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In Greece there are two huge debates going on concerning the establishment of vast wind farms on the mountains and of new oil extraction factories in pristine territories. How can we cope with this dilemma between fossil fuels and wind power? How can we calculate the real cost of either one, when both may have long-term negative impacts like loss of habitats, destruction of landscapes or pollution and over-exploitation of water resources. It seems that the way to go is “think globally - act locally”. Keeping in mind that the greenhouse effect affects us all, we need to turn to whatever resources and technology we have available in our own countries, areas or even back yards. Tapping into and updating local knowledge and old-time techniques, researching and investing in technology of small scale energy sources, might be the way to proceed.

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Fossil fuels have characteristics which irrefutably make them the most reliable fuels, so far.   The facts that they have high calorific value and they are stable mean that they can readily produce large amounts of energy and can be easily stored and transported. The high cost of rare earth elements necessary for the transformation of alternative energy sources into electricity, makes extracting and processing of fossil fuels relatively cheaper. This is very important for developing countries in particular, which cannot invest in that technology when they can hardly sustain themselves.

Therefore “fossil fuels are still the cheapest, most reliable energy resources available. When a developing country wants to build a functional economic system and end rampant poverty, it turns to fossil fuels.” In India 400 million people live without sufficient food or shelter. India hopes to transition to renewable energy as its economy grows, but the investment needed to meet its renewable energy goals “is equivalent to over four times the country’s annual defense spending, and over ten times the country’s annual spending on health and education.” (Tucker, 2016 ).

It has been documented that when poverty decreases carbon emissions increase and vice versa (Goldstein, 2015).  But this seems to be the case for developing countries.

In developed countries the situation has been changing since 2000, with research and investments in alternative sources of energy starting to pay off. “21 developed countries have reduced annual greenhouse gas emissions while simultaneously growing their economies.” (Tucker, 2016).

How did they achieve that? “There is not a single formula, policy or demographic trend that’s driven GDP-GHG decoupling across all countries. Sweden, for example, implemented ambitious policies including carbon taxes that supported its decoupling. Denmark’s rapid increase in renewable energy reduced emissions while stimulating local production.” (Aden, 2016)

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1. Fossil fuels are a finite resource.
It takes a certain amount of time for the fossilization process to occur on our planet. This means fossil fuels are a finite resource. Once they are harvested, they cannot be replaced in the lifetime of anyone living right now, according to our current knowledge. It takes millions of years and specific conditions to replace a fossil fuel. That’s a very different effort compared to the energy released in a daily sunrise.

2. Fossil fuels are often cheap because of subsidies.
Many governments tend to subsidize the price of fossil fuels instead of letting the free market govern what they tend to be. Businesses that operate within the fossil fuel industry also receive subsidies so that they can continue providing energy products to consumers at reasonable costs. US Government incentives for fossil fuels are typically $4 billion or more annually. In comparison, renewable energy resources like solar may receive about $1 billion annually.

3. Fossil fuels combust to create an acidic environment.
Many of the outcomes which come out of the combustion of fossil fuels without condensing technologies lead to an environment that is more acidic. This acidity can change ocean environments, alter how crops can grow, and may even lead to a higher risk of drought and famine. Many ecosystems on Earth are very sensitive to changing conditions, which means continued fossil fuel use could lead to unpredictable and extremely negative consequences.

4. They are the main source of carbon dioxide.
When burnt, fossil fuels emit carbon dioxide—a greenhouse gas that is the main culprit of global warming.

5. Fossil fuels can damage the environment through human error.
Fossil fuels, particularly petroleum products, can spill during harvest or transport. From oil pipeline spills to disasters such as the Exxon Valdez spill, human error can cause a lot of unintended environmental damage. Even regular wear and tear, if not properly maintained, can lead to a higher risk of a leak occurring. Fossil fuels, being needed to be transported to their processing plants via land, air and water can involve leaks in oil tankers or ships getting drowned deep under the sea. The crude oil contains toxic substances that pose serious hazards to all organisms.

6. Fossil fuels aren’t a technology.
Although we can make it cheaper to find and access fossil fuels, the fuel itself is not a technology. This means there will always be a baseline price for this product, especially since many of them are traded as commodities. Renewable energy resources, such as wind and solar, are based on technology. The prices for these energy resources have been in a continual decline since the 1970s. In some communities, solar and wind energy is virtually the same price as the energy created through fossil fuel combustion.

7. They have rising prices.
Countries in the Middle East have huge oil and gas reserves, so many other countries are dependent on them for constant fuel supply. They comprise the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), which is are responsible for almost half the world’s oil production, even holding the majority of oil reserves. It constantly monitors the volume of oil consumption and then adjusts its own production to maintain desired barrel prices. This results oil price fluctuations around the world.

8. Fossil fuels may contribute to public health issues.
Outside of the risks that pollution causes for premature fatalities, there are ongoing health issues that can be caused by the combustion of fossil fuels. Air pollution that comes from fossil fuel consumption can trigger symptoms that are similar to asthma. It can also create irritation with a person’s air passageways that can trigger chronic coughing, allergy development, lethargy, and other quality of life concerns. The ozone layer is being worn-out by the greenhouse gases released from fossil fuels. Ozone holes allow harmful UV rays to enter the Earth’s atmosphere, affecting human life through diseases, particularly skin cancer.

9. Fossil fuels can be dangerous to harvest.
Coal miners can develop a condition known as Black Lung Disease, which in severe cases is almost always eventually fatal. Natural gas drillers can be exposed to concentrated chemicals and silica, which can lead to adverse health issues. Oil workers are exposed to toxic chemicals frequently, which can increase their risks of cancer development. This shows that harvesting fossil fuels can be dangerous to personal health.

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1. Well Developed

The technology we use to harness the energy in fossil fuels is well developed. The main reason for this is that fossil fuels have been used to power our world for many decades.

2. They produce large amounts of energy.
These energy sources are easily combustible, where most combustion engines just need a little amount of them to power up. Industrial revolution has popularized their use, where all machines, vehicles and some devices depend on the fossil fuels, may it be petroleum, coal or natural gas.

3. They are stable.
Composed of the molecules of mainly carbon and hydrogen, fossil fuels are very stable. They are easy to store because of the constancy in their molecular constitution, not forming other compounds if stored in cans for a longer periods of time. This is the same reason why carrying them is also easier than other forms of fuel.

4. They have high calorific value.
All energy we produce has a specific calorific value, and the more it is, the more it is effective. When it comes to fossil fuels, they are the highest producers of calorific value, which is why they are still preferred over renewable or alternative energy sources.

5. They can be easily stored and transported.
One big advantage of using fossil fuels is that they can be easily stored and transported. Having a stable composition, they are strong enough to be carried from one place to another. Even natural gas is already being transported to different areas.

6. They are easily available.
Since fossil fuels have been of such a great utility, more extractions are done every day. With the advancements in science and technology, refineries and extraction procedures have also improved a lot, making their availability even easier.

7. They are easy to set up.
Since fossil fuels are easily available, their power plants can be constructed anywhere in the world. They are also easier to extract and process, as well as capable of producing large amounts of energy at a single location.

8. They cost low.
Due to their availability throughout the world and easy extraction methods, fossil fuels are not that expensive. To obtain them in a refined form, they just need to be properly treated without a wide set up, so it is economical. Unlike alternative energy sources, like wind or solar, that investments needed for their facilities are too high, preventing many people from installing solar panels and wind turbines at home.

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Fossil fuels are substances generated by the fossilization process of the organic remains of prehistoric animals and plants. Comprising mainly of coal, natural gas, and petroleum, they have fueled human development and its ever growing energy demands, though actually a finite resource with considerable impacts on the environment.

“In 2007, The U.S Energy Information Administration (EIA) concluded that 86,4% of the primary energy consumption in the world can be sourced back to fossil fuels.” (https://energyinformative.org/fossil-fuels-pros-and-cons/ ).

Yet, it does not come without a toll. The debate becomes more complex when we consider their advantages and disadvantages in connection to developed and developing countries.

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The alternative to massive modern windmills: the kite, a 4.000 year technology to serve our future needs!

http://www.airbornewindeurope.org/

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Let the fossil fuels rest in peace | Guido Luetsch | TEDxTUHH

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Advantages and disadvantages of fossil fuels in connection to developed and developing countries.

References:

Aden Nate, April 5, 2016.

The Roads to Decoupling: 21 Countries Are Reducing Carbon Emissions While Growing GDP.

https://www.wri.org/blog/2016/04/roads-decoupling-21-countries-are-reducing-carbon-emissions-while-growing-gdp

Ahuja Dilip, Tatsutani Marika, 2009.

Sustainable energy for developing countries. Published in S.A.P.I.E.N.S. 2.1 | 2009 : Vol.2 / n°1

https://journals.openedition.org/sapiens/823

Ayres Crystal, July 2, 2015.

15 Most Notable Advantages and Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels

https://connectusfund.org/15-most-notable-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-fossil-fuels

Goldstein Adam, December 15, 2015.

What is the link between carbon emissions and poverty?

https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/12/what-is-the-link-between-carbon-emissions-and-poverty/

Tucker Davey, August 5, 2016.

Developing Countries Can’t Afford Climate Change.

https://futureoflife.org/2016/08/05/developing-countries-cant-afford-climate-change/?cn-reloaded=1

https://www.energy.ox.ac.uk/wordpress/energy-in-developing-countries/

https://energyinformative.org/fossil-fuels-pros-and-cons/

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http://www.earthsendangered.com/search-regions3.asp

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Screenshot_2019-03-16 Endangered plants of Greece - List - Earth's Endangered Creatures

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Theme 5: Threatening factors of plant diversity

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Theme 5: Threatening factors of plant diversity

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wrote Historia Plantarum (Enquiry into Plants) between c. 350 BC and c. 287 BC, making it the first scientific record of the natural history of plants. In his second book On the Causes of Plants, he focuses on the cultivation of plants, looking more into their economical uses. He was the first to organize knowledge and observation about plants' anatomy, size, means of propagation, preferences in terrain, how they are grown, their practical uses, even the effects of climate on wood. It seems quite a meticulous work which set off to classify the wealth of plants, their dependence on abiotic factors like climate and soil, as well as their importance for humans' health.

References:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Theophrastus)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophrastus

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Cinnamomum verum, called true cinnamon tree or Ceylon cinnamon tree is a small evergreen tree belonging to the family Lauraceae, native to Sri Lanka.  In 2016, Indonesia and China produced 75% of the world's supply of cinnamon.

References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamomum_verum

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"obtained from the inner bark of several tree species from the genus Cinnamomum." We use pieces of or ground dried bark in sweet and savory recipes, like cookies and cakes or minced meat sauces.

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"Black pepper is native to present day Kerala in Southwestern India and is extensively cultivated there and elsewhere in tropical regions. Vietnam is the world's largest producer and exporter of pepper, producing 34% of the world's P. nigrum crop as of 2013. "

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_pepper

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That is the fruit of Piper nigrum, known as peppercorns, which are dried and used either whole or ground.  "More precisely black pepper (cooked and dried unripe fruit), green pepper (dried unripe fruit), and white pepper (ripe fruit seeds)."

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In Greek cuisine we use a lot of herbs like origanum, thyme, basil and mint, but the most common spices are

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Potatoes, sweet-potatoes, beets, carrots, radishes and turnips are also produced in Marathon, with some farms being organic.

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In the fertile plain of Marathon (deriving from the Greek word for fennel "marathos')  in NE Attica, lies the "vegetable garden of Athens. Agricultural production includes grapes, pumpkins, tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers, eggplants, leeks, broccoli, cabbage, lettuce, onions and more.

References
http://www.froutonea.gr/gr/reportaz/aricle_archive5169
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon,_Greece

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In Greece we decorate fir for Christmas. In fact, 75% of fir trees demand is covered by Abies sp plantations in Chalkidiki.

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One of the labels, apart from barley, uses wheat, rye, corn and rice!

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The main ingredient of beer, barley is the 3rd most cultivated grain in Greece, with two varieties of wheat holding the first places.

References
http://archive.gramene.org/species/hordeum/barley_intro.html
https://agrotikanew.blogspot.com/2013/01/blog-post_9685.html

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A very popular alcoholic drink (especially during Greek summer) considering it has as many as 45 labels produced in Greece, either by large companies or microbreweries.

http://www.ekathimerini.com/233337/article/ekathimerini/business/greece-going-beer-crazy-as-microbreweries-proliferate

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The traditional grape of retsina is "a historical white grape variety [...] among the Greek vineyard’s most widely planted"

https://winesofgreece.org/varieties/savatiano/

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In 1961 Greece produced 3% of global resin production. One can still see the collecting wounds in many pine forests, though the craft has been in decline due to the use of synthetic resin.

https://s-i.huffpost.com/gen/4972184/images/n-RESIN-628x314.jpg

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Attica is one of the major producers of retsina "a Greek white (or rosé) resinated wine, which has been made for at least 2,000 years. Its unique flavor is said to have originated from the practice of sealing wine vessels, particularly amphorae, with Aleppo Pine resin in ancient times. [...]  The European Union treats the name "Retsina" as a protected designation of origin and traditional appellation for Greece and parts of the southern regions of Cyprus. [...]  Today the traditional grape for Retsina is Savatiano with Assyrtiko and Rhoditis sometimes blended in, as well as other grape varieties throughout Greece. Modern Retsina is made following the same winemaking techniques of white wine or rosé with the exception of small pieces of Aleppo pine resin added to the must during fermentation."

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retsina

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My mother still remembers the dung cakes that decorated the walls of a small village at the foot of Mt Olympus, where she had relatives. Just 50 years ago, people would collect cow manure (svounies), make "pies", throw them against the walls in order to dry and use them in the stove. She says they smelled really nice, like dry grass (which was the main ingredient, after all).
Abundant biofuel - less controversy :-)

https://karditsas.blogspot.com/2017/07/blog-post_25.html

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Going through the readings though, it seems that

Replacing fossil fuels with biofuels is highly controversial since it solves one problem but creates new ones.

