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Illustration

by Andrei nacu
published on 26 April 2012

Map of the Roman Empire at its maximum extent in 117 CE, under the rule of Trajan.

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Based on Wikipedia content that has been reviewed, edited, and republished. Original image by Andrei nacu. Uploaded by Jan van der Crabben, published on 26 April 2012. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: Public Domain. This item is in the public domain, and can be used, copied, and modified without any restrictions. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.

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nacu, Andrei. " Roman Empire in 117 CE." World History Encyclopedia. Last modified April 26, 2012. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/266/roman-empire-in-117-ce/.

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Map of the Roman Empire at its maximum extent in 117 CE, under the rule of Trajan.

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This medieval map by Matthew Paris depicts both the Antonine Wall and Hadrian's Wall towards the top. It dates from circa 1250, more than a thousand years after the Walls' construction.
British Library, London.[1]

The Antonine Wall, known to the Romans as Vallum Antonini, was a turf fortification on stone foundations, built by the Romans across what is now the Central Belt of Scotland, between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth. Built some twenty years after Hadrian's Wall to the south, and intended to supersede it, while it was garrisoned it was the northernmost frontier barrier of the Roman Empire. It spanned approximately 63 kilometres (39 miles) and was about 3 metres (10 feet) high and 5 metres (16 feet) wide. Lidar scans have been carried out to establish the length of the wall and the Roman distance units used. Security was bolstered by a deep ditch on the northern side. It is thought that there was a wooden palisade on top of the turf. The barrier was the second of two "great walls" created by the Romans in Great Britain in the second century AD. Its ruins are less evident than those of the better-known and longer Hadrian's Wall to the south, primarily because the turf and wood wall has largely weathered away, unlike its stone-built southern predecessor.

Construction began in 142 AD at the order of Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius, and took about 12 years to complete. Antoninus Pius never visited Britain, unlike his predecessor Hadrian. Pressure from the Caledonians may have led Antoninus to send the empire's troops farther north. The Antonine Wall was protected by 16 forts with small fortlets between them; troop movement was facilitated by a road linking all the sites known as the Military Way. The soldiers who built the wall commemorated the construction and their struggles with the Caledonians with decorative slabs, twenty of which survive. The wall was abandoned only eight years after completion, and the garrisons relocated rearward to Hadrian's Wall. Most of the wall and its associated fortifications have been destroyed over time, but some remains are visible. Many of these have come under the care of Historic Environment Scotland and the UNESCO World Heritage Committee.

Antonine Wall near Bar Hill showing ditch

Stone foundation of the Wall in Bearsden, Glasgow

The Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius ordered the construction of the Antonine Wall around 142 AD. Quintus Lollius Urbicus, governor of Roman Britain at the time, initially supervised the effort, which took about twelve years to complete. The wall stretches 63 kilometres (39 miles) from Old Kilpatrick in West Dunbartonshire on the Firth of Clyde to Carriden near Bo'ness on the Firth of Forth. The wall was intended to extend Roman territory and dominance by replacing Hadrian's Wall 160 kilometres (100 miles) to the south, as the frontier of . But while the Romans did establish forts and temporary camps farther north of the Antonine Wall in order to protect their routes to the north of Scotland, they did not conquer the Caledonians, and the Antonine Wall suffered many attacks. The Romans called the land north of the wall , though in some contexts the term may refer to the whole area north of Hadrian's Wall. The land north of the Antonine Wall also ended up becoming part of Scotland known as Albany.

The Antonine Wall was shorter than Hadrian's Wall and built of turf on a stone foundation, but it was still an impressive achievement. It was also a simpler fortification than Hadrian's Wall insofar as it did not have a subsidiary ditch system behind it to the south, as Hadrian's Wall did with its Vallum. The stone foundations and wing walls of the original forts on the Antonine Wall demonstrate that the original plan was to build a stone wall similar to Hadrian's Wall, but this was quickly amended. As built, the wall was typically a bank, about four metres (13 feet) high, made of layered turves and occasionally earth with a wide ditch on the north side, and a military way on the south. The Romans initially planned to build forts every 10 kilometres (6 miles), but this was soon revised to every 3.3 kilometres (2 miles), resulting in a total of nineteen forts along the wall. The best preserved but also one of the smallest forts is Rough Castle Fort. In addition to the forts, there are at least 9 smaller fortlets, very likely on Roman mile spacings, which formed part of the original scheme, some of which were later replaced by forts. The most visible fortlet is Kinneil, at the eastern end of the Wall, near Bo'ness.

