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I found the significance of language in labeling English-learners very interesting. I always want to use words and labels with a more positive connotation, so I'd elect to use words like "emerging bilingual," "bilingual/multilingual learner," "culturally and linguistically diverse," etc. I feel these labels focus on the student's potential and end-goal, to become proficient in the language they're learning. I also found it interesting that terms such as "English-learner," that seem acceptable at first, can actually be inappropriate because it props up English, and possibly gives off the idea that other languages are inferior.

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Unit 2
The Filmore and Snow reading brought to light many  aspects about the English language that we may take for granted. I always heard it was a difficult language to grasp for outsiders because of the plentiful irregularities, and I feel this reading explained that idea in great detail. I find linguistics and language learning in general can be very interesting.
What really caught my attention in this reading was the story of Oakland School Board and "Ebonics." I feel perhaps it went a couple steps too far, declaring the English spoken in many homes of African American students as its own language, and that these students should take part in the Standard English Proficiency Program (26). Though it seemed to have good intentions, wanting to deter teacher/administrator denigration of this vernacular and to promote a better sense of academic English, I don't agree with their proposal. I feel it would take away from students who truly require the funds from this program.

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Wright discusses writing, and how teachers can best maximize a student's prior language knowledge to aid in their English development. Like other chapters, Wright lists several key conclusions from CREDE, NLP, and National Academies. They follow similar ideas expressed in previous chapters. We talk a lot about how valuing a student's prior language knowledge can benefit their English learning. I thought it was interesting to read how this can manifest in seemingly the simplest of skills, in the case of writing in particular, such as holidng a pencil, or forming letters, writing words, sentences, and paragraphs (Wright 235). From this we can see that writing skills are common across languages, especially languages using the Latin/English alphabet.

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In Chapter 8, Wright focuses on reading, the research-based conclusions of organizations such as CREDE, NLP, and National Academies, and several methods for literacy instruction under the Common Core Standards. Many of the conclusions are similar to those we've seen in past readings. Emerging bilinguals require specialized ESL instruction combined with their typical literacy instruction, and basic instruction used for English-speakers alone is not sufficient (196-7). Another similar conclusion is that developing literacy in a student's first language can possibly aid in their English-literacy development (197). Later on in the text, Wright provides a couple of strategies for reading, including implementing notemaking guides to aid students in their reading comprehension, as well as word study and vocabularly mini-lessons to increasing a student's word knowledge (222). Overall, I feel we continue to see common themes and ideas throughout the readings, such as valuing a student's first language knowledge and understanding specialized instruction is very beneficial, if not necessary.

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Wright discusses multiple types of assessment, such as formative, summative, norm-referenced, and criterion-referenced, explains the difference between mere testing and assessment, and dives into assessment related concepts of reliability and validity. Wright states equates reliability with consistency within form, over time, and between forms (129). Wright goes on to explain validity deals with the accuracy an assessment measures what it's targeting (130). Wright argues bias can compromise a tests validity, especially in the case of emerging bilinguals who may possess a different background to that of testmakers (132). In the age of school accountability based off of standardized testing, assessment can be very problematic for emerging bilinguals and schools. The tests may not accurately measure a student's knowledge due to language barriers, and then reflect poorly on the school.

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Wright discusses what I feel to be a recurring idea of the class, which is separating language instruction from content instruction. Similar views were discussed in Lenski and the textbook. Wright explains this can be done through "effective sheltered instruction," such as differentiated instruction, modifying textbooks, and several other methods (273-8). The two instructions should be separated as to allow challenging content instruction for an emerging bilingual student, most likely done by use of the home language to avoid language obstacles, which allows the student to remain caught up in content-education with his/her grade level.