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An abandoned traditional house in Athikythera. Depended on scarce resources, the inhabitants of small islands used hardwood, covered it with dried seaweed for insulation and  clay for the top coat.

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The threat of climate change and the knowledge that it is related to CO₂ emissions from fossil fuels has led scientists to look for alternatives for our energy needs, that is in the cultivation of biofuel crops.

Using my everyday knowledge, I think that:

We are still strongly depended on fossil fuels and only the developed countries of the world have the technology and therefore the luxury of using green energy.

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Theme 4: Plants as source for the future

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Theme 4: Plants as source for the future

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The similarity I saw in the PlantAreas that I have visited so far, is the increasing occurrence of extreme weather events, like heatwaves and heavy rainfalls. Topped with a global temperature rise, they are beginning to affect the environment that we are adjusted to.
Apart from the monitored global increase of CO2, climate change is more or less based on projections in the (very near, most probably) future. System Earth will eventually balance, but some will pay the price, whether they were responsible or not.

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Apart from Parnitha, the Peloponnese suffered  deadly forest fires during August and September 2007.  The area was struck by a severe winter drought " the second lowest annual accumulated value since 1951 [...]  Additionally, the region was stricken by three heat heaves during summer, being the number of hot nights especially noticeable, surpassing more than 35 nights. " To top that "during the extreme days of fire activity in 2007, strong northerly advection of very hot and dry air over the region, favored fire occurrence."

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JavaScript is disabled on your browser. Please enable JavaScript to use all the features on this page.

Abstract

The fire season of 2007 was particularly devastating for Greece, achieving the new all-time record of estimated burnt area (225,734 ha) since 1980. The season was remarkably severe in Peloponnese Peninsula, in southern continental Greece, being considered the most extreme natural disaster in the recent history of Greece. Moreover during the hydrological year of 2007, Peloponnese was struck by a severe winter drought that corresponds to the second lowest annual accumulated value since 1951. However, the subsequent spring was very wet partially attenuating the effect of the previous drought. Additionally, the region was stricken by three heat heaves during summer, being the number of hot nights especially noticeable, surpassing more than 35 nights over the Southern Greece. Here we show that the central and Northern sector of Peloponnese Peninsula become the most susceptible to wildfires due to the combined effect of the two extreme meteorological events, drought and heatwaves which was confirmed by the location of the main burnt areas of 2007 fire season. Additionally, the analysis showed that during the extreme days of fire activity in 2007, strong northerly advection of very hot and dry air over the region, favored fire occurrence.

The study attempts to bring new light to the synergistic effect between fuel availability and weather conditions that created extraordinary conditions for fire propagation. We focused on the largest burnt areas and the respective NDVI behavior is assessed throughout the pre fire periods. We found that vegetation dynamics are related to the extreme climatic events that occurred in these periods. Moreover, our results confirm that the higher fire incidence in areas with higher vegetation activity and density seems to indicate that the large burnt areas of 2007 fires season in Peloponnese Peninsula appear to be more sensitive to fuel availability and vegetation density than to vegetation dryness.

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The outstanding synergy between drought, heatwaves and fuel on the 2007 Southern Greece exceptional fire season

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JavaScript is disabled on your browser. Please enable JavaScript to use all the features on this page. The fire season of 2007 was particularly devastating for Greece, achieving the new all-time record of estimated burnt area (225,734 ha) since 1980.

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https://www.climatechangepost.com/greece/climate-change/

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Climate change Greece

Air temperature changes until now

Annual temperature over the period 1961-1990 showed a trend of statistically significant warming over land in south-east Europe of approximately 0.4-0.6 °C per decade (17). In the middle of the '50s a cooling period started in northern Greece and progressively extended also in the southern regions of the country where it started to be detected in the beginning of the'70s. The lowest average annual temperatures in Greece occurred in the decade of 1970 up to the beginning of 1980, due mainly to the very cold summers and autumns. However, during the last years of the '90s (while a little earlier in some meteorological stations), a progressive increase of temperature was observed. ... This seems to be due to a more intensive warming during the summer period (1).

In Greece, as it was also the case of Spain, the frequency of heat waves in the '90s was about three times higher than the one of the three previous decades. However, there are no signs of a similar reverse trend in the frequency of cold extremes. The data from both stations of Athens and Corfu present statistical important increasing trends with respect to the duration of heat waves, during the summer period as well as on annual basis, while the occurrence of cooling waves during winter as well as on annual basis becomes much less frequent. The time series from the other stations do not show a certain trend or they show negative trends with respect to the duration of heat waves (2).

In the eastern Mediterranean, the intensity, length and number of heat waves have increased by a factor of six to eight since the 1960s (14). The period of hot extremes has significantly lengthened for Crete since 1960 (23).

Precipitation changes until now

During 1960-1990 the highest precipitation amounts were found in western Greece and southeastern Aegean Sea, during winter, autumn and on annual basis, while summer precipitation amounts are small, especially over the islands of Aegean Sea, Israel and Syria (3).

Recent studies have shown an increasing tendency of dry spell length during the last two decades in Eastern Mediterranean, which extends from the Ionian Sea to the Cyprus area (4), as well as a tendency towards drier conditions (5,6). Over the last 50 years extreme rainfall events exhibit increased variability (1,6).

Precipitation in Greece has reduced during the second half of the 20th century on an annual basis and for the winter period (-8 and -5 mm/decade, respectively) and the reduction period seems to start in the '70s. Locally much higher reduction rates have been observed for certain stations on islands (-64 mm/decade in Corfu and -52 mm/ decade in Mitilini) (1). This steady decline in annual rain over Greece since 1950 was found in many studies (20). Similar results have been presented for the neighboring regions and the Mediterranean Sea in general, most of them presenting a significant decrease in annual rainfall (21). These results agree with climate model projections that point towards a gradual aridification of the Mediterranean region. These changes may not be due to climate change, however, but can be attributed to natural variability (19); decadal variability of precipitation over Greece is quite strong. In fact, recent precipitation data do not point at an ongoing decline in rainfall: monthly precipitation sums and annual daily maxima records derived from 136 stations across Greece during the period 1940-2012 show a decline since 1950, an increase since 1980 and stable precipitation during the last 15 years of this period in most regions in Greece (19).

With respect to events of extreme precipitation, the average daily intensity of summer precipitation presents a positive trend during the second half of the 20th century in all stations except the one in Larissa, while the intensity of winter and annual precipitation presents a negative trend. The situation is completely different in Athens, where the annual precipitation presents a positive trend due to the severe precipitation events that occurred during the last years (1).

Besides global warming during the recent decades, a physical explanation of the enhanced precipitation in Athens could be the urban heat island effect: the effect of extensive building after the Second World War and the rapid increase of the population and the number of vehicles mainly after 1970. The possible main factors, which cause urban induced changes in precipitation, are the mechanical turbulence resulting from increased surface roughness, the addition of sensible heat from the urban warm air and the anthropogenic condensation nuclei floating in the urban air. These factors are responsible for heavy storms of convective nature in the developed mega-cities (7).

The precipitation decline over the Mediterranean region during the last decades of the past century may be due to the positive trend in the East Atlantic Western Russia pattern, which was induced by the positive trend of the North Atlantic Oscillation (8).

Regarding Greece, the observed downward trend in winter and annual precipitation in Greece is thought to be linked mainly to a rising trend in the hemispheric circulation modes of the NAO Index, which are connected with the Mediterranean Oscillation Index (9). Moreover, low frequency fluctuations in the circulation over the Atlantic have been closely linked to the coherent large-scale precipitation anomalies that have persisted, particularly in winter, over Turkey since the early 1960s (10).

No statistically significant trends for both the annual total precipitation and the annual number of rain days have been found for Crete during the period 1951-2010 (24)

Air temperature changes in the 21st century

According to climatic simulations for 2100, in the case of the IPCC Α2 scenario (up to 250% more greenhouse gas emissions in 2100 compared with 1961-1990), the mean maximum temperature over the entire Eastern Mediterranean is projected to increase. In July the mean maximum temperature in the Balkan countries is projected to increase by up to 12⁰C compared to current values. In Greece, the increase is in the order of 7-8⁰C in southern regions (including the area of Athens), while in central and northern Greece the increase is higher and varies between 8 and 10⁰C. In June and September the increase of the maximum temperature is slightly lower, varying from 6 up to 8⁰C in Greece (1).

Under the B2 scenario (up to 62% more greenhouse gas emissions in 2100 compared with 1961-1990), the increase of the mean maximum temperature in Greece during July is clearly lower compared to the one obtained for the A2 scenario and varies between 6-7⁰C in southern regions (including the Athens area) up to 7-8⁰C in central and northern Greece (1).

As it was the case for the mean maximum temperature, there is an increase of the mean minimum temperatures over the entire region examined, particularly in the Balkans where the mean minimum temperature in July increases by up to 9⁰C compared to current values. In Greece, the increase is about 6-7 ⁰C in southern regions (including the area of Athens) and between 7-8⁰C in central and northern Greece (1).

Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East (EMME) - Warming

For the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East an analysis was carried out of long-term meteorological datasets (period 1901-2006) along with regional climate model projections for the 21 st century (SRES scenario A1B) (6). The results suggest a continual, gradual and relatively strong warming of the area of about 1-3°C in the near-future (2010-2039), to 3-5°C in the mid-century period (2040-2069) and 3.5-7°C by the end of the century (2070-2099). Daytime maximum temperatures appear to increase most rapidly in the northern part of the region, i.e. the Balkan Peninsula and Turkey. Maximum daytime temperature increases more strongly than mean night time minimum temperature (15).

Extremely high summer temperatures are projected to become the norm by 2070-2099; the coolest summers at the end-of-century may be warmer than the hottest ones in the recent past. As an example, the hottest summer on record in Athens in 2007 would be among the 5% coolest ones by the end of the century (11,15).

Current and future daytime mean temperature trends in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East typically vary from 0.28° to 0.46°C per decade. The largest increases appear in some continental locations such as Belgrade, Sofia, Ankara, Baghdad and Riyadh with trends in excess of 0.4°C/decade. The same analysis was performed for daytime maximum and night-time minimum temperature; for daytime maximum temperature the largest upward trends are calculated for Belgrade, Sofia, Tirana and Ankara with 0.48°, 0.46°, 0.45° and 0.44°C per decade, respectively. For night-time minimum temperature, large positive trends exceeding 0.40°C/decade are derived for Belgrade, Riyadh, Baghdad, Athens, Sofia and Ankara (11,15).

A1B scenario results suggest that by the end of the century, the frequency of very hot days (maximum day time temperature >35°C) may increase up to 1-2 weeks per year in mountainous parts of the northern EMME and by about a month in much of the rest of the region. The frequency of ''tropical'' nights (mean night time minimum temperature > 25°C) also increases strongly, by nearly a month per year in the Balkans and coastal areas, and more than two months in the Gulf region, exacerbating the daytime heat stress. By the end of the century in most cities, the coolest summers may be warmer than the hottest ones today (15). For the same scenario, the number of warm days at the end of the century (defined as days with maximum temperature >25°C) is found to increase by 50-60 additional days per year by the end of the 21st century. In contrast, frost days and wet days are projected to decrease (17).

Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East (EMME) - Heat wave characteristics

The relatively strong upward trend in the northern parts of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East indicates a continuation of the increasing intensity and duration of heat waves observed in this region since 1960 (12).

Changes in heat wave characteristics for the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East have been estimated for the end of this century, as compared with the period 1961 - 1990 (18, see also 15). This was done for a low-end (optimistic), intermediate and high-end (pessimistic) scenario of climate change (the so-called SRES scenarios B2, A1B and A2); one regional climate model was used. Reference point for the definition of heat waves in this study is the maximum daily temperature that is exceeded 10% of the year: heat waves were defined as periods with at least six consecutive days with maximum temperatures exceeding this 10% value. This reference point was calculated for the period 1961 - 1990. The heat waves with respect to this referent point were calculated for 1961 - 1990 and the future horizon of 2071 - 2099.

The results show that in the summer season May to September heat waves in the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East are expected to change from events with a return period of about once every 2 years on average to a common phenomenon with multiple occurrences per year. The mean number of heat wave days will increase dramatically by 20 - 130 days per year and will be the most pronounced over the Arabian Peninsula and the Gulf area. Currently, these heat waves have an average duration that varies from 6 to 12 days. At the end of this century these heat waves will last for several weeks (under the optimistic scenario) to months. In addition, much hotter heat extremes are expected by the end of the century: changes in severity of heat waves in terms of peak temperatures will probably exceed by far the projected mean summertime warming that ranges from 3 to 9°C (depending on the scenario of climate change) (15,18).

Crete

For Crete, projected changes in daily maximum and daily minimum temperatures have been calculated for the period 2031-2060 compared with 1971-2000. This was done for a moderate (RCP4.5) and high-end (RCP8.5) scenario of climate change. The calculations are based on five regional climate models (RCMs) (22). Under the moderate scenario of climate change, maximum temperatures are projected to increase by about 1.9 °C for Crete in the summer, and a little less (at least 1.2 °C) in the other seasons. Under the high-end scenario of climate change, the projected increase of maximum temperatures is higher than 2 °C for all seasons for Crete. Daily minimum temperatures are projected to increase more than 1.2 °C for both scenarios of climate change.

Precipitation changes in the 21st century

From model calculations and a medium low greenhouse gas emissions scenario (B2 IPCC) a general future tendency for 2070-2100 compared with 1960-1990 was found towards drier Eastern Mediterranean, with reduced rainfall intensity. Longer dry spells are expected in all seasons, except autumn, with the largest increase in the southern part of the area. Extreme wet spells will shorten everywhere during all seasons, except autumn. Precipitation intensity was found reduced for all seasons and mostly for summer in South Aegean Sea (3). Future projections (based on the SRES A1B emissions scenario) for the period 2070-2099 compared with 1961-1990 suggest decreases in the number of wet days and the heavy precipitation events towards the end of the 21st century: the number of wet days may decrease by 10-30 days per year, while heavy precipitation is likely to decrease in the high-elevation areas by about 15 days year per by the end of the 21st century (17).