There was once a remarkable Roman structure within sight of the Antonine Wall at Stenhousemuir, which took its name from the Roman "stone house". This was Arthur's O'on, a circular stone domed monument or rotunda, which may have been a temple, or a tropaeum, a victory monument. It was demolished for its stone in 1743, though a replica exists at Penicuik House.

Forts and Fortlets[9] associated with the Antonine Wall[10] from west to east: Bishopton, Old Kilpatrick, Duntocher, Cleddans, Castlehill, Bearsden, Summerston, Balmuildy, Wilderness Plantation, Cadder, Glasgow Bridge, Kirkintilloch, Auchendavy, Bar Hill, Croy Hill, Westerwood, Castlecary, Seabegs, Rough Castle, Camelon, Watling Lodge, Falkirk, Mumrills, Inveravon, Kinneil, Carriden

The Bridgeness Slab - the easternmost distance slab

In addition to the line of the Wall itself there are a number of coastal forts both in the East (e.g. Inveresk) and West (Outerwards and Lurg Moor), which should be considered as outposts and/or supply bases to the Wall itself. In addition a number of forts farther north were brought back into service in the Gask Ridge area, including Ardoch, Strageath, Bertha (Perth) and probably Dalginross and Cargill.

RIB 2193. Distance Slab of the Second Legion.[12] George MacDonald calls it no. 6 in the 2nd edition of his book The Roman Wall in Scotland.[13]: 373-376  He says it was found near the farm at Summerston on the banks of the Kelvin. It has been scanned and a video produced.[14]

Recent research by Glasgow University has shown that the distance stones, stone sculptures unique to the Antonine Wall which were embedded in the wall to mark the lengths built by each legion, were brightly painted unlike their present bare appearance. These stones are preserved in the university's museum and are said to be the best-preserved examples of statuary from any Roman frontier. Several of the slabs have been analysed by various techniques including portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF). Tiny remnants of paint have been detected by surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS). Several of the distance slabs have been scanned and 3-D videos produced. There are plans to reproduce the slabs, both digitally and in real physical copies, with their authentic colours. A copy of the Bridgeness Slab has already been made and can be found in Bo'ness. It is also expected that lottery funding will allow replicas of distance markers to be placed along the length of the wall.

The Antonine Wall, looking east, from Bar Hill between Twechar and Croy

The wall was abandoned only eight years after completion,[citation needed ] when the Roman legions withdrew to Hadrian's Wall in 162 AD, and over time may have reached an accommodation with the Brythonic tribes of the area, whom they may have fostered as possible buffer states which would later become "The Old North". After a series of attacks in 197, the emperor Septimius Severus arrived in Scotland in 208, and campaigned against the Maeatae (based in the central Midland Valley on either side of the Firth of Clyde - Firth of Forth line) and the Caledonians to their north. While he carried out substantial work on Hadrian's Wall at the time, there is no evidence of any attention being paid to the remains of the Antonine Wall during the campaigns of 208-210. References in Late Roman sources to Severus' wall-building activities led to later scholars like Bede mistaking references to the Antonine Wall for ones to Hadrian's Wall.

In the centuries since the Antonine Wall lay abandoned, it had an influence over culture between the Forth and the Clyde.