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Speaking and Listening-Wright Ch 7, Translanguaging 

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Speaking and Listening-Wright Ch 7, Translanguaging 

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Wright outlines several key findings from different organizations, including CREDE, NLP, and the National Academies. CREDE and NLP findings emphasized the importance in developing an emerging bilinguals home language simultaneously with English development, as well as challenging English-only instruction that has characterized emerging bilingual education, explaining it does not adequately address student needs based on research (159). Therefore, ESL instruction is imperative to emerging bilingual education and language development (161). Other findings focused on the importance of developing oral language and listening as active skills that have a direct impact on a student's writing and reading comprehension skills (160). National Academies findings are consistent with CREDE and NLP, and further emphasized the importance of interaction with English-speakers and corrective feedback (162). Wright goes on to outline applying theory in the classroom, which I feel is described well in the Translanguaging guide, which includes approaches such as using technology and providing translated texts (87-89).

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Wright provides a history of bi/multilingualism in the U.S., stating it is not a recent phenomenon, as some think (70). Wright provides examples of more liberal ideas surrounding language development and practices, noting a 15th century German scholar who criticized the "sink or swim" method found today in many schools (70). However, Wright chronicles a general American trend towards "linguistic restrictionism," providing examples of restricted language of enslaved peoples as well as those of German-Americans post-WWI (72-3). Arguably this all culminated in a common misconception we find today that English is the "official" language of the United States.

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Lenski provided a number of methods alternative to traditional testing that can effectively assess emerging bilinguals. There was a particular stress on getting to know the student, and their educational background, which will help to determine which mode of assessment the teacher wishes to employ (26). Lenski brought up an idea noted in Garcia and Kleifgen, that teachers must assess what they intend to. More specifically, if they wish to assess language development, they cannot simultaneously, though perhaps unknowingly, assess content comprehension (29). Lenski explains this can be remedied by allowing emerging bilinguals to perform their academic skills in non-traditional ways (29).

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Chapter 9 discusses assessments with regard to emerging bilinguals, particularly how current high stakes assessments are largely invalid (150). Disregarding the many defects of accountability by means of standardized testing, in the special case of emerging bilinguals, standardized tests are culturally biased and don't measure what is intended (150, 155). The chapter explains an entanglement between language proficiency and content proficiency, where the two are intertwined, and if a student is not language proficient, their content proficiency may be inaccurately measured (146). Another idea brought up is how many emerging bilingual students may be rarely attended to if their academic performance will not affect the school's AYP. I feel this chapter outlined the many issues surrounding high stakes testing with regards to not only emerging bilinguals, but the broader school population.

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Chapter 5 explained further the negatives of approaching language education from a monolingual standpoint. It describes how English is often taught in isolation to other language knowledge and the detrimental consequences this has on a student's education (74-5). The chapter also offers ways to "leverage" a students prior knowledge and utilize it to create meaningful learning with English. These practices are called "heteroglossic bilingual instructional practices" and always draw upon a student's language practices, which is an approach more grounded in language-learning research (77). I feel these approaches would be more beneficial to the student because they align with principles we have looked at so far in this course, like valuing a student's home language and prior language knowledge.

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Chapter 6 focused on the benefits of integrating technology into emerging bilingual education. It discussed four "affordances" ICTs offer, including accessibility, retrievability, interactivity, and creativity (94). Throughout the chapter, we can see the benefits of technology and how it supports translanguaging and other language practices. Technology can help reinforce and expand a student's knowledge of their home language, which in turn can aid their English learning (93). An important idea of this chapter was access to technology. Technology undoubtedly can benefit learning. However, Low SES students have less access, which can hamper their education (92). This was something I thought about when state governments began to implement COVID-19 precautionary measures, such as social-distancing and self-quarantine, which led to closing school doors. This made me think about how schools and the state would accommodate students who primarily rely on their schools to provide internet access.

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This reading was helpful in outlining the specific ways teachers, even monolingual teachers, can implement translanguaging approaches in their classroom. Like other readings, these approaches placed an important emphasis on valuing a student's prior language knowledge, and cultural background. It reinforces the idea of dynamic bilingualism, that language knowledge can build off of each other, and language practices can be used fluidly in varying degrees. One specific approach was a secondary education teacher utilizing discovery learning through google translate to build on a student's vocabulary (22).