December at present is the most rainy month in the majority of Greek regions. According to climatic simulations for 2100, in the case of the IPCC Α2 scenario (up to 250% more greenhouse gas emissions in 2100 compared with 1961-1990), the reduction of precipitation in December is significant, mainly over the marine regions of the Eastern Mediterranean as well as in western Greece, where the mean precipitation for the period 2071-2100 is approximately 60-70% of the current levels. In northern and eastern Greece, in the islands of the Eastern Aegean and in Crete the decrease of precipitation is lower (1).

During summer, the Α2 scenario shows a very significant reduction of precipitation for 2100, mainly in northern Greece and in the Balkans. The mean precipitation in these regions for the period 2071-2100 is approximately 20-30% of the current precipitation levels. Especially in regions of Serbia, Bulgaria and Romania, where at present the precipitation during summer is very important, the reduction is exceptionally high and disturbing because precipitation in these regions supplies water to big rivers which flow through Greece as well. The reduction of precipitation is also very important in regions of northern Greece where during summer a significant storm activity is evident. In southern Greece the reduction of precipitation is also high but these regions are characterized in general by very low precipitation during summer even under the current climate (1).

The length of extreme dry spells is projected to increase in the future for the Mediterranean, as compared to the present climate on annual basis. The magnitude of change varies spatially and seasonally. More specifically, during winter, this length will be greater in almost the whole Eastern Mediterranean, except in North Western Greece, where no significant change was found. Southern Aegean, Crete and West Cyprus present the largest increase of dry spell length for 2070-2100, of about 6 to 7 days (3).

In spring, extreme dry spells are longer in the future in the whole Eastern Mediterranean, with no substantial variations. In summer the increase of the length of extreme dry spells is highest, as compared to winter and spring, with maximum values being found mainly in the continental West Greece (10-14 days), and west coast of Turkey (10 days). Contrary to the other seasons, the duration of extreme dry spells is slightly reduced at about 2 to 6 days, in autumn in almost the whole Eastern Mediterranean. Therefore, it seems that the apparent drying of Eastern Mediterranean will continue in future, especially in the dry period of the year and the wetter regions (3).

In the future the wettest areas of Greece show a reduction of extreme wet spells length during the wet period of the year, except in Crete and Cyprus. On the contrary, in autumn, extreme wet spells are longer in future, especially in Aegean Sea and west coast of Turkey. Future changes of rainfall intensity are smaller and show substantial spatial and seasonal variability. The rainfall intensity decreases in winter, spring and summer, but increases in autumn. The greatest reduction is found in summer in south Aegean region. Response of precipitation extremes to global warming in Eastern Mediterranean should be handled with caution, though, in view of uncertainties (3).

Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East

From the analysis of long-term meteorological datasets (period 1901-2006) along with regional climate model projections for the 21 st century (SRES scenario A1B) a decline of annual precipitation is projected of 5-25% in 2040-2069 and 5-30% in 2070-2099 relative to the reference period 1961-1990 (11). The decreases will be particularly large (>15%) in Cyprus, Greece, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, the Palestine territories and Syria. As a result of precipitation decrease, and also due to population growth rates, the per capita available internal water resources may decline strongly, for example by 50% or more by mid-century in Cyprus (16).

In the Balkans, Turkey, Cyprus, Lebanon and Israel, the number of rainy days may decrease, e.g. by 5-15 days at mid-century and by 10-20 days per year at the end-of-century (11). This appears to be a continuation of a trend observed in Greece since about 1960 (13).

The intensity of precipitation (maximum amount of rain per day) is expected to decrease except over the northern Balkans and the Caucasus (11).

Crete

Projected changes of daily precipitation for the period 2031-2060 compared with 1971-2000, based on five regional climate models, do not show clear changes of precipitation or precipitation extremes for Crete under a moderate (RCP4.5) and high-end (RCMs) scenario of climate change (22).

References

The references below are cited in full in a separate map 'References'. Please click here if you are looking for the full references for Greece.

1. Hellenic Republic,Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works of Greece (2006)

2. Larissa and Methoni, in: Hellenic Republic,Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works of Greece (2006)

3. Oikonomou et al. (2008)

4. Anagnostopoulou et al. (2003); Kutiel (1985), both in: Oikonomou et al. (2008)

5. Kutiel et al. (1996); Turkes (1996); Tolika et al. (2004), all in: Oikonomou et al. (2008)

6. Kioutsioukis et al. (2009)

7. Nastos and Zerefos (2007)

8. Krichak and Alpert (2005), in: Nastos and Zerefos (2008)

9. Feidas et al. (2007), in: Nastos and Zerefos (2008)

10. Turkes and Erlat (2003), in: Nastos and Zerefos (2008)

11. Lelieveld et al. (2012)

12. Kuglitsch et al. (2010), in: Lelieveld et al. (2012)

13. Nastos and Zerefos 2009, in: Lelieveld et al. (2012)

14. Kuglitsch et al. (2010), in: Coumou and Rahmstorf (2012)

15. Lelieveld et al. (2014)

16. Chenoweth et al. (2011), in: Lelieveld et al. (2013)

17. Kostopoulou et al. (2014)

18. Zittis et al. (2016)

19. Markonis et al. (2017)

20. Xoplaki et al. (2000); Maheras and Anagnostopoulou (2003); Maheras et al. (2004); Feidas et al. (2007); Kambezidis et al. (2010), all in: Markonis et al. (2017)

21. González-Hidalgo et al. (2001); Xoplaki et al. (2004); Cannarozzo et al. (2006); Norrant and Douguédroit (2006); Partal and Kahya (2006); Nastos (2011); Philandras et al. (2011), all in: Markonis et al. (2017)

22. Varotsos et al. (2021)

23. Founda et al. (2019) in: Varotsos et al. (2021)

24. Philandras et al. (2011); Varouchakis et al. (2018), both in: Varotsos et al. (2021)

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κλιματική αλλαγή προσαρμογής στην κλιματική αλλαγή βιωσιμότητα παγκόσμια υπερθέρμανση

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Annual temperature over the period 1961-1990 showed a trend of statistically significant warming over land in south-east Europe of approximately 0.4-0.6 °C per decade (17). In the middle of the '50s a cooling period started in northern Greece and progressively extended also in the southern regions of the country where it started to be detected in the beginning of the'70s.

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" The current warming trend is of particular significance because most of it is extremely likely (greater than 95 percent probability) to be the result of human activity since the mid-20th century and proceeding at a rate that is unprecedented over decades to millennia."

https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/

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Heavy storms that hit Attica on November 2017 during a medicane, caused a deadly flood near Athens.

Rainfall is not the only one to blame, though; the main torrent in the area has been built over, a common yet destructive practice.

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"An event like the recent Greek flood cannot be called a 'natural disaster' without recognising the man-made causes exacerbating such events," according to scientists participating in the 7th annual general assembly of the European Network of Scientists for Social and Environmental Responsibility (ENSSER) held in Athens.

In a press release on Thursday, the scientists taking part, highlighted the role of climate change in the recent disastrous floods in Mandra, Attica, expressing sympathy and solidarity with the flood victims.

Participating scientists at the meeting, from many European nations, discussed this event and the factors increasing its severity, as well as similar ones elsewhere in the world, releasing the following statement:

"Greece is one of the areas worst affected by climate-change effects. It is well documented that these include an increase in extreme weather events like severe heat and drought followed by devastating floods. Greece has just suffered from such a series of events: this historic flood followed last year's extreme heat with temperatures exceeding 40°C and drought. This has not only cost the lives of 20 people but has destroyed and disrupted the livelihoods of many more.

An event like the recent Greek flood cannot be called a 'natural disaster', without recognising the man-made causes exacerbating such events."

ENSSER was founded in 2009, and it's role is to generate and highlight properly independent scientific evidence to inform policy making and put pressure on regulatory agencies to abandon regulations that foster and tolerate contamination of the environment and our bodies.

ENSSER provides the EU and its member states with scientific evidence, which highlight their responsibility to devise policies that mitigate climate change, and reward land-use practices, including agricultural policies that: restore soil-quality, such as agroecology; produce pesticide-free, healthy food; protect the integrity of remaining ecosystems, like the ecological restoration of watersheds; and increase resilience to extreme weather events.

"In this, Greece has the outstanding opportunity to set policies for future ecological agro-food systems as it has not yet fully industrialized its agriculture to the same degree as elsewhere in the EU; and a key EU-wide support for this lies in the inclusion of sustainable agricultural policies in the forthcoming reform of the Common Agricultural Policy," the ENSSR statement noted, ahead of a workshop on 'Agriculture and Health - The Greening of Europe and opportunities for Greece' jointly organised in Athens by the Mariolopoulos Kanaginis Foundation for Environmental Sciences and ENSSER on Friday.
(Source: AMNA)

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Recent Attica Floods Linked to Climate Change, European Scientists Say

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"An event like the recent Greek flood cannot be called a 'natural disaster' without recognising the man-made causes exacerbating such events," according to scientists participating in the 7th annual general assembly of the European Network of Scientists for Social and Environmental Responsibility (ENSSER) held in Athens.

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at the same time, was reaching the decade's low.

All of the above factors may indicate a future with a drier climate combined with severe weather phenomena.

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on the other hand, reached the decade's top this January!

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... the year round fluctuations haven't changed much during the last decade.

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The only data on Athens' weather that I could find was for the last decade (maybe I didn't know where to look, but I did search a lot).
Even though this year's Feb 28 was 3 C degrees warmer...

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I was very impressed to see that Portugal belongs to the Mediterranean biogeographical region, even though it is facing the Atlantic Ocean. Susana Barosso’s PlantArea is very similar to mine, as it includes Lisbon, the capital and largest city of Portugal, though not as densely populated as Athens. Habitats and plant species in the area seem very similar, as well.

I was also intrigued to find out in Sonia’s PlantArea that Switzerland belongs to two different biogeographical regions. The Continental region has an “opposite” climate to the Mediterranean during summer, especially regarding precipitation! The Alpine region shows some similar plant species, probably as it acts like a barrier or “transition” between the other two.

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Tropical Andean trees are shifting roughly 2.5 to 3.5 vertical meters a year on average, but in fact they need to migrate more than 20 vertical feet a year!

They  migrate to higher altitudes where the air is cool enough to support their existence. Due to the fast climatic change they have to move faster in order to remain in equilibrium with their preferred temperatures.

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This photo was taken during a hike through the burnt areas. 11 years after the fire and the fir forest is replaced by shrubs - I have to look for research on their diversity!

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Estimation of the expected post-fire recovery of the burned A. cephalonica forests of Parnitha National Park

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Estimation of the expected post-fire recovery of the burned A. cephalonica forests of Parnitha National Park

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"The issue of post-fire ecology of forest communities has been studied extensively in several Mediterranean areas. In most cases, the post-fire tree communities are made up with the same tree species as before fire due to their adaptation strategies to fire. However, not all Mediterranean tree species have developed strategies to survive fire, and some species may disappear after fire.
Common examples in the Mediterranean basin are the coniferous forests of Pinus nigra Arnold, Pinus silvestris L., Abies cephalonica Loudon, and Abies borisii regis Matf. The dominant species of these forests are obligate seeders, while the seeds produced ripen in autumn; thus, in the event of fire in the summer, there are no mature seeds to ensure regeneration. As a result, when they are burned, there is an increased risk of non-potential re-establishment of the burned forest due to regeneration failure, and burned forests are likely to turn into scrublands.
Taking into consideration the different scenarios of climate change (e.g., global warming, extreme weather events, heat waves, droughts, etc.), the problem of fire damages on these non-adapted ecosystems becomes even more urgent, as more fires are expected to occur [...]
The post-fire plant community recovery was very slow, especially on rocky limestone slopes and on soils of poor site quality. Three years after fire, our results show that the pre-fire dominant tree species (A. cephalonica) was completely absent in the post-fire conditions [...]
[...] any establishment of A. cephalonica in the open post-fire conditions is doubtful, and thus, the recovery to the pre-fire forest community is rather unlikely. This will offer the opportunity to other species, adapted to wildfires, to colonize the burned area. "

https://iforest.sisef.org/contents/?id=ifor0600-008

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Ganatsas P, Daskalakou E, Paitaridou D (2012). First results on early post-fire succession in an Abies cephalonica forest (Parnitha National Park, Greece). iForest 5: 6-12.

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Abstract: Due to climate changes, the interest in the post-fire recovery of forest communities not adapted to wildfires, such as Greek fir (Abies cephalonica) forests, has increased. In this study, the post-fire recovery of the burned A. cephalonica forest of Parnitha National Park (central Greece) was investigated after a stand-replacing fire occurred in summer 2007, as well as the performance of A.

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Throughout the summer of 2007, a series of massive forest fires broke out in several areas across Greece.
The first major fire was started on 28 June 2007. It is perceived to have been started by either an exploding electrical pylon or by arsonists. Significant parts of the Parnitha National Park were destroyed, and in total, the fire burnt 15,723 acres (63.6 km²) of the core of the national forest in a matter of days. Overall the mountain of Parnitha suffered a burnt area of 38,000 acres (153.8 km²), making it one of the worst recorded wildfires in Attica.

Environmental studies in Greece report that the Athenian microclimate will significantly change to warmer during the summer season, and flooding is now a very probable danger for the northern suburbs of the city. Mount Parnitha was considered the 'lungs' of Athens; following its considerable burning, both the city and local flora and fauna are expected to feel the consequences.

References:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_Greek_forest_fires
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6252676.stm

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Greek firefighters are battling a major forest fire which has threatened the suburbs of the capital, Athens.
The blaze, on the slopes of Mount Parnitha, is being contained, officials say, but a huge plume of black smoke is towering over the city.

Electricity pylons, exploding after a record heatwave, have sparked some of the fires, but arson is also suspected.

The fire near Athens is one of more than 100 blazes which have broken out across Greece in the last few days.