Writing in 730 AD, Bede, following Gildas in his De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, mistakenly ascribes the construction of the Antonine Wall to the Britons in his Historia Ecclesiastica 1.12:

The islanders built the wall which they had been told to raise, not of stone, since they had no workmen capable of such a work, but of sods, which made it of no use. Nevertheless, they carried it for many miles between the two bays or inlets of the sea of which we have spoken; to the end that where the protection of the water was wanting, they might use the rampart to defend their borders from the irruptions of the enemies. Of the work there erected, that is, of a rampart of great breadth and height, there are evident remains to be seen at this day [AD 730]. It begins at about two miles' distance from the monastery of Aebbercurnig [Abercorn], west of it, at a place called in the Pictish language Peanfahel, but in the English tongue, Penneltun [Kinneil], and running westward, ends near the city of Aicluith [Dumbarton].

Bede associated Gildas's turf wall with the Antonine Wall. As for Hadrian's Wall, Bede again follows Gildas:

[the departing Romans] thinking that it might be some help to the allies [Britons], whom they were forced to abandon, constructed a strong stone wall from sea to sea, in a straight line between the towns that had been there built for fear of the enemy, where Severus also had formerly built a rampart.

Bede obviously identified Gildas's stone wall as Hadrian's Wall, but he sets its construction in the 5th century rather than the 120s, and does not mention Hadrian. And he would appear to have believed that the ditch-and-mound barrier known as the Vallum (just to the south of, and contemporary with, Hadrian's Wall) was the rampart constructed by Severus. Many centuries would pass before just who built what became apparent.

In medieval histories, such as the chronicles of John of Fordun, the wall is called Gryme's dyke. Fordun says that the name came from the grandfather of the imaginary king Eugenius son of Farquahar. This evolved over time into Graham's dyke - a name still found in Bo'ness at the wall's eastern end - and then linked with Clan Graham. Of note is that Graeme in some parts of Scotland is a nickname for the devil, and Gryme's Dyke would thus be the Devil's Dyke, mirroring the name of the Roman limes in Southern Germany often called 'Teufelsmauer'. Grímr and Grim are bynames for Odin or Wodan, who might be credited with the wish to build earthworks in unreasonably short periods of time. This name is the same one found as Grim's Ditch several times in England in connection with early ramparts: for example, near Wallingford, Oxfordshire or between Berkhamsted (Herts) and Bradenham (Bucks). Other names used by antiquarians include the Wall of Pius and the Antonine Vallum, after Antoninus Pius. Hector Boece in his 1527 History of Scotland called it the "wall of Abercorn", repeating the story that it had been destroyed by Graham.

Renaissance patrons in the 16th century, including George Keith, 5th Earl Marischal, who were exposed to the world of international scholarship through diplomacy, began to collect antiquities. The Earl Marischal set a stone from the Antonine Wall in the walls of Dunnotar Castle and had it painted and gilded, probably by Andrew Melville of Stonehaven. The stone is now at the Hunterian Museum in Glasgow and residual paint traces likely remaining from its later reuse have been analysed.

An infrared aerial photograph of Kinneil Roman Fortlet, near Bo'ness at the eastern end of the Antonine Wall.

The UK government's nomination of the Antonine Wall for World Heritage status to the international conservation body UNESCO was first officially announced in 2003. It has been backed by the Scottish Government since 2005 and by Scotland's then Culture Minister Patricia Ferguson since 2006. It became the UK's official nomination in late January 2007, and MSPs were called to support the bid anew in May 2007. The Antonine Wall was listed as an extension to the World Heritage Site "Frontiers of the Roman Empire" on 7 July 2008. Though the Antonine Wall is mentioned in the text, it does not appear on UNESCO's map of world heritage properties.

Several individual sites along the line of the wall are in the care of Historic Scotland. These are at:

All sites are unmanned and open at all reasonable times.

The first capable effort to systematically map the Antonine Wall was undertaken in 1764 by William Roy, the forerunner of the Ordnance Survey. He provided accurate and detailed drawings of its remains, and where the wall has been destroyed by later development, his maps and drawings are now the only reliable record of it. In the 19th century, the Ordnance Survey showed the visible traces of the wall in some detail on its first and second edition maps at 25-inch and 6-inch scales, but no attempt was made at that date to undertake archaeological work.

