was completed, the Los Angeles City Water Department acquired all assets of the privately owned water system including its main office building at Marchessault and North Alameda.

Click HERE to see more in Water Department's Original Office Building.

The Old Plaza Firehouse is the oldest firehouse in Los Angeles. Built in 1884, it operated as a firehouse until 1897. The building was thereafter used as a saloon, cigar store, poolroom, "seedy hotel", Chinese market, "flop house", and drugstore. The building was restored in the 1950s and opened as a firefighting museum in 1960.^*

The Old Plaza Firehouse was dedicated as California Historical Landmark No. 730 (Click HERE to see more in California Historical Landmarks in L.A.)

(1895)** - View of Governor Pio Pico's Office located between the Old Fire Station (left) and the Pico House (right), across from the Plaza. The prominent towers of the Baker Block can be seen in the background.

Historical Notes

Mission Nuestra Señora Reina de los Angeles (Church of Our Lady the Queen of the Angels), was founded on September 4, 1781 by a group of Spanish settlers. The church was considered an asistencia ("sub-mission") of Mission San Gabriel Arcángel. Priests from Mission San Gabriel divided their time between the mission and the Asistencia site, but ultimately the installation was never granted mission status and the missionaries eventually abandoned the site.

The surrounding area was named El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Angeles del Río de Porciúncula ("The Town of Our Lady the Queen of the Angels on the River Porciúncula", which is the present-day City of Los Angeles). A chapel, La Iglesia de Nuestra Señora Reina de los Angeles, was later erected and dedicated on December 8, 1822, and for years served as the sole Roman Catholic church in the Pueblo. It is the oldest church in the city of Los Angeles.

The Plaza Church was dedicated as California Historic Landmark No. 144. Click HERE to see list.

Back of photo print reads: "This bell (known as the Penance Bell) was given by Henry Delano Fitch as a forfeit for his transgression when he defied the civic and ecclesiastical authorities and eloped with Josefa Carillo, a Spanish California lady -- the first elopement of California -- 1829."***

Historical Notes

Los Angeles High School (seen above and behind the Old Plaza Church) was completed in 1891 at Castelar and Rock streets (North Hill Street and Fort Moore). It was built on part of the site of the abandoned Fort Moore Hill Cemetery, the first Protestant cemetery in Los Angeles, which was spread over the slopes of the hill.

The four-story red brick building had 40 rooms for its 400 students. It was the second Los Angeles High School to be built and replaced the original one that was built in 1872, at the former site of Central School on what was then known as Poundcake Hill, at the southeast corner of Fort Street (later Broadway).**

Early buildings commissioned to house the Los Angeles High School were among the architectural jewels of the city, and were strategically placed at the summit of a hill, the easier to be pointed to with pride. One of the school's long standing mottos is "Always a hill, always a tower, always a timepiece."

In 1917, the school moved to its current location at 4650 West Olympic Boulevard (which incidentally is not on a hill).^*

Click HERE to see more Early Views of Los Angeles High School.

Please Support Our Cause

Water and Power Associates, Inc. is a non-profit, public service organization dedicated to preserving historical records and photos. We are of the belief that this information should be made available to everyone-for free, without restriction, without limitation and without advertisements.

Your generosity allows us to continue to disseminate knowledge of the rich and diverse multicultural history of the greater Los Angeles area; to serve as a resource of historical information; and to assist in the preservation of the city's historic records.

^ LADWP Historic Archive

** LA Public Library Image Archive

*** USC Digital Library

^^^ Metro - Los Angeles Transit History

^^# Big Orange Landmarks

#*^ Flickr.com: Views of Los Angeles

#^* Flickr.com: Michael Ryerson

**^ Blogdowntown: Hollywood Freeway

^*^# Facebook.com - Bizzare Los Angeles

^#*^ ElPueblo.lacity.org: Plaza Map

^*^*^ Los Angeles Telephone
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The Los Angeles Plaza Historic District, also known as El Pueblo de Los Angeles State Historic Park, is located at the oldest section of Los Angeles, known for many years as "El Pueblo de la Reina de Los Angeles".

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No matter our color, ZIP code, or language, we want all our children to have a public education that imparts honesty about who we are, the integrity in how we treat each other, and the freedom to pursue our dreams.