Overnight, residents of Athens could see the heavily-forested slopes of Mount Parnitha burning on the horizon.

On Friday morning, Public Order Minister Vyron Polydoras said: "We have successfully handled a difficult task."

But he said the fight to extinguish the flames continued, and water-bombing aircraft and helicopters have resumed dousing the flames

'Lungs of Athens'

The strong winds fuelling the fire have dropped and firefighters have so far prevented the blaze from reaching the suburbs of Athens.

An air force radar station, a casino and a summer holiday camp on the mountain, 25km (16 miles) from Athens, have been evacuated.

"My area was spared, but unfortunately the forest is no longer there," the mayor of Thramakedones told Greek radio.

About 120 fires have broken out across Greece, officials say

His village was one of the most at risk from the fire.
The forests of Mount Parnitha are popular with Athenians wanting to escape the heat of the city. They are considered the lungs of heavily-polluted Athens, reports the BBC's Malcolm Brabant.

More than 120 fires have broken out across the country in the last two days, but most of the them have been extinguished, officials say.

Eleven people have died in the nine-day heatwave, one of the longest recorded in Greece.

Most have died from heat stroke or heart attacks. On Thursday, two volunteer firefighters were trapped by flames and died of smoke inhalation in the centre of the country.

Temperatures have now dropped below 40C, after peaking at 46C earlier in the week, but forecasters say another heatwave is expected next week.

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BBC NEWS | Europe | Greek forest fire close to Athens

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Greek firefighters are battling a major forest fire which has threatened the suburbs of the capital, Athens. The blaze, on the slopes of Mount Parnitha, is being contained, officials say, but a huge plume of black smoke is towering over the city.

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" To date, however, it is still unclear whether local meteorological conditions affected by climate change will reduce or enhance air pollution effects on forest functioning and health. "

https://iforest.sisef.org/contents/?id=ifor0566-004

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Serengil Y, Augustaitis A, Bytnerowicz A, Grulke N, Kozovitz AR, Matyssek R, Müller-Starck G, Schaub M, Wieser G, Aydin Coskun A, Paoletti E (2011). Adaptation of forest ecosystems to air pollution and climate change: a global assessment on research priorities. iForest 4: 44-48.

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Abstract: Climate change and air pollution are two of the anthropogenic stressors that require international collaboration. Influence mechanisms and combating strategies towards them have similarities to some extent. Impacts of air pollution and climate change have long been studied under IUFRO Research Group 7.01 and state of the art findings are presented at biannual meetings.

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I was very impressed to learn about Humboldt and his approach to describe the unity in the diversity of nature, as well as the universal laws applying to the apparent chaos of the world.  Through the synthesis of his research and measurements, he first noticed areas with similar temperatures and went on to discover the connection of living organisms with their abiotic environment, thus considered the founder of biogeography.

I discovered this video in Maria Robalo's PlantArea
(https://padlet.com/maria_ceu_robalo/fqkpk7d2fm7i)

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Who is Alexander von Humboldt? - George Mehler

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See all the wonderful things Elissavet Tzovani has made

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Alexander Von Humboldt
Cosmos: A Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe

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Alexander Von Humboldt
Cosmos: A Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe

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With the original meaning in Greek being "adornment", Humboldt reintroduced Cosmos as “the assemblage of all things in heaven and earth, the universality of created things constituting the perceptible world.” His basic purpose is outlined in the introduction to the first volume:

"The most important aim of all physical science is this: to recognize unity in diversity, to comprehend all the single aspects as revealed by the discoveries of the last epochs, to judge single phenomena separately without surrendering their bulk, and to grasp Nature's essence under the cover of outer appearances."

References:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos_(Humboldt)
https://www.humboldt-foundation.de/web/The-Humboldt-Code.html
https://www.humansandnature.org/introducing-humboldt-s-cosmos

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Athens is located in a basin protected by mountains all around. This results in a unique and very pleasant climate, all year long. Yet, these favorable conditions next to the fact that the capital is the economical center of Greece, led to the accumulation of more than 3m. Smog has been the prevalent issue for the past decades.
"Ambient air pollution in urban and industrial areas in Greece was a serious environmental problem which was connected with rapid urbanization of cities, anarchic housing development without basic infrastructures and increases of motor vehicle fleet in urban regions. Especially Athens, witnessed severe air pollution problems in the decades 1960s‘-1970s‘ and the formation of the infamous brown-yellow ―nephos in Athens."

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"The Mediterranean Sea region — the largest of the semi-enclosed European seas — is surrounded by 22 countries, which together share a coastline of 46 000 km. It is also home to around 480 million people living across three continents: Africa, Asia and Europe. [...] Approximately one-third of the Mediterranean population is concentrated along its coastal regions."
" The Mediterranean Sea region has been identified as one of the main climate change hotspots (i.e. one of the areas most responsive to climate change) due to water scarcity, concentration of economic activities in coastal areas, and reliance on climate-sensitive agriculture."
"Since 1970, an increase in air temperature of almost 2 °C has been recorded in south-western Europe (the Iberian peninsula and the south of France) [...] As for rainfall, precipitation has increased in the northern Alps, yet decreased in southern Europe, where a 20% drop in rainfall has been recorded. "

https://www.eea.europa.eu/soer-2015/countries/mediterranean

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The Mediterranean Sea region - the largest of the semi-enclosed European seas - is surrounded by 22 countries, which together share a coastline of 46 000 km. It is also home to around 480 million people living across three continents: Africa, Asia and Europe. It is still one of the world's busiest shipping routes with about one-third of the world's total merchant shipping crossing the sea each year.[1]

Approximately one-third of the Mediterranean population is concentrated along its coastal regions. Meanwhile, about 250 million people (or 55% of the total population) resides in coastal hydrological basins. In the southern region of the Mediterranean, [2] 65% of the population (around 120 million inhabitants) is concentrated in coastal hydrological basins, where environmental pressures have increased.

Figure 1: Urban population growth of the Mediterranean countries

The need for cooperation and coordination amongst all the countries bordering the Mediterranean has long been recognised. This has resulted in almost 40 years of international efforts to protect this fragile and vulnerable ecosystem: the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP); now one of the key initiatives endorsed by UfM at its launch in Paris in 2008. [3] the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean and its Protocols; [4] and the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (EUROMED).[5] EUROMED is also referred to as the Barcelona Process and was re-launched in 2008 as the Union for the Mediterranean (UfM).[8] [6] In 2005, the Euro-Mediterranean partners committed themselves to substantially reduce pollution in the Mediterranean region by 2020. This became known as the 'Horizon 2020 Initiative' (H2020)[7] endorsed in Cairo in 2006. It is

H2020 builds on the work carried out by national and regional institutions. It operates within the framework of new and existing environmental policy instruments, and it supports the implementation of pollution-reduction commitments undertaken in the framework of the MAP and its timetable Barcelona Convention. A number of concrete actions, as well as a [9] on how to depollute the Mediterranean by 2020, were suggested during the 2006 ministerial conference. The corresponding roadmap[10] for the first phase of implementation (the period from 2007 to 2013) led to concrete developments within each of its different components (pollution reduction investments, capacity building, review monitoring and research).[11]

The mid-term review[12] of the H2020 initiative and the declaration of the Union for the Mediterranean (UfM) ministerial meeting on Environment and Climate change on 13 May 2014 in Athens [13] confirmed significant progress in investments in critical infrastructures, in building human capital, and in mainstreaming environment into other policies. The review stressed the strategic focus provided by the UNEP/MAP hotspots list and National Action Plans (NAPs).This marked an important milestone for regional environmental cooperation and commitment.

What are the main problems/threats related to the Mediterranean Sea region?

The Mediterranean Sea region has been identified as one of the main climate change hotspots (i.e. one of the areas most responsive to climate change) due to water scarcity, concentration of economic activities in coastal areas, and reliance on climate-sensitive agriculture.[14] However, the region itself emits low levels of greenhouse gases (GHGs) as compared to other areas in the world. Carbon dioxide (CO ₂) emissions data show that in 2009, the Mediterranean countries together emitted 6.7% of the world's emissions, equivalent to more than 2 billion tonnes of CO ₂. However, this amount has increased by a factor of 4 in the last 50 years, with an increase in the contribution from countries from the southern region of the Mediterranean from 9% to 30%. Meanwhile, the contribution from all European Union (EU) Mediterranean countries has decreased over the same period from 88% to 54%.[15]

Since 1970, an increase in air temperature of almost 2 °C has been recorded in south-western Europe (the Iberian peninsula and the south of France). The same increase has also been noted in northern Africa, although the paucity of data makes it more difficult to estimate. The range of the diurnal cycle is shrinking. As for rainfall, precipitation has increased in the northern Alps, yet decreased in southern Europe, where a 20% drop in rainfall has been recorded. The Water Exploitation Index (WEI) (defined as the mean annual total demand for fresh water, divided by the long-term average freshwater resources) shows that southern countries are amongst the most water-stressed Mediterranean countries, with many having a WEI higher than 40%. Four southern Mediterranean countries (Egypt, Israel, Syria and Libya), together with Malta, have WEIs exceeding 80%. According to existing projections, the Mediterranean population classified as 'water-poor', (i.e. below 1 000 m ³ per resident per year) is forecast to increase from 180 million people today to over 250 million within 20 years.[17]

Sea-level rise is also of concern, with some parts of the region showing increases of more than 6 mm per year, and others showing decreases of more than 4 mm per year. The global mean of sea-level rise was around 3 mm per year over the last two decades. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change (IPCC) predicts a sea-level rise of 0.1-0.3 m by 2050 and of 0.1-0.9 m by 2100, with significant (and possibly higher) impacts on the southern Mediterranean region.[18]

Figure 2: Water Exploitation Index for renewable freshwater resources in Mediterranean countries (2005-2010)

The Mediterranean region is characterised by a unique, rich, yet fragile biodiversity, hosted by many diverse ecosystems across the region,which together form an invaluable natural capital on which populations and economies depend. It is estimated that between 10 000 and 12 000 marine species thrive in the Mediterranean Sea. Around 20-30% of these species are endemic. Many of these species are threatened by a range of human activities. Pollution from land-based sources, such as discharges of excess nutrients and hazardous substances, marine litter, over-fishing, and degradation of critical habitats, are responsible for this biodiversity loss. The introduction of invasive alien species presents a threat to the biodiversity, structure, functioning, and stability of the invaded ecosystem. The number of invasive alien species has increased significantly since 1970, and currently stands at around 1 000.[19]

The recent EEA report on the Mediterranean[20] provided a number of key findings related to pollution of the sea. Over the last decade, sanitation has improved. Between 2003 and 2011, the proportion of the Mediterranean region population with access to sanitation increased from 87.5% to 92%. There are still 17.6 million people in the region without sanitation, a third of them living in urban areas.

Progress in urban wastewater management is difficult to assess as the data available do not provide sound evidence on regional trends. However, there is great potential to reuse wastewater in the region as currently only around 1% of wastewater is reused.

Solid waste generated in the region is approximately half that of the EU. Waste generation in the southern Mediterranean region has grown approximately 15% over the last decade, mostly due to a growing population and increased consumption. Waste management needs significant improvement. Around three-quarters of waste is collected, but most of this is still disposed in open dumps, which can have health impacts and lead to environmental problems. Although the EU is targeting a 70% recycling rate of household waste by 2030, less than 10% of the waste collected in the Mediterranean region is currently recycled.

Industrial emissions have a heavy impact on the Mediterranean. While pollution from heavy metals in seawater has decreased in recent years, local marine pollution from cities, industry and tourist resorts is still leading to widespread pollution of seas and beaches.

What are the main policy responses to key challenges?

Considering the systemic nature of the issues faced by the Mediterranean region, the Parties to the EU Marine Strategy Framework DirectiveWater Framework DirectiveHabitatsUrban Waste Water Treatment DirectiveBathing Water Directive Barcelona Convention adopted an Ecosystem Approach [21] as an overarching principle of its policies and actions. This was with the view to achieve good environmental status according to an ambitious roadmap and cycle-based timetable, the first of which extends until 2019-2020. This focuses on a renewed emphasis on implementation and integration that will strengthen the ability to understand and address cumulative risks and effects, and will also better focus actions on priority targets. The Ecosystem Approach brings many sectoral analyses and management measures into a single integrated framework, which will result in an adaptive management strategy that will be periodically monitored, evaluated and revised. The implementation of the Ecosystem Approach process is developed in line with the [22]. Moreover, other EU policies, such as the [23], the Birds [24] and [25] Directives, the [26], and the [27], also take an ecosystems approach. They aim to ensure the integration of environmental concerns into the different policies, agreements and legislative measures that have an impact on the marine environment.

What are the main challenges ahead?

The Mediterranean region is undergoing intensive demographic, social, cultural, economic and environmental changes. As Mediterranean countries are already facing important issues of water stress and extreme climate events (such as floods and droughts) climate change will most probably exacerbate issues, resulting in significant human and economic losses. According to the IPCC, a temperature rise of 2-3 °C is expected in the Mediterranean region by 2050, and a rise of 3-5 °C is expected by 2100.[18] Coordinated adaptation strategies and measures, across societies and economic sectors, will be key to respond to the changes.[28]

Population growth, combined with the growth of coastal urban hubs, generates multiple environmental pressures. These stem from increased demand for water and energy resources, generation of air and water pollution in relation to wastewater discharge or sewage overflows, waste generation, land consumption, and degradation of habitats, landscapes, and coastlines. These pressures are further amplified by the development of tourism, often concentrated in Mediterranean coastal areas, and rapidly evolving changes in consumption patterns as a result of increasing development. Since 1995, tourism has grown by almost 75% and projections show that the number of arrivals could reach around 640 million by 2025.[20]

Conversely, many infrastructures designed today for dealing with environmental and pollution problems will not be fully relevant to the needs of 2025. The UfM Secretariat has estimated a 'Depollution Gap'[29] based on the difference between the pollution that will be produced in 2025 and the pollution and flows that will be treated by the facilities that are already in place or are planned with secured funding. Existing depollution targets can only be achieved if the current 'end-of-pipe' solutions are complemented by other policies dedicated to pollution reduction and control at source or recycling. Maintenance and operational costs will rise significantly following recent investments, and countries will have to put in place adequate economic instruments to deal with operating costs separately from investment costs. In addition to the existing tariffs to be paid for the delivery of pollution abatement services, pollution charges are also needed.[29]

References

[1] UNEP/MAP-Plan Bleu, 2009, State of the Environment and Development in the Mediterranean, Report, UNEP/ MAP-Plan Bleu, Athens.