Sir George Macdonald carried out systematic work on the wall that was published in 1911 and in an expanded second edition in 1934. His work provided the basis for a large-scale (25-inch) folio produced by the Ordnance Survey in 1931. The Ordnance Survey produced a revised folio in 1954-1957, and then carried out a complete re-survey in 1979-80. They also published a smaller scale map of the Wall, at 1:25,000 in 1969. Further mapping activity was carried out to support the nomination of the Wall as a World Heritage Site

Modern computer techniques like using GIS and LIDAR can now map the wall in 3-dimensions which makes it much easier to study for example how visible forts and fortlets were to their fellow soldiers along the wall.

William Roy's plan of Camelon Roman Station and the adjacent section of the Wall, published 1793.

Part of the OS 25-inch map of 1897, showing a section of the Antonine Wall between Rough Castle and Camelon

Ordnance Survey Map of the Antonine Wall, published 1969.

Finds from the Antonine Wall in the Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery in Glasgow.

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The Antonine Wall, known to the Romans as Vallum Antonini, was a turf fortification on stone foundations, built by the Romans across what is now the Central Belt of Scotland, between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth.

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Few periods in history have had a greater impact on humankind than that of ancient Rome. While its influence on western civilization, in particular, has been ubiquitous, its remnants can be found virtually everywhere, from our calendar and political systems to our alphabet. The more-than-1,000-year span of influence that began with the founding of Rome in 753 B.C. has left an indelible mark on the world.

So who exactly left an indelible mark on ancient Rome?

From its inception to its collapse in 476 A.D., ancient Rome had three distinct periods: Regal Rome, (753-509 B.C.), when monarchs ruled; Republican Rome (509-27 B.C.), when Roman elected its governors; and Imperial Rome (27 B.C.-476 A.D.), when a supreme ruler oversaw the empire, and in early years did so alongside the elected senate. Over that time, Rome was ruled by scores of kings, dictators and emperors who expanded it from a small city to an empire spanning nearly 2 million square miles and consisting of, historians estimate, anywhere from 50 to 90 million inhabitants.

These rulers, often as innovative and ingenious as they were brutal and corrupt, spanned the gamut-from teenagers and impotent leaders barely able to hold court for months to era-defining emperors responsible for molding at least part of the world today as we know it. Here are a few of the most influential.

Gaius Julius Caesar (reign from 49 B.C. to 44 B.C.)

Technically, as the last ruler of Rome's Republican era, Gaius Julius Caesar was never recognized as an emperor. But it's impossible to tell the story of Rome (or its eventual transition from a republic to an empire, without mentioning Julius Caesar. Aside from being a successful general, conquering Spain and Gaul-feats that greatly expanded the size, power and wealth of Rome-Caesar enacted a number of foundational reforms that would set up the oncoming Roman Empire. As leader of the Roman Republic, Caesar increased the size of the senate to represent more Roman citizens, established the Julian calendar (the 365-day, 12-month calendar still in use worldwide), granted Roman citizenship to all those living under Roman rule and redistributed wealth among the poor.

These reforms made Caesar increasingly popular with Rome's commoners while alienating him from its elite (and leading to his eventual infamous assassination). After his murder at the hands of dozens of members of the senate, Rome officially transitioned from a democracy to an imperial society.

Caesar Augustus (Reign: 27 B.C. to 14 A.D.)

Gaius Octavius Thurinus, also known as Octavian or " Augustus," served as the first official emperor of the Roman Empire, and is often seen by historians as the greatest. The emperor (for whom the month of "August" is named) introduced the period of peace known as the Pax Romana, which saw the Roman economy, agriculture and arts flourish. During that period of relative peace, Augustus also established a number of reforms-including tax incentives for families with more than three children and penalties for childless marriages-that helped the Roman population grow. An aggressive builder, he also oversaw the construction and rehabilitation of many of Rome's great temples and the strengthening of its legendary aqueduct system.

Tiberius (Reign: 14 to 37 A.D.)