Hispanic Heritage Month is not only a time for those of Hispanic and Latino descent to celebrate their cultural roots but also an occasion for people from all backgrounds to learn, appreciate, and celebrate the rich tapestry of Hispanic and Latino cultures.

Despite efforts by some politicians today to whitewash history, to restrict our freedoms to teach and to learn, throughout our history, Hispanic and Latino communities have left an indelible mark on the fields of art, music, literature, science, politics, education, and countless other domains. Their enduring legacy is not only a source of pride for those who share this heritage but also a source of inspiration for all of us who recognize the power of diversity in shaping our shared humanity.

Through this list of curated resources, books, lessons, videos and activities, we invite you to explore, learn, and celebrate the vibrant heritage and contributions of Hispanic and Latino communities to our world.

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Celebrate National Hispanic Heritage month with the following lessons, activities, videos, and more.

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Has your family lived in Los
Angeles for many generations? Do you have any of the following surnames:
Verdugo, Sepulveda, Avila, Rosas, Higuera, Lugo, Domínguez, Serrano, Olivas,
Ybarra, Palomares, Rodríguez, Reyes, Romero, Valenzuela, Pico or Feliz? Or did
you or your family come from the states of Sinaloa or Sonora?

If you can lay claim to any of these criteria, you may be related to the first
families of Los Angeles. Most people do not know much about the founding
families of Los Angeles. Very few of their names have been given to streets,
cities, barrios, or buildings in the Los Angeles area.
A Pueblo Established in 1781
Most people, however, know that Los
Angeles was founded in 1781. But many people believe that Los Angeles was
founded by the Spaniards. In fact, some people believe that the founders of Los
Angeles were actually from Spain. Nothing could be so far from the truth. It is
true that Spanish administrators and authorities organized and carried out the
founding of the small pueblo. However, the founders of the town itself were, in
fact, Mexican people from the Mexican states of Sinaloa, Sonora and Jalisco.
The founding of Los Angeles was a Spanish endeavor carried out by Mexican
people. The one exception was José
Fernando de Velasco y Lara, who was, in fact, a native of Spain.

If you are from Sinaloa or Sonora, then you have ties to the earliest founders
of Los Angeles. The first families of Los Angeles, for the most part, looked
upon Sinaloa and Sonora as their "madre patria" because the lifeblood of Los
Angeles was built on the manpower of citizens from Sinaloa and Sonora.
The Rivera Expedition of 1781
The Rivera Expedition of 1781 brought 44 settlers and several dozen solders into the Los Angeles area. Many of the people who participated in this expedition became members of the Los Angeles community. It should be noted, however, that Jalisco and other Mexican states did send their share of people in the early decades. In fact, two of the founders of Los Angeles - Luis Quintero and José Vanegas - were from Jalisco.

As noted in the following map, two expeditions made their way to California from Sonora in 1781. The red line shows the first expedition under Zuñiga with the settlers, which travelled up the Baja California Peninsula. The second expedition under Rivera is shown in green and included soldiers, their families and livestock. [Phil Townsend Hanna, "Schwald Family Genealogy, "Ruiz Genealogy." Online: https://schwaldfamily.org/features/ruiztoca.php].

The Original Pobladores (Settlers) of Los Angeles
The original party of the new
townsfolk consisted of eleven families, or 44 total persons, that is 11 men, 11
women, and 22 children of various Spanish castas (castes). The castas of the 22
adult pobladores, according to the November 1781 census, were:

1 Peninsular (Spaniard born in Spain)

1 Criollo (Spaniard born in New Spain)

1 Mestizo (mixed Spanish and Indian)

2 Negros (blacks of full African ancestry)

8 Mulattos (mixed Spanish and black)

9 Indios (American Indians)

The following graphic shows the
name, age, ethnic classification and birthplace of each of the settlers, and
notes the number of people in their households:

Many of these early citizens became
involved in the political direction of the city of Los Angeles. Although these
pioneers lived within the bounds of the Spanish empire, they became responsible
for the success of the little pueblo. As you will see below, some of the
Pueblo's early Alcaldes (Mayors) were simple people of humble origin.
Most of them were not educated but had a stake in the success of Los Angeles. The
following graphic lists some of the activities of the founders of Los Angeles
in the following decades:

