# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Pedro I, (born Oct. 12, 1798, Lisbon, Port.-died Sept. 24, 1834, Lisbon), founder of the Brazilian empire and first emperor of Brazil, from Dec. 1, 1822, to April 7, 1831, also reckoned as King Pedro (Peter) IV of Portugal.

Generally known as Dom Pedro, he was the son of King John VI of Portugal. When Napoleon conquered Portugal in 1807, Pedro accompanied the royal family in its flight to Brazil. He remained there as regent when King John returned to Portugal in 1821.

Pedro surrounded himself with ministers who counseled independence. When the Portuguese Cortês (Parliament), preferring colonial status for Brazil, demanded that Pedro return to Lisbon to "complete his political education," he issued a declaration of Brazilian independence on Sept. 7, 1822. Within three months he was crowned emperor.

Pedro's initial popularity waned, and in 1823, when the Brazilian Assembly was preparing a liberal constitution, he dissolved that body and exiled the radical leader José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva. On March 25, 1824, however, Pedro accepted a somewhat less liberal constitution drafted by the Council of State at his behest.

Although adoption of that charter may have saved Pedro from deposition, it did not reestablish his popularity. His autocratic manner, his lack of enthusiasm for parliamentary government, and his continuing deep interest in Portuguese affairs antagonized his subjects, as did the failure of his military forces in a war with Argentina over what is now Uruguay. Strong opposition in the Brazilian Parliament and a series of local uprisings induced him to abdicate in 1831 in favour of his son Dom Pedro II, who was then five years old. Pedro I then returned to Portugal.

On the death of King John VI (March 10, 1826), Pedro I had become titular king of Portugal as Pedro IV. Two months later, still in Brazil, he issued a parliamentary charter for Portugal and conditionally abdicated the Portuguese throne in favour of his daughter Maria da Glória, the future Queen Maria II. He died of natural causes in Portugal while securing his daughter's claim against that of his brother, the regent Miguel.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Pedro I | Reign of Brazil, Independence, Abolitionist

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Pedro I, founder of the Brazilian empire and first emperor of Brazil, from Dec. 1, 1822, to April 7, 1831, also reckoned as King Pedro (Peter) IV of Portugal. Generally known as Dom Pedro, he was the son of King John VI of Portugal.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The table provides a chronological list of the leaders of Germany from 1871.
Kaisers of the German Empire

*Upon Hindenburg's death in 1934, the powers of the presidency were merged with those of the chancellor.

**Chancellor from 1933 and Führer ("Leader") from 1934.

***East Germany was governed by interim administrations from December 1989 until the two Germanys were reunited in October 1990.

Presidents of the Weimar Republic Leaders of the Third Reich (National Socialist regime) Chancellors of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) First (or General) Secretaries of the Socialist Unity Party of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) Chancellors of the Federal Republic of Germany (reunited Germany)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Germany - Leaders, Politics, History: The table provides a chronological list of the leaders of Germany from 1871.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Politics and the political system, 1870-87

After the conquest of Rome in 1870, Italian politicians settled down to manage the economy, to build up the country's military power, and-in the telling phrase of the Piedmontese author and statesman Massimo d'Azeglio-to "make Italians." Popular disaffection remained high, especially because of the grist tax that had been introduced in 1869. Governments of the right remained in office, first under Giovanni Lanza (to 1873) and then under Marco Minghetti (1873-76). The right was not an organized party but a group of patriotic, mostly northern landowners committed to a strong currency and free trade. Under both prime ministers the main domestic task was to balance the budget. Minghetti eventually managed this, but raising taxes and squeezing expenditure made the right unpopular, and its candidates did badly in the 1874 elections. In March 1876 the Minghetti government fell when its Tuscan supporters refused to support a state takeover of the railways.

Italy was then ruled for many years by governments of the left, which were usually led by Agostino Depretis (until his death in 1887). The deputies of the left, heirs of the Risorgimento's democratic tradition, were more anticlerical, more frequently members of the middle class (many of them were lawyers), more often from the south, and less concerned about the value of money than the rentier right had been. They were, however, splintered into various groups, and factional disputes became endemic. Left governments abolished the grist tax (1883) and made two years' primary education compulsory (1877).