In ancient Rome, few emperors were better at acquiring land for the empire than Tiberius Caesar Augustus. Rome's second emperor owes his place on this list solely due to his military conquests. As an emperor and politician, Tiberius is largely considered to have been uninterested in the job and not shy in showing that disinterest. (Roman philosopher Pliny the Elder called him "the gloomiest of men.") When it came to conquering neighboring lands and expanding Rome's territory, however, few were better. During his reign, he oversaw one of the greatest military expansions in ancient Rome's history, widening the empire's boundaries deep into present-day Croatia and Germany.

Vespasian (reign: 69 to 79 A.D.)

After the tyrannical reign of Emperor Nero, Rome found itself in a crisis of instability. So much so that during the 12-month span following Nero's death, the empire had four different rulers (known as the "Year of the Four Emperors"). It wasn't until Titus Flavius Vespasianus ascended the throne that stability and prosperity returned to Rome, setting the nation back on track. During his reign, Vespasian helped reform the financial system and began many ambitious construction projects, most notably the Colosseum. Vespasian was also the first Roman emperor ever to be succeeded by his son. That father-son handoff would lay the groundwork for the Flavian Dynasty, a near three-decade period of fiscal and cultural prosperity.

Trajan (reign: 98 to 117 A.D.)

Often in the conversation for "greatest Roman emperor" by historians, Marcus Ulpius Traianus was the second Roman emperor in the Nerva-Antonine dynasty commonly referred to as Rome's "Golden Age." Bolstered by one of the greatest military expansions in Roman history, Trajan's reign marked the peak of Rome's geographic expansion, as it covered nearly 1.7 million kilometers of territory in Europe, Africa and Asia and boasted nearly 57 million people. In addition to his military successes, Trajan also oversaw many ambitious building projects, including the still-standing architectural marvel, Trajan's Column. He also expanded Augustus' financial aid programs for poor Roman citizens, in turn providing one of the earliest examples in history of a federal welfare program.

Hadrian (reign: 117 to 138 A.D.)

Publius Aelius Hadrianus claims a spot as one of Rome's most influential emperors for his ability to secure Rome and its borders and the unprecedented engineering prowess he displayed while doing so. He oversaw construction of Hadrian's Wall, a 73-mile-long defensive fort-much of which still stands today and is recognized as a British cultural icon. He also leaves the Pantheon, which revolutionized architecture with its innovative construction of shapes built with concrete.

Antoninus Pius (reign: 138 to 161 A.D.)

Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius presided over Rome during one of the civilization's most peaceful periods. That lack of turmoil afforded Pius the opportunity to focus on advancing on the infrastructure successes and civic reforms of his predecessor Hadrian. His greatest contribution to Roman civilization, however, came through the legal system. As the first Roman emperor to adhere to the concept of "natural law," Pius instituted a legal system that would serve later as the reference point for many nations developing their own legal systems, including Britain, France and Germany.

Marcus Aurelius (reign: 161 to 180 A.D.)

Known as the "emperor-philosopher," emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus produced writings now considered philosophical canon. A fervent adherent of Stoicism-a Hellenistic school of philosophy that claimed that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker was key to gaining universal reason-the emperor (who was famously portrayed in the Oscar-winning Gladiator) is widely regarded as one of history's most essential philosophers. His book Meditations is largely regarded as a literary masterpiece.

Valerian (reign: 253 to 260 A.D.)

Publius Licinius Valerianus makes the influential list less for what he did than what was done to him. In 260 A.D., after the Battle of Edessa against the Persians, Valerian (a notorious persecutor of Christians) became the first Roman emperor to be taken as a prisoner of war. The unprecedented capture sent shockwaves through the Roman Empire, only to be exacerbated by the fact Valerian was never rescued. The emperor went on to die in captivity under unknown circumstances. Rome's inability to rescue its own sovereign would deal a seismic blow to the mystique of power the Romans held over the world. And, many historians believe, it would plant the seed in the minds of foreign nations that the previously "unconquerable" nation of Rome could indeed be toppled.

Diocletian (reign 284 to 305 A.D.)