[2] South region is composed of Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Palestine, Syria and Tunisia. All of which, apart from Syria are partners countries under the European Neighbourhood Policy Instrument Shared Environment Information System (ENPI-SEIS) project implemented by the European Environment Agency (EEA) in the period 2010-2015.

[4] Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean and its Protocols.

[5] Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (EUROMED) or

[7] Horizon 2020 Initiative (H2020).

[8] Joint Declaration of the Paris Summit for the Mediterranean, Paris, 13 July 2008.

[9] Horizon 2020 timetable.

[10] Horizon 2020 - Timetable for the first phase (2007-2013), Annex to the Cairo Declaration of the Euro-Mediterranean Ministerial Conference on the Environment 20 November 2006.

[12] European Commission - Union for the Mediterranean, Synthesis report and recommendations regarding the mid-term assessment of the Horizon 2020 initiative to de-pollute the Mediterranean, draft May 2014 (not published).

[13] Declaration of the Union for the Mediterranean (UfM) ministerial meeting on Environment and Climate change, Athens, 13 May 2014.

[14] IPCC. Climate change 2001, the scientific basis.

[15] Giorgi, F., 2006, ' Climate change hot-spots', Geophysical Research Letters 33(8), pp. L08707.

The reminder is made of countribution from the West Balkans countries and Turkey.

[16] In climatology, the diurnal cycle is one of the most basic forms of climate patterns. Diurnal temperature variation is a meteorological term that relates to the variation in temperature that occurs from the highs and lows during the day.

[17] UNEP/MAP, 2013, State of the Mediterranean Marine and Coastal Environment, UNEP/MAP - Barcelona Convention, Athens, 2013.

[18] IPCC, 2013, Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by T.F. Stocker, D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York.

[19] Zenetos, α., Gofas, S., Morri, C., Rosso, A., Violanti, D., Garcia Raso, J.E., Cinar, M.E., Almogi-Labin, A., Ates, A. S., Azzurro, E., Ballesteros, E., Bianchi, C.N., Bilecenoglu, M., Gambi, M.C., Giangrande, A., Gravili, C., Hyams-Kaphzan, O., Karachle, P.K., Katsanevakis, S. et al., 2012, ' Alien species in the Mediterranean Sea by 2012. A contribution to the application of European Union's Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). Part 2. Introduction trends and pathways', Mediterranean Marine Science 13(2) accessed 14 April 2014.

[20] Horizon 2020 Mediterranean report, Toward shared environmental information systems, EEA-UNEP/MAP joint report, EEA technical report No 6/2014, Copenhagen, 2014. This report has been coordinated by the EEA and the United Nations Environment Programme/Mediterranean Action Plan with financial support from the European Commission under the ENPI-SEIS project.

[21] The 15th Conference of the Contracting Parties (COP15) to the Barcelona Convention (Almeria, Spain, 2008) decided ( through Decision IG.17/5) to progressively apply the ecosystem approach. The COP17 (Paris, 2012) confirmed the importance given to the EcAp in the Mediterranean, by recognizing it as a guiding principle for the overall work under the Barcelona Convention. The Contracting Parties agreed (through Decision IG.20/4) on an overall vision and goals for EcAp, on 11 ecological objectives, operational objectives and indicators for the Mediterranean, adopted the timeline for implementing the ecosystem approach until 2019 and established a six-year cyclic review process of its implementation, with the next EcAp cycle to cover 2016-2021. At COP 18 (Istanbul, 2013) targets for achieving Good Environmental Status of the Mediterranean Sea and its coastal zone by 2020 were adopted, and through Decision IG. 21/3 ( the so called COP18 EcAp Decision), the Contracting Parties also agreed to design an Integrated Monitoring and Assessment Programme by the end of 2015, starting its implementation from 2016, and mandated the Secretariat to carry out an assessment of the state of the Mediterranean environment in 2017.

[22] EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive.

[23] Water Framework Directive.

[24] Habitats Directive.

[25] Birds Directive.

[26] Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive.

[27] Bathing Water Directive.

[28] Raphaël Billé, 2008, Adapting to climate change in the mediterranean: Some Questions & answers, Iddri Synthèse n° 01/2008, Paris.

[29] UfM, 2013, Priority Investments Projects for Protection the Mediterranean Sea from Pollution, Final report, Barcelona, September 2013.

Additional references

EIB - Plan Bleu, 2008, FEMIP Study on Climate Change and Energy in the Mediterranean, EIB - Plan Bleu.

Plan Bleu, 2008, ' Les perspectives du Plan Bleu sur le développement durable en Méditerranée', Sophia-Antipolis.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Mediterranean Sea region briefing - The European environment - state and outlook 2015

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Mediterranean Sea region - the largest of the semi-enclosed European seas - is surrounded by 22 countries, which together share a coastline of 46 000 km. It is also home to around 480 million people living across three continents: Africa, Asia and Europe.

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long influence from cultivation, high pressure from tourists,

species rich, warm and drying

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Physiography of Mediterranean Biogeographical Region 

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Physiography of Mediterranean Biogeographical Region 

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"hilly mountaneous landscapes with inland plateaus between low mountain ranges. The coasts are rocky, interspersed with sandy beaches and sand coves. However, most plateaus only lie between 200 and 500 m above sea level."

https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/figures/physiography-of-mediterranean-biogeographical-region

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My PlantArea, Attica GR, belongs to the Mediterranean biogeographical region.

# data[].attributes.body
Another popular herbal infusion, chamomile is "one of the important medicinal herb native to southern and eastern Europe." Nowadays, it is also grown in most of Europe and India, and  "can be found in North Africa, Asia, North and South America, Australia, and New Zealand."
" Chamomile has been used in herbal remedies for thousands of years, known in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome."
Chamomile can grow successfully on poor soils and can withstand temperatures ranging from 2°C to 20°C.

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Abstract

Chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla L.) is a well-known medicinal plant species from the Asteraceae family often referred to as the "star among medicinal species." Nowadays it is a highly favored and much used medicinal plant in folk and traditional medicine. Its multitherapeutic, cosmetic, and nutritional values have been established through years of traditional and scientific use and research. Chamomile has an established domestic (Indian) and international market, which is increasing day by day. The plant available in the market many a times is adulterated and substituted by close relatives of chamomile. This article briefly reviews the medicinal uses along with botany and cultivation techniques. Since chamomile is a rich source of natural products, details on chemical constituents of essential oil and plant parts as well as their pharmacological properties are included. Furthermore, particular emphasis is given to the biochemistry, biotechnology, market demand, and trade of the plant. This is an attempt to compile and document information on different aspects of chamomile and highlight the need for research and development.

Keywords: Amino acid, cadmium, co-cultivation, copper, cultivation, medicinal plant, salicylic acid, secondary metabolites, tissue culture

INTRODUCTION

Chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla L.) is one of the important medicinal herb native to southern and eastern Europe. It is also grown in Germany, Hungary, France, Russia, Yugoslavia, and Brazil. It was introduced to India during the Mughal period, now it is grown in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Jammu and Kashmir. The plants can be found in North Africa, Asia, North and South America, Australia, and New Zealand.[ 1] Hungary is the main producer of the plant biomass. In Hungary, it also grows abundantly in poor soils and it is a source of income to poor inhabitants of these areas. Flowers are exported to Germany in bulk for distillation of the oil.[ 2]

In India, the plant had been cultivated in Lucknow for about 200 years, and the plant was introduced in Punjab about 300 years ago during the Mughal period. It was introduced in Jammu in 1957 by Handa et al.[ 3] The plant was first introduced in alkaline soils of Lucknow in 1964-1965 by Chandra et al.[ 4, 5] There is no demand for blue oil as such at present in India. However, flowers of chamomile are in great demand. Presently, 2 firms, namely, M/s Ranbaxy Labs Limited, New Delhi and M/s German Remedies are the main growers of chamomile for its flowers.

Chamomile has been used in herbal remedies for thousands of years, known in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome.[ 6] This herb has been believed by Anglo-Saxons as 1 of 9 sacred herbs given to humans by the lord.[ 7] The chamomile drug is included in the pharmacopoeia of 26 countries.[ 8] It is an ingredient of several traditional, unani, and homeopathy medicinal preparations.[ 9- 12] As a drug, it finds use in flatulence, colic, hysteria, and intermittent fever.[ 13] The flowers of M. chamomilla contain the blue essential oil from 0.2 to 1.9%,[ 14, 15] which finds a variety of uses. Chamomile is used mainly as an antiinflammatory and antiseptic, also antispasmodic and mildly sudorific.[ 16] It is used internally mainly as a tisane (infuse 1 table-spoonful of the drug in 1 L of cold water and do not heat) for disturbance of the stomach associated with pain, for sluggish digestion, for diarrhea and nausea; more rarely and very effectively for inflammation of the urinary tract and for painful menstruation. Externally, the drug in powder form may be applied to wounds slow to heal, for skin eruptions, and infections, such as shingles and boils, also for hemorrhoids and for inflammation of the mouth, throat, and the eyes.[ 17] Tabulated products from chamomile flower extracts are marketed in Europe and used for various ailments. Chamomile tea eye washing can induce allergic conjunctivitis. Pollen of M. chamomilla contained in these infusions are the allergens responsible for these reactions.[ 18]

Antonelli had quoted from writings of several doctors of ancient time of the 16th and 17th century that chamomile was used in those times in intermittent fevers.[ 19] Gould et al. have evaluated the hemodynamic effects of chamomile tea in patients with cardiac disease.[ 20] It was found in general that the patients fell into deep sleep after taking the beverage. Pasechnik reported that infusion prepared from M. chamomilla exercised a marked stimulatory action on the secretary function of the liver.[ 21] Gayar et al. reported toxicity of acetone-extract of M. chamomilla against larvae of Gulex pipens L.[ 22] The other pharmacological properties include antiinflammatory, antiseptic, carminative, healing, sedative, and spasmolytic activity.[ 23] However, M. chamomilla has exhibited both positive and negative bactericidal activity with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Salmonella typhimurium, and Staphylococcus aureus.

The international demand for chamomile oil has been steadily growing. As a result, the plant is widely cultivated in Europe and has been introduced in some Asian countries for the production of its essential oil. M. chamomilla L., Anthemis nobilis L., and Ormenis multicaulis Braun Blanquet and Maire belonging to the family Asteraceae is a natural and major source of "blue oil" and flavonoids. The oil used as a mild sedative and for digestion[ 20, 24- 29] besides being antibacterial and fungicidal in action.[ 20]

In addition to pharmaceutical uses, the oil is extensively used in perfumery, cosmetics, and aromatherapy, and in food industry.[ 27, 30- 33] Gowda et al. studied that the essential oil present in the flower heads contains azulene and is used in perfumery, cosmetic creams, hair preparations, skin lotions, tooth pastes, and also in fine liquors.[ 34] The dry flowers of chamomile are also in great demand for use in herbal tea, baby massage oil, for promoting the gastric flow of secretion, and for the treatment of cough and cold.[ 35] The use of herbal tea preparations eliminated colic in 57% infants.[ 36] Because of its extensive pharmacological and pharmaceutical properties, the plant thus possesses great economic value and is in great demand in the European countries.

BOTANY

True chamomile is an annual plant with thin spindle-shaped roots only penetrating flatly into the soil. The branched stem is erect, heavily ramified, and grows to a height of 10-80 cm. The long and narrow leaves are bi- to tripinnate. The flower heads are placed separately, they have a diameter of 10-30 mm, and they are pedunculate and heterogamous. The golden yellow tubular florets with 5 teeth are 1.5-2.5 mm long, ending always in a glandulous tube. The 11-27 white plant flowers are 6-11 mm long, 3.5 mm wide, and arranged concentrically. The receptacle is 6-8 mm wide, flat in the beginning and conical, cone-shaped later, hollow-the latter being a very important distinctive characteristic of Matricaria -and without paleae. The fruit is a yellowish brown achene.

The true chamomile is very often confused with plants of the genera Anthemis. Special attention has to be paid to avoid confusion with Anthemis cotula L., a poisonous plant with a revolting smell. In contrast to true chamomile, A. cotula similar to as A. arvensis L. and A. austriaca Jacq., has setiform, prickly pointed paleae, and a filled receptacle. The latter species are nearly odorless.[ 37] Although the systematic status is quite clear nowadays, there are a number of inaccuracies concerning the names. Apart from misdeterminations and confusion, the synonymous use of the names Anthemis, Chamomilla, and Matricaria leads to uncertainty with regard to the botanical identification. Moreover, the nomenclature is complicated by the fact that Linnaeus made mistakes in the first edition of his "Species Plantarum" that he corrected later on. The best-known botanical name for true chamomile is Matricaria recutita (syn. Matricaria chamomilla, Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert, belonging to the genus Chamomilla and family Asteraceae.[ 37] M. chamomilla is a diploid species (2n=18), allogamous in nature, exhibiting wide segregation as a commercial crop.