Luis Quintero and María Petra Rubio
An official padrón (census)
taken on November 19, 1781 listed Luis with his wife and five children. Luis
was classified by the Spanish authorities as a "negro" and María Petra as a
"mulata." It is said that Luis was of Indian and African extraction and was
born in Guadalajara, Jalisco, even though he apparently married and raised his
family in Álamos, Sonora. Luis and his family left Los Angeles in 1782 for
Santa Barbara, where he spent the rest of his life working as a tailor for the
soldiers at the Presidio. But many of his descendants returned to live in Los
Angeles.
Manuel Camero
Manuel Camero was a thirty-year-old mulato from Nayarit when he and his wife, María Tomasa, arrived in Los Angeles in 1781. Señor Camero became involved in the political scene at Los Angeles and served as a Los Angeles regidor (councilman) during his lifetime.
José Antonio Navarro
In 1781, when they arrived in Los
Angeles, José Antonio Navarro was a 42-year-old mestizo from Sinaloa. He and
his mulata wife, María Regina, later moved north to San José and San Francisco
with their young children.
José Antonio Basilio Rosas
José Antonio Basilio Rosas was a
67-year-old Indian from the state of Durango. He and his 43-year-old mulata wife,
María Manuela Calixtra Hernandez, brought six children with them to Los Angeles
in 1781. Basilio lived to a ripe old age and was able to see his grandchildren
raised in the little pueblo.
José Vanegas
José Vanegas arrived in Los Angeles
in 1781 as a 28-year-old Indian. A native of Jalisco, Vanegas was accompanied
by his Indian wife María Bonifacia Maxima Aguilar and one child. Vanegas was a
shoemaker, but he also became involved in city politics and served as the first
Alcalde (Mayor) of Los Angeles from 1786 to 1788.
Cornelio Avila
Cornelio Avila and his wife Isabel
Urquidez came to Los Angeles in 1783. Originally from El Fuerte, Sinaloa,
Cornelio and Isabel had nine children, several of whom enlisted in the military
and were posted at various presidios in California. "La Casa de los Avilas" - located on Olvera Street in Downtown Los
Angeles - was built in 1818 by Cornelio's son, Francisco Avila. The Adobe Avila
- as it is called today - is the oldest building of Los Angeles and one of the
few that carries the surname of one of Los Angeles' founding families. The
Avila family became actively involved in Los Angeles politics and Francisco
served as Alcalde (Mayor) in 1810-1811.
Felipe Santiago de la Cruz Pico
Felipe Santiago de la Cruz Pico was
a mulato from San Xavier de Cabazán, a town located close to Horcasitas,
Sinaloa. He came to California with the Anza Expedition in 1775 and served in
the military up until 1790. In the Los Angeles census of that year, Santiago
was listed as a 60-year-old mestizo vaquero from Sinaloa. Two sons lived with
him and his wife Jacinta. Santiago and Jacinta's grandson, Pio Pico, born in 1801, would be the last Mexican Governor of
California.
Pedro Gabriel Valenzuela
Pedro Gabriel Valenzuela was a mestizo soldier from Álamos, Sonora. With his wife María Dolores Parra, he had accompanied the Rivera Expedition to San Gabriel in 1781. He served many years at the Santa Barbara Presidio, retiring in 1798 to the Pueblo of Los Angeles. Their family has many descendants living in both Santa Barbara and Los Angeles.
José Antonio Ontiveros
José Antonio Ontiveros was a
mestizo from Chametla, a village near Rosario, Sinaloa. He was married to Ana
María Carrasco, and in 1781, they and their two children accompanied the Rivera
Expedition on its way to Los Angeles. José served at several presidios before
retiring to Los Angeles, where he listed as a shoemaker in the 1790 census.
Francisco Serrano Juan Matias Olivas
Juan Matias Olivas was an Indian
soldier from Rosario, Sinaloa. He and his wife, Maria Doroteo Espinosa, took
part in Rivera's Expedition to San Gabriel in 1781. Juan served as a soldier at
the Santa Barbara Presidio until his retirement in 1800. After this, Juan and
his family made their home in the Pueblo.
Juan Antonio Ybarra José Cristóbal Palomares Francisco Xavier Sepúlveda
Francisco Xavier Sepúlveda came
from Villa de Sinaloa in the present-day state of Sinaloa. Francisco and his
wife, María Candelaria de Redondo, had seven children, six of whom were born in
Sinaloa before the Rivera Expedition. Francisco and his family accompanied
Rivera on his long journey to San Gabriel in 1781 and continued to serve in the
military for several more years. The Sepúlveda family is a famous first family
of Los Angeles.
José Manuel Nieto Corporal José Vicente Feliz Corporal Juan José Domínguez
Corporal Juan José Domínguez was
from Villa de Sinaloa. At a young age, Juan joined the Spanish military. He was
a member of the original Portolá Expedition of 1769 and became well-known as an
Indian fighter. He eventually retired to Los Angeles, where he was listed as a
53-year-old Spanish (white) vaquero in the 1790 census. In 1784, Juan was
granted 74,000 acres of land south of Los Angeles. The vast Domínguez Rancho
encompassed much of what is now Torrance, Carson, Redondo Beach and San Pedro.
Mariano de la Luz Verdugo Francisco Salvador Lugo José Manuel Machado Jose Sinova Juan Francisco Reyes
Juan Francisco Reyes was a mulato
from Zapotlán el Grande in Jalisco. According to the 1790 Los Angeles census,
Francisco was married to María del Carmen Domínguez, a mestiza from Villa de
Sinaloa, and had three children. He was listed as a farmworker and became the
original owner of the San Fernando Rancho, where he raised his cattle. Juan
Francisco Reyes is regarded by many as the first Black Mayor of Los Angeles,
having served as Alcalde of the Pueblo from 1793 to 1795.
Manuel Ramírez de Arellano
Manuel Ramírez de Arellano was
tallied in the 1790 Los Angeles census as a 46-year old weaver from Puebla,
with a wife and four children. His wife, María Agreda López de Haro, was from
Álamos, Sonora. He served as Alcalde of Los Angeles from 1797 to 1798.