On one hand, Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus deserves to be remembered for saving Rome from the "Crisis of the Third Century," a near 50-year period-marked by civil war, political instability rebellions and invasions-during which the empire nearly collapsed. On the other, some historians believe it was his installation of the "tetrarchy" form of government that might prove his most valuable contribution. Under the tetrarchy, Diocletian mandated that Rome would be ruled by four leaders: an emperor in the west, one in the east (the "Augustus" emperor) and two junior co-emperors (the "Caesars"). The tetrarchy didn't last, but it did provide the groundwork for the practice of splitting the Roman empire into eastern and western halves, a move that would prove crucial in extending its lifespan.

Constantine the Great (reign: 306 to 337 A.D.)

Considered by many to be the last western Roman emperor, Constantine I brought many changes that would irrevocably alter the Roman empire. He was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity and permanently established religious tolerance for Christianity with his Edict of Milan in 313 A.D. Constantine also built Byzantium (later renamed Constantinople), which would become the empire's epicenter for the next thousand years and mark the transition into the new epoch known as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantine Empire.

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11 Roman Emperors Who Helped Mold the Ancient World

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These rulers were often as innovative and ingenious as they were brutal and corrupt.

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Roman Soldiers Facts for Kids | History, Traditions & Summary

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The Roman Soldiers were the armed forces of the Roman Empire throughout its history spanning approximately 2205 years. Learn more about it here!

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The wooden watchtower reconstructed in 2008 and based on the work of Dietwulf Baatz

The Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes ( German: Obergermanisch-Raetischer Limes), or ORL, is a 550-kilometre-long section of the former external frontier of the Roman Empire between the rivers Rhine and Danube. It runs from Rheinbrohl to Eining on the Danube. The Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes is an archaeological site and, since 2005, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Together with the Lower Germanic Limes it forms part of the Limes Germanicus.

The Limes used either a natural boundary such as a river or typically an earth bank and ditch with a wooden palisade and watchtowers at intervals. A system of linked forts was built behind the Limes.

The Saalburg. Built 1899-1907, the site is the most significant attempt to reconstruct the archeological past. The southwest corner built by Louis Jacobi in 1885 with merlons at the wider and thus correct intervals, had to be replaced during the full reconstruction, probably at the behest of Emperor William II, with merlons spaced at the medieval interval, which is thus wrong.[1]

Roman tower (reconstruction) - Ober-Mörlen / Taunus (Section 4)

The term (plural: limites) originally meant "border path" or "swathe" in Latin. In Germany, "Limes" usually refers to the Rhaetian Limes and Upper Germanic Limes, collectively referred to as the Limes Germanicus. Both sections of limes are named after the adjacent Roman provinces of (Rhaetia) and Germania Superior (Upper Germania).

In the Roman limites we have, for the first time in European history, clearly defined territorial borders of a sovereign state that were visible on the ground to friend and foe alike. Most of the Upper German-Rhaetian Limes did not follow rivers or mountain ranges, which would have formed natural boundaries for the Roman Empire. It includes the longest land border in the European section of the limes, interrupted for only a few kilometres, by a section that follows the River Main between Großkrotzenburg and Miltenberg. By contrast, elsewhere in Europe, the limes is largely defined by the rivers Rhine ( Lower Germanic Limes) and Danube ( Danube Limes).

The function of the Roman military frontiers has been increasingly discussed for some time. The latest research tends to view at least the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes not as a primarily military demarcation line, but rather a monitored economic boundary for the non-Roman lands. The limes, it is argued, was not really suitable for fending off systematic external attacks. Thanks to a skillful economic policy, the Roman Empire extended its influence far to the northeast, beyond the frontier. Evidence of this are the many border crossings which, although guarded by Roman soldiers, would have enabled a brisk trade, and the numerous Roman finds in "Free Germania" (as far as Jutland and Scandinavia[citation needed ]). Attempts were occasionally also made, to settle Roman legions beyond the limes or, more often, to recruit auxiliaries. As a result, the Romanization of the population extended beyond the limes.