A main achievement of the left was the widening of suffrage in 1882. The voting age was reduced to 21 (from 25); the requirement to pay 40 lire in direct taxes per annum was halved and was abolished altogether for those with two years' schooling. The electorate thus increased from approximately 500,000 to 2,000,000 men, including now many urban artisans, especially in the north, where schools were more common. Within a few years modern political parties were founded and won seats in northern Italy, but southern constituencies remained dominated by elite groups of lawyers and local notables, often linked to prominent landowners.

Local government was also very significant, and there were often bitter disputes among local factions. The 8,300-odd municipalities ( comuni) were in charge of primary schools and most welfare services, raised much of their own revenue, and appointed their own staff. The central government tried to control them by appointing the mayors and also by giving veto powers over municipal decisions to provincial bodies that were strongly influenced by the provincial prefect, a government appointee. The prefect frequently dissolved councils for alleged financial or legal abuses and replaced them with a government "commissioner" until new elections were held, but these dissolutions often occurred when council leaders opposed government candidates at parliamentary elections. However, government attempts to control local government were never really successful. The prefects had to ensure that government candidates would win the next parliamentary elections, and so they had to conciliate, not bully, local elites, including the mayors and municipal councillors. Corruption was therefore often left unchecked. National governments became remarkably dependent on local power holders. Depretis himself won over ("transformed") deputies and kept his governments in office by distributing patronage and favours to local notables.

Trasformismo ("transformism") became the normal way of conducting parliamentary business, for there were few serious disputes among the leading politicians. Virtually all of them accepted the constitutional settlement of 1861, and few disputed foreign and colonial policy, which, in any case, was conducted by foreign ministers and prime ministers without much reference to parliament. In 1881 the French occupation of Tunisia alarmed the government, and the following year, to avoid diplomatic isolation, Italy joined the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. This was essentially a defensive alliance guaranteeing German and Austrian support against any attack by France, Italy's main rival in the Mediterranean. Meanwhile, Italy embarked on its first real colonial ventures, the takeover of the Red Sea ports of Asseb and Massawa (both now in Eritrea) in 1885. Southern politicians favoured colonial expansion as an outlet for surplus population and agricultural produce; northern ones wanted Italy to be a great power, saw the army as an essential guarantor of public order, and supported high military spending-the army and navy ministries spent more than all other ministries combined between 1862 and 1913.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Italy - Unification, Fascism, WW2: After the conquest of Rome in 1870, Italian politicians settled down to manage the economy, to build up the country's military power, and-in the telling phrase of the Piedmontese author and statesman Massimo d'Azeglio-to "make Italians." Popular disaffection remained high, especially because of the grist tax that had been introduced in 1869.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
Boats and boating--Equipment and supplies

# data[].attributes.body
1. The third and final act of German Unification was the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71
2. With the French defeat, the German Empire was proclaimed in January 1871 in the Palace at Versailles, France.
3. The Kingdom of Prussia emerged as the leading state of the Empire. Frederick III (1688–1701) became King Frederick I of Prussia in 1701.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Bismarck's Unification of Germany 1864-1871 - Sir Richard Evans

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
The History of Imperial Brazil Brazil History (1822-2020).

# data[].attributes.body
1. On September 7, 1822,prince Dom Pedro on Brazils independence from Portugal.
2. Formal recognition came with a treaty signed by both Brazil and Portugal in late 1825.
3.  As King Dom Pedro IV, he reigned briefly over Portugal, where he also became known as the Liberatores well as the Soldier King.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Unification of Italy Revolutions of 1820 in Piedmont-Sardinia: Italian Unification

# data[].attributes.body
1. In 1870 taking advantage of the fact that France was distracted by the involvement in the Franco Prussian War.
2. The capture of Rome was on September 20, 1870, was the final event of the long process of Italian unification
3.Papal States under Pope Pius IX and the unification of the Italian peninsula under King Victor Emmanuel II