Copyright © 2019, by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved.

Bibliography

Geiger, Maynard. "Six Census Records of Los Angeles and Its Immediate Area
Between 1804 and 1823," Southern California Quarterly, Vol. LIV, No. 4,
pp. 311-341.

Mason, William Marvin. The Census of 1790: A Demographic History of Colonial
California. Menlo Park, California: Ballena Press, 1998.

Vo, Jennifer and John P. Schmal. A Mexican-American Family of California: In
the Service of Three Flags. Bowie, Maryland: Heritage Books, 2004.

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Has your family lived in Los Angeles for many generations? Do you have any of the following surnames: Verdugo, Sepulveda, Avila, Rosas, Higuera, Lugo, Domínguez, Serrano, Olivas, Ybarra, Palomares, Rodríguez, Reyes, Romero, Valenzuela, Pico or Feliz? Or did you or your family come from the states of Sinaloa or Sonora?

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The Centro's mission is to create, preserve, promote and educate about Chicano, Mexicano, Latino and Indigenous art and culture.

Description

San Diego's Centro Cultural de la Raza was founded in 1970 as a Chicano Community Cultural Center and functions as an alternative space that encourages and facilitates artistic growth and cultural exchange in the San Diego/Tijuana region. The Centro provides classes and features a dynamic inter-disciplinary schedule of events which includes exhibits, musical performances, installation art, readings, receptions, Azteca dance, Teatro Chicano, Ballet Folklorico, film screenings and other events. We welcome you to visit the Centro and invite you to participate in the exciting programs.

Normal Business Hours: 12-4pm everyday except Monday. We also have workshops and other special events after hours. Please see our Events Calendar page

Admission: Suggested donation of $5.00. We are an all volunteer run organization that depends on your donations to provide exciting programing that meets the needs of the San Diego community.

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San Diego's Centro Cultural de la Raza was founded in 1970 as a Chicano Community Cultural Center and functions as an alternative space that encourages and facilitates artistic growth and cultural exchange in the San Diego/Tijuana region.

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LA Plaza is an institution of stories that makes known the role of Mexicans, Mexican Americans and all Latinos in shaping the past, present & future of L.A.