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Chapter 8 of Garcia and Kleifgen harked on many of the ideas found in the several readings for this unit. An important theme and takeaway was to value a student's funds of knowledge derived from their home lives. Another important thing I took notice was how the reading explicit negated myths some educators take for granted. These include the myth that prioritizing English-speaking at home, even in an household where the parents may not be proficient English-speakers, is of utmost importance (137). This myth in action devalues the student's home language and practices. Another myth was of the disinterested parent, that parents are not all too concerned about their child's education. The reading states this is a common misinterpretation by educators, usually resulting from cultural differences (140). Teachers must try to avoid an ethnographic lens.

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This brief reading of chapter 3 described several education policies regarding teaching emerging bilinguals. It notes that some states have adopted English-only policies, utilizing "sink or swim," and "high-intensity language programs" (30-1). Both approaches arguably are monolingual in focus, and do not align with research on language learning or the benefits of bilingualism (30, 35). Garcia and Kleifgen argue such policies exist possibly because of a ignorance around the "nature of bilingualism," as well as "cultural politics," which may refer to a occasional tendency for some Americans to prioritize English as the dominant language at least within US borders (35).

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This reading provides a thorough analysis of the difficulties with instituting language policy in the United States, as well as various relevant language ideologies. It outlines American society's language perception as almost totally English-dominant evolving into more bi/multilingual accepting. The reading discusses "Americanization" of immigrants (63). This made me think of my own family's history. My dad would tell me how his Italian-immigrant grandmother only spoke broken English, and how his mother, her daughter, spoke Italian as well. However, he never learned Italian, so our family culture became diluted as it "Americanized." While, I believe America should never enact a policy explicitly devaluing or restricting a certain language/culture, there is the issue of universal communication throughout the country and abroad. Obviously there needs to be some commonality, and traditionally that has been through English. But perhaps the US needs to focus on developing English proficiency while also allowing learners to retain their own culture.

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Trumbull discusses what is called the individualist-collectivist framework which can help teachers bridge cultural differences in the classroom. I feel there is a lot of merit to this article, and think it can be especially helpful to teachers educating students with a more collectivist orientation. She describes the difficulty these students may encounter in accommodating to schools with a more individualism-dominant ideology, focusing on self-improvement and independence. These students may not have been, or are not being, raised on such values, and enter schools more accustomed to group values. So, I think that maybe a healthy medium is appropriate, where teachers find ways to bridge differing student cultures, promoting understanding, while also readying students for the outside American world which values individualism.

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I feel the main takeaway I got from Moll was to value a student's world outside of the classroom. Moll makes a good point about how the classroom can seem "isolated" from the child's home-life, and this need not be the case (134). In fact, the opposite, creating a relationship between the home and the classroom, can have positive effects on instruction and meaningful learning. Obviously, children don't only learn in the classroom, and you might even say they are constantly learning everyday while outside of school. The ability to tie together their outside knowledge with school curriculum could be very beneficial. As an aspiring Social Studies teacher, I could see this method put to use in topics such as government elections and political parties, all the while maintaining a healthy classroom environment that encourages diverse opinion.

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Delpit brings up the topic of Ebonics and Black English. I think this is a very interesting topic worthy of attention. I think Delpit makes many good points, such as Black English may be a conscious choice to express membership in and navigate the black community (243). Delpit characterizes a common white-ignorance of Black English, not as racism, but a lack of cultural familiarity, evidenced in an experiment observing whites and blacks evaluate a black child's writing (245). A question I found myself asking from this reading is, what is Standard English? The reading states the ability to speak and write in Standard English is necessary to succeed economically, thus black children struggling with apprehension may continue to struggle outside of school. I wonder if Standard English is really just white-English, and has been the dominant language form for so long that now experts have connoted it with objectivity by defining it as "standard."