The Limes Gate at Dalkingen (WP 12/81), which was built in five phases of expansion

At WP 12/77, part of the limes wall has been fully reconstructed (Mahdholz)

A map of the County of Hanau by Friedrich Zollmann in 1728 gives one of the earliest depictions of the limes, described as Reliquiae munimenti Romani sive Lineae adversos Germanos erectae, hodieque Der Pfalgraben, Pfolgraben vel Polgraben dictae

Interest in the limes as the remains of a site dating to the Roman period was rekindled in Germany at the time of the Renaissance and Renaissance humanism. This was bolstered by the rediscovery of the and of Tacitus in monastic libraries in the 15th and early 16th centuries.

Scholars like Simon Studion (1543-1605) researched inscriptions and discovered forts. Studion led archaeological excavations of the Roman camp of Benningen am Neckar on the Neckar section of the Neckar-Odenwald Limes. Local limes commissions were established but were confined to small areas, for example, in the Grand Duchy of Hesse or Grand Duchy of Baden, due to the political situation. Johann Alexander Döderlein was the first person to record the course of the limes in the Eichstätt region. In 1723, he was the first to interpret the meaning of the limes correctly and published the first scholarly treatise about it in 1731.

Imperial Limes Commission

Only after the foundation of the German Empire could archaeologists begin to study more precisely the route of the limes, about which there had previously only been a rudimentary knowledge. As a result, they were able to make the first systematic excavations in the second half of the 19th century. In 1892, the Imperial Limes Commission (RLK) was established for this purpose in Berlin, under the direction of the ancient historian, Theodor Mommsen. The work of this commission is considered pioneering for reworking of Roman provincial history. Especially productive were the first ten years of research, which worked out the course of the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes and named the camps along the border. The research reports on the excavations were published from 1894 to the dissolution of the Commission in 1937. The individual reports went under the title of The Upper Rhaetian Limes of the Roman Empire (ORL), which was published in fifteen volumes, of which seven cover the route of the limes and eight cover the various camps and forts. The documents of the Imperial Limes Commission are now in the custody of the Roman-Germanic Commission of the German Archaeological Institute. The RLK numbered the sections of the route, the forts and the watchtowers (Wp) on the individual sections.

In the course of this work the 550-kilometre-long route of the limes was surveyed, divided into sections and described. This division followed the administrative boundaries in 19th-century Germany and not that of ancient Rome:

Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes in general

Ernst Fabricius, Friedrich Leonhard, Felix Hettner, Oscar von Sarwey et al.: Der obergermanisch-raetische Limes des Roemerreiches. publ. by the Reichs-Limeskommission in at least 15 volumes. O. Petters, Heidelberg/Berlin/Leipzig, 1894-1937 (partial reprint: Codex-Verlag, Böblingen, 1973; full reprint: Greiner, Remshalden, 2005ff., ISBN 3-935383-72-X, ISBN 978-3-935383-61-5).

Hans-Peter Kuhnen (ed.): Gestürmt - Geräumt - Vergessen? Der Limesfall und das Ende der Römerherrschaft in Südwestdeutschland. Württembergisches Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, 1992, ISBN 3-8062-1056-X.

Hans Schönberger: Die römischen Truppenlager der frühen und mittleren Kaiserzeit zwischen Nordsee und Inn. In: Bericht der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission. 66, 1985, pp. 321-495.

Sections

1. Dietwulf Baatz: ^ Die Saalburg - ein Limeskastell 80 Jahre nach der Rekonstruktion. In: Günter Ulbert, Gerhard Weber (eds.): Konservierte Geschichte? Antike Bauten und ihre Erhaltung. Konrad Theiss Verlag. Stuttgart, 1985, ISBN 3-8062-0450-0, p. 126; Ill. 127.

2. ^ Weißenburg stiftet eigenen Kulturpreis, published in 1986, retrieved 22 June 2016

3. Bernhard Overbeck: ^ Johann Alexander Döderlein (1675-1745) und die „vaterländische" Numismatik, Brunswick, 2012, pp.147-165

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Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes - Wikipedia

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The Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes ( German: Obergermanisch-Raetischer Limes), or ORL, is a 550-kilometre-long section of the former external frontier of the Roman Empire between the rivers Rhine and Danube. It runs from Rheinbrohl to Eining on the Danube. The Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes is an archaeological site and, since 2005, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

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