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Hispanic explorers first reached the shores of California in the 1500s. By the 19th century, Spain had built missions throughout the state, the Californios owned huge land grants, and California was part of the United States of Mexico. From that time to the present, Hispanic Californians have been among the largest cultural groups in the state. The items in these exhibitions trace the history of Hispanic Americans in California from the Mission system and Californios into the 20th century: Mexican immigration into California, the farmworkers' labor struggles, and the Chicano Civil Rights movement and La Raza, which also resulted in an explosion of cultural art. Although a number of different Hispanic American groups now live in the state, the images in these exhibitions largely portray Mexican Americans, who have always comprised the majority of Hispanic Californians.

This theme and its exhibitions were created as part of the California Cultures project.

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Hispanic explorers first reached the shores of California in the 1500s. By the 19th century, Spain had built missions throughout the state, the Californios owned huge land grants, and California was part of the United States of Mexico. From that time to the present, Hispanic Californians have been among the largest cultural groups in the state.

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Program Description

A Journey Through Time is a comprehensive, interactive program designed to complement 4th-grade standards while encouraging students to investigate the history of the Los Angeles region during the 1840s, 1870s, and 1920s. The program develops students' awareness, understanding, and appreciation of social and cultural change; enhances their observation, critical thinking, and communication skills; and stimulates an interest in museums and history.

We are not accepting program reservations at this time. Please check back soon for updates, or e-mail us at homestead.programs@gmail.com. In the meantime, we hope you will find the resources listed below helpful for instruction.

Curriculum Overview

Curriculum for A Journey Through Time is divided to cover three important decades in California history (1840s, 1870s, 1920s) plus comprehensive activities.

* Teacher guides and worksheets are available as plain pdfs below.

* Fillable worksheets are also available for use in your virtual classroom from Google Docs in English and Spanish.

Teacher Information

Comprehensive Activities

1840s Activities

1870s Activities

1920s Activities

Additional Handouts

Have a question? Contact us at homestead.programs@gmail.com.

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A Journey Through Time is a comprehensive, interactive program designed to complement 4th-grade standards while encouraging students to investigate the history of the Los Angeles region during the 1840s, 1870s, and 1920s. The program develops students' awareness, understanding, and appreciation of social and cultural change; enhances their observation, critical thinking, and communication skills; and stimulates an interest in museums and history.

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Check out various selections, including cookbooks, Repatriation, and many other exhibits and materials.

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September 1, 2020

By Suzanne Garcia, Director, Las Colibri Mariachi Ensemble and Marissa Lopez, Professor of English and Chicana/x Studies, UCLA

This weekend, as protests roil the U.S. and the country is called to account for its history of systemic racism and violence against people of color, we are proud to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Chicano moratorium against the Vietnam War. On this historical day, Las Colibrí is proud to premiere "Versos del Alba," a live recording and interpretation of lyrics taken from the 1901 journal of Manuela C. García.

García was a... Read more

August 19, 2020

By Amy Scott, Executive Vice President of Research and Interpretation and Marilyn B. and Calvin B. Gross Curator of Visual Arts

In this second series of pandemic-inspired portraits, the LA-born Chicano artist and activist Harry Gamboa Jr. explores how the wearing of masks-a necessary facet of public life in the time of Covid-19-affects how we express ourselves and relate to one another during a crisis; how we communicate without speaking and perceive those we cannot fully see.

These nineteen portraits feature students, friends, colleagues, and collaborators of the artist... Read more

August 3, 2020

By Christina Hummel-Colla, Library Collections Assistant

It is no surprise, given that I was born and raised in Los Angeles, that Mexican American food has always occupied a special place in my heart and stomach. When I left to study abroad in Saint Petersburg, Russia, I packed a bottle of hot sauce to ensure that I would have a flavor to remind me of home. All this to say, I was delighted when my colleagues and I began to explore... Read more

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September 1, 2020 By Suzanne Garcia, Director, Las Colibri Mariachi Ensemble and Marissa Lopez, Professor of English and Chicana/x Studies, UCLA This weekend, as protests roil the U.S. and the country is called to account for its history of systemic racism and violence against people of color, we are proud to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Chicano moratorium against the Vietnam War.

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Judy Baca, Afro-LatinX Stories, and much more

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Exhibitions - MOLAA | Museum of Latin American Art

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View all current, upcoming and past exhibitions on view at MOLAA