Chamomile, a well-known old time drug, is known by an array of names, such as Baboonig, Babuna, Babuna camornile, Babunj, German chamomile, Hungarian chamomile, Roman chamomile, English chamomile, Camomilla, Flos chamomile, Single chamomile, sweet false chamomile, pinheads, and scented mayweed, suggesting its widespread use.[ 38, 39]

The three plants, namely, A. nobilis Linn, Corchorus depressus Linn, and M. chamomilla Linn. are reported under one unani name Babuna at different places in the literature. This created a lot of confusion and misuse of the drug as an adulterant, etc. Ghauri et al. conducted a detailed taxonomic and anatomical study and concluded that Babuna belongs to the family Compositae (Asteraceae) and that the correct scientific name of Babuna is M. chamomilla L.[ 40]

CULTIVATION AND CO-CULTIVATON

Soil and climatic requirements

German chamomile can be grown on any type of soil, but growing the crop on rich, heavy, and damp soils should be avoided. It can also withstand cold weather with temperature ranging from 2°C to 20°C. The crop has been grown very successfully on the poor soils (loamy sand) at the farm of the Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu. At Banthra farm of the National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, the crop has been grown successfully on soil with a pH of 9.[ 41] Soils with pH 9-9.2 are reported to support its growth. In Hungary, it grows extensively on clayey lime soils, which are barren lands and considered to be too poor for any other crop. Temperature and light conditions (sunshine hours) have greater effect on essential oils and azulene content, than soil type.[ 42] Chamomile possesses a high degree of tolerance to soil alkalinity. The plants accumulate fairly large quantity of sodium (66 mg/100 gm of dry material), which helps in reducing the salt concentration in the top soil.[ 43] No substantial differences were found in the characteristics of the plants grown 1500 km apart (Hungary-Finland). Under cooler conditions in Finland, the quantity of the oxide type in the essential oil was lower than in Hungary.[ 29, 44]

Propagation

The plant is propagated by seeds. The seeds of the crop are very minute in size; a thousand seeds weigh 0.088-0.153 gm. About 0.3-0.5 kg of clean seed with a high germination percentage sown in an area of 200-250 m ² gives enough seedlings for stocking a hectare of land. The crop can be grown by two methods i.e. direct sowing of the seed and transplanting. Moisture conditions in the field for direct sowing of seeds must be very good otherwise a patchy and poor germination is obtained. As direct sowing of seeds usually results in poor germination, the transplanting method is generally followed. The mortality of the seedlings is almost negligible in transplanting.

The optimum temperature for good seed germination lies between 10°C and 20°C. Nursery beds were prepared by applying good quality of farmyard manure (FYM) and compost and kept moist. The most appropriate time for raising seedlings in the nursery is soon after the cessation of monsoons in North India, that is, during the month of September. Seed germination starts within 4-5 days of sowing, and the seedlings area ready for transplanting within 4-5 weeks. Seedlings older than 5 weeks should not be transplanted; it results in a poor and indifferent crop. Based on the thermal model, appropriate time and method of sowing was studied. The study revealed that transplanting the crop was better than direct sowing, and the best time to transplant the crop was found to be from October 10 to 18 for getting higher yields. Transplanting should not be delayed beyond the end of October.

Zalecki reports that different sowing times affect the shifting of the harvesting time but do not affect the oil and chamazulene content significantly.[ 45] The work on crop geometry shows that transplanting the crop at narrow spacing of 15, 20, and 30 cm, gave the highest yields of flowers.[ 46- 49] Dutta and Singh reported that the highest yields of fresh flowers and oil content was obtained under 30 cm ² spacing. In case of varieties with a spreading habit of growth, a wider spacing of 40 cm ² is desirable.[ 46]

Crop growth

The crop growth is slow till mid-January and picks up gradually till early February. As the season warms up, there is high activity in crop growth (increase in height, branching, bud formation) and stray flowers may be seen in the crop. Bud formation is profuse in March, there is all round growth in the plants, the early formed buds open into flowers, hence the plucking of flowers has to be also selective all through the crop cycle. With sudden rise in the temperature from 33 ° C to 39 ° C within a few days, heavy seed-setting and plant maturity will be observed in the crop. There is seed shedding and in the next year a self-germinated crop is observed.

Irrigation

As the roots of the plant are shallow, the plant is unable to draw moisture from the lower moist horizon of the soil and therefore needs frequent irrigation to maintain an optimum moisture level. Irrigation during the bloom period is helpful in increasing the flower yield, one additional flush of flowers is obtained and seed formation is delayed. Krθches observed that irrigation at the rosette stage increased the yield substantially.[ 42] On alkaline soils, the crop is irrigated more frequently and about 6-8 irrigations are required during the crop cycle.[ 43] Good performance is obtained if the soil is kept moist, but flooding should be avoided.

Manures and fertilizers

The effect of nitrogen (N) is very marked on the fresh flowers and oil yield, whereas that of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) is negligible. Dutta and Singh observed that application of N in the form of ammonium sulfate at 40 kg/ha significantly increased fresh flower and oil yield, while the oil content decreased from 0.64 to 0.59%.[ 50] Addition of organic matter increases the humus content of such soil and thereby improves the crop performance. Application of 15-25 t/ha of FYM is proved beneficial before transplanting.[ 48] El-Hamidi et al.[ 51] advocates the ratio of 2:2 for N2 and P for obtaining the highest yield. Application of N at a higher level caused a notable decrease in the chamazuler percentage. Paun and Mihalopa[ 47] found that the application of P and K at 50 kg/ha each in autumn before sowing and application of N at 50 kg/ha in early spring was responsible for satisfactory crop growth. However, neither volatile oil nor chamazulene content was affected. On saline alkaline soils, Singh found plants showing good response to N and P fertilizers.[ 48] Application of 20-25 t/ha of FYM was useful before transplanting the crop. Misra and Kapoor[ 33] found the optimum dose of N and P to be between 50-60 kg N/ha and 50 kg P ₂O ₅/ha. It is reported that N significantly increased the contents of α-bisabolol and chamazulene, but significantly decreased the contents of bisabolol oxides A and B in the essential oil.[ 52] N significantly increased essential oil yield per unit dry flower weight in both Bohemia and Tisane varieties. The quantity of essential oil in chamomile was inversely related to its quality in terms of α-bisabolol and chamazulenes.[ 51]

No deficiency symptoms of trace elements have been observed on the crop in the country so far. Peskova[ 53] has reported the good effect of the sulfates of manganese and cobalt; and borax on lime soils, whereas Koeurik and Dovjak[ 54] indicated that combined application of boron and molybdenum increased dry matter significantly.

Weed control

There are many herbicides for the control of weeds in M. chamomilla. Generally 3-4 weedings are required for a good crop. The application of 1-1.5 kg/ha of sodium salt of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D); four weeks after transplanting gave good control of weeds for four weeks. The experimental results of researchers in other countries suggests that herbicides, such as atrazine, prometryene, propyzamide, chloropropham, mecoprop, trifluralin, linurones, give satisfactory control of weeds, but these should be used with caution. It was found that afalone was the best selective weedicide.[ 55] Herbicide-treated crop had lower chamazulene content, and bisabolol content was lower in the second harvest as herbicides interfere with the metabolism of secondary products. Certain herbicides have little influence on the total essential oil content, but greater differences were found in the quantitative composition of useful substances.[ 55- 58]

On saline-alkali soils only one thorough weeding and hoeing one month after transplanting, may be enough, as the plant once established, smothers the weed and no further weeding is required.[ 48] It was reported that weed removal during 5-11 weeks after planting the crop was necessary to obtain a higher yield of the flower and oil.[ 52] The uncontrolled weed growth caused 34.4% reduction in the dry flower yield as compared with the weed-free condition. The application of oxyfluorfen (0.6 kg/ha) gave higher returns.[ 59]

Harvesting

Harvesting is the most labor-intensive operation in chamomile cultivation, accounting for a major portion of the cost of production. The success of M. chamomilla cultivation as a commercial venture lies in how efficiently and effectively one can collect the flowers at the right stage during the peak flowering season extending over a period of 3-6 weeks during March-April. Flowering is so profuse that practically every alternate day at least 30-40 units of labor will be required to be employed to pluck the flowers from an area of 0.25-0.3 ha. Flower plucking is a selective process as flowers in all stages, namely, buds, semi-opened buds, flowers in all stages of bloom appear on the plants. Flowers at the near full bloom stage give the best quality of the product, hence care has to be exercised to see that as little as possible buds, stems, leaves, and extraneous material is plucked. Flowering will be observed on plants here and there all over the field from the later half of February and these flowers are plucked at the appropriate stage. Flowers are produced in flushes and 4-5 flushes are obtained. The 2nd, 3rd, and 4th flushes are the major contributors to flower yield. The peak period of plucking is between the 2nd week of March and the 3rd week of April in North India. In normal soils, Singh obtained a maximum yield of 7637 kg of fresh flowers, the average being 3500-4000 kg/ha.[ 60] In saline-alkaline soils, Singh obtained a yield of 3750 kg fresh flowers/ha.[ 48] Temperature affects the number of flowers per kg. The weight of 1000 flowers is reduced from 130 to 80 gm by the 2nd week of April.

Diseases and pests

The various insects, fungi, and viruses have been reported, which attack the chamomile crop. The following fungi are known to attack this plant: Albugo tragopogonis (white rust), Cylindrosporium matricariae, Erysiphe cichoracearum (powdery mildew), E. polyphage, Halicobasidium purpureum, Peronospora leptosperma, Peronospora radii, Phytophthora cactorum, Puccinia anthemedis, Puccinia matricaiae, Septoria chamomillae, and Sphaerotheca macularis (powdery mildew). Also, yellow virus ( Chlorogenus callistephi var. californicus Holmes, Callistephus virus 1A) causes severe damage to this plant. In the years 1960-1964 when the crop was cultivated in the Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu, no incidence of disease was reported. However, after 20 years in the month of February about two dozen plants were observed to produce symptoms resembling those of plant viruses. These plants were burnt to prevent further spread of the disease. In early March, the incidence of leaf blight caused by Alternaria spp. was observed in the crop. A spray of Benlate (0.1%) controlled the disease. Fluister reported that black bean aphids ( Aphis fabae) were feeding on M. chamomilla.[ 61] The insect Nysius minor caused shedding of M. chamomilla flowers,[ 62] whereas Autographa chryson causes defoliation of the plant. The one spray with fosfothion 0.2%, controlled successfully aphid infestation ( Doralis fabae Scop.) on chamomile. Methyl bromide (3 kg/100 m ³) proved satisfactory as a fumigant against pest infestation of Ephestia elutella Hb in the desiccated herb of chamomile. Metalydacolus longistriatus in the Giza region of Egypt, was found to be associated with the roots of chamomile.[ 52]

Besides damaging the cultivated crop of chamomile, fungi and insects also cause extensive damage to the dry flowers during storage and reduce the quality of the dried raw product. This is because dried chamomile, the flowers in particular, contain a large amount of hydrophilic constituents (sugars, flavonoids, mucilages, phenyl carbonic acids, amino acids, choline, salts), and also chamomile herbs are hygroscopic. Microbiological deterioration caused by fungal agents occurs in a very short time. Thus, at the marginal condition of the dry product, the most xerophilic species, molds of the species Aspergillus and Penicillium form first. The metabolism of bacteria and fungi releases more and more moisture for the more demanding organisms, such as Fusarium and Rhizopus, so the attack continues to develop in a kind of cascade effect.[ 63] The metabolic excretions from the microbiological agents also make the stored product smell musty or damp, which is rated very negatively in terms of quality. In addition there is a risk that the stored product will be contaminated with mycotoxins, which are a health hazard.

The dried product is also a favorite habitat for certain insects. Larvae and beetles generally damage the stored product by eating away and polluting it with excreta and webs. This considerably reduces the quality and leads to total deterioration in a short time. The main stock pests that affect the drug are Plodia interpunctella Hb. (copper red-Indian meal moth), Ptinus latro F. (dark brown thief beetle), P. testaceus Oliv. (yellow brown thief beetle), Gibbium psylloides Gzemp. (smooth spider beetle), Lasioderma servicorne, and Stegobium paniceum.[ 64]

Co-cultivation

Patra et al.[ 65] reported that chamomile is grown as a winter (Rabi) season crop and, therefore, fits well in rotation with major summer (Kharif) season crops, such as paddy, maize, and others. It may follow pulses, such as green gram, pigeon pea, and other summer vegetables, such as "Okra," cucumber, and others. It can be grown even after early maturing Brassicas; chamomile can be grown on the residual soil fertility preceding green manuring and crops that are heavily fertilized. It can be grown as an intercrop with many arable crops.

In 1999 Mishra et al.[ 66] reported intercropping of celery + chamomile, ajwain + chamomile, fennel + chamomile, and sowa + chamomile, all in 1:1 ratio. Sowing of the main crop was done on 2nd November, and 8-week-old seedlings of chamomile were transplanted in the 1st week of January. Spacing of 45 × 20 cm was maintained for all the crops, dried biogas slurry was supplied at the time of land preparation, and three irrigations were given to the crops. Chamomile started blooming from the second week of March and three flower pickings (between March 25 and April 19) were done manually at an interval of 7-10 days. Also, chamomile has been found to be a suitable intercrop with aromatic grasses, such as lemon grass and palmarosa, which remain dormant in winter.

CHAMOMILE (M. CHAMOMILLA) AS A SOURCE OF NATURAL PRODUCTS

M. chamomilla belongs to a major group of cultivated medicinal plants. It contains a large group of therapeutically interesting and active compound classes. Sesquiterpenes, flavonoids, coumarins, and polyacetylenes are considered the most important constituents [] of the chamomile drug.[ 64] The coumarins are represented in M. chamomilla by herniarin, umbelliferone, and other minor ones.[ 67, 68] (Z)- and (E)-2-β-d-glucopyranosyloxy-4-methoxycinnamic acid (GMCA), the glucoside precursor of herniarin, were described as native compounds in chamomile.[ 69, 70] Eleven bioactive phenolic compounds,[ 71] such as herniarin and umbelliferone (coumarin), chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid (phenylpropanoids), apigenin, apigenin-7-O-glucoside, luteolin and luteolin-7-O-glucoside (flavones), quercetin and rutin (flavonols), and naringenin (flavanone) are found in chamomile extract.

More than 120 chemical constituents have been identified in chamomile flower as secondary metabolites,[ 72, 73] including 28 terpenoids, 36 flavonoids,[ 13, 74, 75] and 52 additional compounds with potential pharmacological activity [].[ 15] Components, such as α-bisabolol and cyclic ethers are antimicrobial,[ 76, 77] umbelliferone is fungistatic, whereas chamazulene and α-bisabolol are antiseptic.[ 78] The chamomile was found to have the most effective antileishmanial activity.[ 79]

Table 1

German chamomile is a natural source of blue oil (essential oil). The flowers and flower heads are the main organs of the production of essential oil. It is remarkable that chamomile flower oil mainly consists of sesquiterpene derivatives (75-90%) but only traces of monoterpenes. The oil contains up to 20% polyynes. The principal components of the essential oil extracted from the flowers are (E)-β-farnesene (4.9-8.1%), terpene alcohol (farnesol), chamazulene (2.3-10.9%), α-bisabolol (4.8-11.3%), and α-bisabolol oxides A (25.5-28.7%) and α-bisabolol oxides B (12.2-30.9%),[ 33, 80- 84] which are known for their antiinflammatory,[ 27, 85, 86] antiseptic,[ 87] antiplogistic,[ 81, 88] and spasmolytic[ 89] properties. Among the various major constituents, α-bisabolol and chamazulene have been reported to be more useful than others. Chamazulene is an artifact formed from matricine, which is naturally present in the flowers during hydrodistillation or steam distillation. The color of the oil determines its quality. Blue color of the oil is due to sesquiterpene. The chamazulene content of the various chamomiles depends on the origin and age of the material. It decreases during the storage of the flowers.[ 90]

Bisabolol has been found to reduce the amount of proteolytic enzyme pepsin secreted by the stomach without any change occurring in the amount of stomach acid, due to which it has been recommended for the treatment of gastric and upper intestinal diseases.[ 91] It has also been reported to promote epithelization and granulation, and to produce a pronounced and antiphlogistic effect on paw carrageenin edema and cotton pellet granuloma of the rat.[ 81] Similarly, it is recommended that, if chamomile extracts were to be used for their antiphlogistic effects then plants rich in bisabolol and chamazulene should be chosen.[ 88, 92] Also, because of the antiinflammatory properties of bisabolol, it is recommended in cosmetic preparations.[ 85] The presence of cis-en-yne-dicyclo ethers, perillyl alcohol, triacontane, cadeleric hydrocarbon, and cadeleric tertiary alcohol was reported in chamomile.[ 93, 94] The other compounds, such as thujone and borneol were present in very low amounts. The main constituents of the flowers also include several phenolic compounds, primarily the flavonoid apigenin, quercetin, patuletin, luteolin, and their glucosides.

Besides the capitula, the shoot (leaves and stem) and root of the plant also contain essential oil. Earlier investigations on the oil of this herb reported[ 55, 83] the presence of (Z)-3-hexenol, (E)-β-farnesene, α-farnesene, germacrene D, (E)-nerolidol, spathulenol, hexadec-11-yn-11,13-diene, and (Z)- and (E)-en-yn-dicycloethers, whereas the root oil was reported to contain linalool, nerol, geraniol, β-elemene, (E)-β-farnesene, α-farnesene, spathulenol, τ-cadinol, τ-muurolol, β-caryophyllene, cis-caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, chamomillol, hexadec-11-yn-11,13-diene, cis- and trans-en-yn-dicycloethers, and chamomile esters I and II.[ 55, 95] These oils were devoid of chamazulene and α-bisabolol and its oxides were present as minor constituents. α-Humulene, hexadec-11-yn-13,15-diene, phytol, isophytol, and methyl palmitate were detected for the first time from M. chamomilla.[ 10]

All these and other compounds were found in different amounts and ratios in various parts of the inflorescence depending on the growth stage and the time of picking during the day. The quantity of α-bisabolol and α-bisabolol oxides A and B in the flowers reached a maximum at full bloom and then declined.[ 96] Farnesene content of the flowers decreased gradually with their growth and development. The accumulation of essential oils in the flowers continued during drying. Harvesting at the early flowering phase and drying in shaded places is recommended. Franz,[ 97] in pot trials, showed that the oil content was the lowest in decaying heads and highest in one week of flower initiation. Farnesene and bisabolol were highest in the flower buds and lowest in the decaying flowers. Chamazulene and bisabolol oxide content increased from buds to fully developed flower buds

BIOCHEMISTRY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

Effect of nitrogen on M. chamomilla

Environmental stress, irrespective of its nature, enhances reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation,[ 124] thereby activating both protective mechanism and cellular damages. Tissue damage occurs when the capacity of antioxidative systems becomes lower than the amount of ROS generated.[ 125] To protect cells under stress conditions and maintain the level of ROS, plants possess several enzymes to scavenge ROS. Important in regulating intracellular hydrogen peroxide (H ₂ O ₂) are catalase (CAT) and peroxidases (guaiacol peroxidase [GPX]).[ 124] A previous study has shown that both CAT and GPX increase their activity under conditions of N starvation in rice leaves.[ 126] Moreover, both CAT and GPX showed the highest activities, while H ₂O ₂ accumulation and superoxide dismutase activity was the lowest in the leaves of bean plants cultivated with the lowest N dosage compared with the highest N dosage.[ 127] Since growth of the leaves and roots was the highest in the lowest N dosage, this could be an indication that removal of H ₂O ₂ occurs also under optimal nutrient conditions. Additionally, this indicates that the highest N dose is toxic and drastically depresses the growth of the plants.[ 127] Phenolic compounds are potent inhibitors of oxidative damage due to availability of their phenolic hydrogen.[ 128] Their involvement in H ₂O ₂ detoxification through peroxidases is well established.[ 127] Enhancement of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) activity and higher accumulation of leaf phenolics and root exudation of phenolics under phosphate and N deficiency were recorded.[ 129]

In a previous study, Kovacik et al. reported that with prolonged N deficiency the majority of detected phenolic acids and coumarin-related compounds increased in chamomile leaf rosettes.[ 130] Recently Kovacik and Backor[ 131] showed that N deficiency enhanced root growth and inhibited shoot growth in M. chamomilla plants. Chlorophyll composition was not affected by N stress, but N and soluble proteins decreased in both the rosettes and the roots. PAL activity was enhanced in N-deficient rosettes and tended to decrease by the end of the experiment, while in the roots PAL activity was maintained. The total phenolic contents increased in both rosettes and roots under N deficiency. N-deficiency also affects peroxidase and CAT activities as it decreased them in the rosettes, while it increased them in the roots. Furthermore, lipid per oxidation status increased in N-deficient roots, indicating that antioxidative protection was insufficient to scavenge ROS being generated. Surprisingly, H ₂O ₂ content was lower in N-deficient roots, while in the leaves it increased.

Effect of Cd and Cu on M. chamomilla

Heavy metals have become one of the main biotic stress agents for living organisms because of their increasing use in the developing field of industry causing high bioaccumulation and toxicity.[ 132] Heavy metal toxicity usually depends on the metal amounts accumulated by plants. Cadmium (Cd) has no known physiologic function in plants, whereas Copper (Cu) is an essential plant micronutrient. Being a redox active metal, Cu generates ROS, whereas Cd is a redox inactive metal unable to catalyze the generation of ROS via Fenton-Haber-Weiss reactions.[ 133, 134] Nevertheless, Cd may induce the expression of lipoxygenases in plant tissues, and thus indirectly causes oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids.[ 135] Cu has a greater ability to cause lipid peroxidation than redox inactive metals, such as Cd; this fact was previously demonstrated also in Cd- and Cu-treated chamomile.[ 136, 137] Hydrogen peroxide is the main ROS being formed from superoxide radical and scavenged by specific enzymes. Therefore, regulated production of ROS and maintenance of "redox homeostasis" are essential for the physiologic health of organisms.[ 138]

Plants develop different mechanisms enabling them to cope with metal accumulation in the tissues and ROS formation induced by the presence of metals. Kovacik and Backor[ 139] studied the Cd and Cu uptake by 4-week-old chamomile plants and their effect on selected antioxidative enzyme activities, such as CAT, GPX, and glutathione reductase (GR) up to 7 days of exposure to 3, 60, and 120 μM Cd or Cu. Cd content in the rosettes was 10-fold higher in comparison with Cu, whereas Cu was preferentially accumulated in the roots. The increase of CAT and GPX activity was similar in the rosettes of Cd- and Cu-treated plants, indicating the nonredox active properties of Cd and low Cu accumulation. In the roots, Cu showed strong pro-oxidant effect, as judged from extreme stimulation of CAT and GPX, followed by an increase in H ₂O ₂ and malondialdehyde (MDA). However, alleviation of oxidative stress (ca. 93- to 250-fold higher activity in 120 μM Cu-treated roots) seemed to be more important. Cd had substantially lower influences and stimulated GR activity more than that by Cu.

Kovacik et al.[ 136] reported that Cu decreased dry mass production, water, chlorophyll, and N content in both the leaf rosettes and roots at 120 μM. Most of the 11 phenolic acids detected increased in 60 μM Cu but in the 120 μM treatment their contents were lower or not significantly different from the control. Among the coumarin-related compounds, (Z)- and (E)-GCMAs increased in 60 and 120 μM Cu, whereas herniarin rose in the 3 and 60 μM Cu. The amounts of umbelliferone were not affected by any of the doses tested. The MDA content of the leaf rosette was not affected by the exposure of plants to 120 μM Cu, but a sharp increase was observed in the roots. At 120 μM Cu stimulated a 9-fold higher K⁺ loss than the 60 μM treatment, whereas at the lowest concentration it stimulated K⁺ uptake. Cu accumulation in the roots was 3-, 49-, and 71-fold higher than the leaf rosettes in the 3, 60, and 120 μM Cu treatments, respectively. The 120 μM Cu dose is limiting for chamomile growth.

Chamomile is reported to accumulate high amounts of Cd preferentially in the roots and also in anthodia,[ 140- 142] indicating that it belongs to the group of facultative metallophytes or metal excluders. Grejtovsky et al. studied the effects of Cd on secondary metabolites of chamomile, and did not observe any changes in apigenin-7-O-glucoside and other derivatives in anthodia.[ 143] On the other hand, the quantities of two coumarins in the leaves, herniarin and umbelliferone, as well as herniarin glucosidic precursors (Z)- and (E)-GMCAs, were affected by foliar application of Cu ²⁺ ions and biotic stress.[ 144, 145] These two stress factors resulted in a decrease in the GMCAs, but an increase in herniarin as well as umbelliferone compared with the control. However, nutritional starvation, such as N deficiency, did not cause this pattern of coumarins dynamics, indicating the presence of other mechanisms governing their accumulation.[ 146]

Kovacik et al.[ 137] reported that the dry mass accumulation and N content were not significantly altered under low (3 μM) and high (60 and 120 μM) levels of Cd. However, there was a significant decline in the chlorophyll and water content in the leaves. Among coumarin-related compounds, herniarin was not affected by Cd, whereas its precursors (Z)- and (E)-GCMAs increased significantly at all the levels of Cd tested. Cd did not have any effect on umbelliferone, a stress metabolite of chamomile. Lipid peroxidation was also not affected by even 120 μM Cd. Cd accumulation was approximately 7- (60 μM) to 11-fold (120 μM) higher in the roots than that in the leaves. At high concentrations, it stimulated K⁺ leakage from the roots, whereas at the lowest concentration it could stimulate K⁺ uptake. This supported the hypothesis that metabolism was altered only slightly under high Cd stress, indicating that chamomile is tolerant to this metal. Preferential Cd accumulation in the roots indicated that chamomile could not be classified as a hyperaccumulator and, therefore, it is unsuitable for phytoremediation.

Effect of amino acids on M. chamomilla

Amino acids can act as growth factors of higher plants because they are the building blocks of protein synthesis, which could be enzymes important for metabolic activities. There is evidence that ornithine is a precursor of polyamines that are essential in the regulation of plant growth and development.[ 147, 148] Proline has been shown to accumulate in the plant tissue under various conditions.[ 149, 150] The suggested functions of the accumulated proline are osmoregulation, maintenance of membrane and protein stability, growth, seed germination, and provision of storage of carbon, nitrogen, and energy.[ 149, 151, 152]

Gamal el-Din and Abd-el-Wahed[ 153] investigated the effect of different concentrations of ornithine, proline, and phenylalanine on vegetative growth, essential oil, and some biochemical constituents of chamomile. They observed that all the amino acids significantly increased the plant height, number of branches, number of flower head, fresh and dry weights of the aerial parts, and flower head per plant. Foliar application of 50 mg/L ornithine and 100 mg/L proline or phenylalanine resulted in greater effect as compared with other treatments. This regulatory effect of amino acids on growth could be explained by the notion that some amino acids (eg, phenylalanine and ornithine) can effect plant growth and development through their influence on the gibberellin biosynthesis.[ 154] The total phenol and total indole contents in the vegetative aerial parts were significantly increased by all the amino acids. The maximum effect showed ornithine, proline, and phenylalanine at a concentration of 150 mg/L. Proline or phenylalanine at 50 or 150 mg/L decreased the total carbohydrates, whereas 150 mg/L of ornithine had such effect. The greatest increase in the oil percentage and yield were obtained at 150 mg/L of ornithine and 100 mg/L of proline or phenylalanine.

Effect of salicylic acid on M. chamomilla

Salicylic acid (SA) is a well-known endogenous plant signal molecule involved in many growth responses and in disease resistance.[ 155, 156] Stimulation of growth after exposure to SA has been recorded in some plant species, such as wheat,[ 157] soybean,[ 158] and maize.[ 159] It can also contribute to stress tolerance by stimulating highly branched metabolic responses.[ 160] The effect of exogenous SA depends on numerous factors, including the species and developmental stage, the mode of application, and the concentration of SA.[ 160, 161] A range of plant physiologic reactions to SA application are known. Pastirova et al. have shown that accumulation of coumarin-related compounds in chamomile was affected by exogenous SA application at a dose of 2 mM.[ 162] Kovacik et al.[ 163] reported that SA exhibited both growth-promoting and growth-inhibiting properties at doses of 50 and 250 μM, respectively. The latter being correlated with the decrease of chlorophylls, water content, and soluble proteins. In terms of phenolic metabolism, it seems that the higher SA dose has a toxic effect, based on the sharp increase in PAL activity, which is followed by an increase in total soluble phenolics and lignin accumulation. GPX activity was elevated at a dose of 250 μM SA. However, PAL activity decreased with prolonged exposure to SA, indicating its inhibition. Accumulation of coumarin-related compounds (umbelliferone and herniarin) was not affected by SA; whereas (Z)- and (E)-GCMAs increased in the rosettes at 250 μM SA.

Tissue culture studies

Tissue culture is the culture and maintenance in vitro of plant cells or organs in sterile, nutritionally and environmentally supportive conditions. It has applications in research and commerce. In commercial settings, tissue culture is often referred to as micropropagation, which is really only one form of a set of techniques. Micropropagation refers to the production of whole plants from cell cultures derived from explants, the initial piece of tissue put into culture of meristem cells. Two types of tissue culture of M. chamomilla were isolated, namely, E40 and BK ₂ derived from leaf and stem, respectively.[ 164] These cultures were also maintained in modified Murashige and Skoog medium and essential oil was present in both types of tissue culture and chromatograms of both essential oils showed similarity. Szoke et al.[ 165, 167] obtained callus tissues from root, stem, and flower clusters of wild chamomile. They studied the dynamics of growth of callus tissues on the basic growth medium containing 2,4-D and kinetin in light and in dark. It was observed that the growth of inflorescence callus, either cultured in light or dark, was sensitive to added growth regulators. It grew better with kinetin + 2,4-D. Use of 10% coconut milk instead of kinetin + 2,4-D was effective in improving the growth. Differences in the composition of essential oil in the three parts studied were attributed to the level of tissue organization. Cellarova et al.[ 168] has dealt with the possibility of morphogenesis induction in callus tissue cultures of some representatives of M. chamomilla. Shoot in calli has been induced by 0.1 mg/L kinetin or by combination of 0.5 mg/L kinetin and 0.5 mg/L alpha naphthyl acetic acid (NAA) added to Murashige and Skoog medium. Rhizogenesis took place without any other addition of auxin.

IMPROVED VARIETIES OF CHAMOMILE AS A SOURCE OF DRUG

The world market currently has chamomile drug of various origins and therapeutical values. The medicinal value of the plant material was evaluated by the content of essential oil and the content of chamazulene, etc.[ 6] The quality of blue oil (essential oil) is determined by its color. As the name indicates, bluer the oil better is the quality, because blue color serves as the chemical marker for the presence of terpenoids and flavonoids, chiefly chamazulene and α-bisabolol. For manufacturing chamomile extracts of antiphlogistic effectiveness, only such types of chamomile should be used, which exhibit a high content of (-)-α-bisabolol and the synthetic racemic bisabolol.[ 88] Thus, chamomile of a particular chemical composition is used as drug as it shows specific pharmacological activity.

As efficient methods for determining the drug constituents and effectiveness have been developed, the content of (-)-α bisabolol and its oxides in the flowers has become an important indicator of drug quality and value. As a result, four basic types of chamomile A, B, C, and D are recognized, according to the qualitative and quantitative composition of the essential oil.[ 80, 169]

-Chemical type A (dominant component of essential oil is bisabolol oxide A).

-Chemical type B (dominant component of essential oil is bisabolol oxide B).

-Chemical type C (dominant component of essential oil is (-)-α-bisabolol).

-Chemical type D ((-)-α-bisabolol and bisabolol oxide A and B present in 1:1 ratio approx.).

The major suppliers of chamomile for the world market, which are Poland, Hungary, Germany, Argentina, and Czecho-Slovakia, have recently initiated intensive plant improvement programs to produce plants with high levels of essential oils with a defined chemical composition. The varieties "Bona," "Kosice-II," and the cultivar "koice-1" have been developed through selection and breeding efforts. Normally, these new types have over twice the essential oil content of the older "Bohemia" variety, and "Bona" and "Kosice-II" have chemical profiles much higher in (-)-α-bisabolol and chamazulene [].[ 23, 170]

Table 2

German chamomile was introduced in India during the 17th century. But its commercial cultivation remained marginalized mainly due to poor yield of flowers coupled with low oil content and poor oil quality. No attempt was ever made to scientifically organize the cultivation of such valuable cash crop. As a result of germplasm enhancement and exploitation program, an improved variety, Vallary, was developed and finally released for commercial cultivation in India.[ 171] It is the first ever genetically improved variety of German chamomile, bred specially for agroclimatic conditions of North Indian plains. Its oil is highly viscous and dark blue in color, indicative of high concentration of terpenoids and flavonoids.[ 26]

Trade

German chamomile enjoys good domestic and international market. It is the fifth top selling herb in the world and is a major food cosmetic and pharmaceutical additive. It sold either as flower head or as blue oil. "Blue oil" is the commercial trade name of chamomile oil in the international market, which fetches about Rs. 40,000 for a kilogram.[ 171] The world production of chamomile blue essential oil was estimated by the USDA to be 5.4 t, in the year 1989.[ 172]

The medicinal plant sector in India is unorganized and it is difficult to get regular update of statistics vis-à-vis the demand and supply, collection, and economics of chamomile. Also, worldwide production figures are difficult to isolate due to small-scale farming and the fact that statistics generally do not quote chamomile separately from herbs. In 1995, the worldwide production was estimated to be approximately 500 t of dried flower per annum from large-scale farming. In 1998, this figure raised to 1000 t of dried flower per annum from large-scale farming.[ 172]

Price is largely regulated by supply and demand in the world. In 1991, the world price for dried chamomile flower ranged from US $ 1,000/t for low grade to approximately US $ 16,000/t for high oil content flower.[ 172] Bulk botanical herbs, in 1997, was advertising organically grown chamomile on the Internet at US $ 28 per pound (US $ 61.73 per kg).[ 172] Recently, it is selling at the rate of US $ 700 per kg.[ 173] With the current trends, these prices should increase within the next two years.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a great demand for chamomile in the world market because of its extensive medicinal values and impeccable pharmacological properties. Also, there has been an increase in the use of natural substances instead of synthetic chemicals because many herbal medicines are free from side effects, easy to obtain, considered healthy, and create income. It is a well-established fact that chamomile plant diversity is being threatened by unregulated harvesting of natural populations and expansion of urban centers. So it is advisable to cultivate chamomile for better quality control of the target bioactive components. This approach also allows for the production of uniform plant material at predetermined intervals in the required quantities. A strong need is felt to screen the different chemotypes of chamomile growing at different phytogeographical locations. Similarly, biodiversity studies at morphologic, biochemical, and genetic levels will enable the research community to realize the extent of variability within the existing germplasm of chamomile, and hence help in the conservation of the plant. However, there is still a wide scope for exploring different aspects of chamomile.

In India, it appears that there is a good potential for chamomile cultivation as a commercial medicinal and industrial crop. Because of the high international market price of chamomile, it is necessary to promote this valuable crop as a commercial crop mainly for export of chamomile oil from India.

Footnotes

Source of Support: Nil

Conflict of Interest: None declared

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Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.): An overview

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Chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla L.) is a well-known medicinal plant species from the Asteraceae family often referred to as the "star among medicinal species." Nowadays it is a highly favored and much used medicinal plant in folk and traditional medicine. Its multitherapeutic, cosmetic, and nutritional values have been established through years of traditional and scientific use and research.

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"one of the most ancient medicinal herbs known to mankind [...]  The dried flowers of chamomile contain many terpenoids and flavonoids contributing to its medicinal properties [...]  for many human ailments such as hay fever, inflammation, muscle spasms, menstrual disorders, insomnia, ulcers, wounds, gastrointestinal disorders, rheumatic pain, and hemorrhoids." Recent studies show anticancer activity, as well.
Yet, " A relatively low percentage of people are sensitive to chamomile and develop allergic reactions"

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Abstract

Chamomile is one of the most ancient medicinal herbs known to mankind. It is a member of Asteraceae/ Compositae family and represented by two common varieties viz. German Chamomile ( Chamomilla recutita) and Roman Chamomile ( Chamaemelum nobile). The dried flowers of chamomile contain many terpenoids and flavonoids contributing to its medicinal properties. Chamomile preparations are commonly used for many human ailments such as hay fever, inflammation, muscle spasms, menstrual disorders, insomnia, ulcers, wounds, gastrointestinal disorders, rheumatic pain, and hemorrhoids. Essential oils of chamomile are used extensively in cosmetics and aromatherapy. Many different preparations of chamomile have been developed, the most popular of which is in the form of herbal tea consumed more than one million cups per day. In this review we describe the use of chamomile in traditional medicine with regard to evaluating its curative and preventive properties, highlight recent findings for its development as a therapeutic agent promoting human health.

Keywords: chamomile, dietary agents, flavonoids, polyphenols, human health

1. INTRODUCTION

The interplay of plants and human health has been documented for thousands of years ( 1- 3). Herbs have been integral to both traditional and non-traditional forms of medicine dating back at least 5000 years ( 2, 4- 6). The enduring popularity of herbal medicines may be explained by the tendency of herbs to work slowly, usually with minimal toxic side effects. One of the most common herbs used for medicinal purposes is chamomile whose standardized tea and herbal extracts are prepared from dried flowers of Matricaria species. Chamomile is one of the oldest, most widely used and well documented medicinal plants in the world and has been recommended for a variety of healing applications ( 7). Chamomile is a native of the old World and is a member of the daisy family ( Asteraceae or Compositae). The hollow, bright gold cones of the flowers are packed with disc or tubular florets and are ringed with about fifteen white ray or ligulate florets, widely represented by two known varieties viz. German chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla) and Roman chamomile ( Chamaemelum nobile) ( 8) . In this review we will discuss the use and possible merits of chamomile, examining its historical use and recent scientific and clinical evaluations of its potential use in the management of various human ailments.

2. BIOACTIVE CONSTITUENTS OF CHAMOMILE

Different classes of bioactive constituents are present in chamomile, which have been isolated and used as medicinal preparations and cosmetics ( 9). The plant contains 0.24%-1.9% volatile oil, composed of a variety of separate oils. When exposed to steam distillation, the oil ranges in color from brilliant blue to deep green when fresh but turns to dark yellow after storage. Despite fading, the oil does not lose its potency. Approximately 120 secondary metabolites have been identified in chamomile, including 28 terpenoids and 36 flavonoids ( 10, 11). The principal components of the essential oil extracted from the German chamomile flowers are the terpenoids α-bisabolol and its oxide azulenes including chamazulene and acetylene derivatives. Chamazulene and bisabolol are very unstable and are best preserved in an alcoholic tincture. The essential oil of Roman chamomile contains less chamazulene and is mainly constituted from esters of angelic acid and tiglic acid. It also contains farnesene and α-pinene. Roman chamomile contains up to 0.6% of sesquiterpene lactones of the germacranolide type, mainly nobilin and 3-epinobilin. Both α-bisabolol, bisabolol oxides A and B and chamazulene or azulenesse, farnesene and spiro-ether quiterpene lactones, glycosides, hydroxycoumarins, flavanoids (apigenin, luteolin, patuletin, and quercetin), coumarins (herniarin and umbelliferone), terpenoids, and mucilage are considered to be the major bio-active ingredients ( 12, 13). Other major constituents of the flowers include several phenolic compounds, primarily the flavonoids apigenin, quercetin, patuletin as glucosides and various acetylated derivatives. Among flavonoids, apigenin is the most promising compound. It is present in very small quantities as free apigenin, but predominantly exists in the form of various glycosides ( 14- 18).

3. HEALTHCARE PREPRATIONS OF CHAMOMILE

Chamomile is known to be used in various forms of its preparations. Dry powder of chamomile flower is recommended and used by many people for traditionally established health problems. Medicinal ingredients are normally extracted from the dry flowers of chamomile by using water, ethanol or methanol as solvents and corresponding extracts are known as aqueous, ethanolic (alcoholic) and/or methanolic extracts. Optimum chamomile extracts contain about 50 percent alcohol. Normally standardized extracts contain 1.2% of apigenin which is one of the most effective bioactive agents. Aqueous extracts, such as in the form of tea, contain quite low concentrations of free apigenin but include high levels of apigenin-7- O-glucoside. Oral infusion of chamomile is recommended by the German Commission E ( 19, 20).Chamomile tea is one of the world's most popular herbal teas and about a million cups are consumed every day. Tea bags of chamomile are also available in the market, containing chamomile flower powder, either pure or blended with other popular medicinal herbs. Chamomile tincture may also be prepared as one part chamomile flower in four parts of water having 12% grain alcohol, which is used to correct summer diarrhea in children and also used with purgatives to prevent cramping. Chamomile flowers are extensively used alone, or combined with crushed poppy-heads, as a poultice or hot foment for inflammatory pain or congestive neuralgia, and in cases of external swelling, such as facial swelling associated with underlying infection or abscess. Chamomile whole plant is used for making herb beers, and also for a lotion, for external application in toothache, earache, neuralgia and in cases of external swelling ( 20). It is also known to be used as bath additive, recommended for soothing ano-genital inflammation ( 21). The tea infusion is used as a wash or gargle for inflammation of the mucous membranes of the mouth and throat ( 22, 23). Inhalation of the vaporized essential oils derived from chamomile flowers is recommended to relieve anxiety, general depression. Chamomile oil is a popular ingredient of aromatherapy and hair care ( 24, 25). Roman chamomile is widely used in cosmetic preparations and in soothing and softening effect on the skin ( 26, 27).

4. TRADITIONAL USE OF CHAMOMILE

Traditionally, chamomile has been used for centuries as an anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, mild astringent and healing medicine ( 28). As a traditional medicine, it is used to treat wounds, ulcers, eczema, gout, skin irritations, bruises, burns, canker sores, neuralgia, sciatica, rheumatic pain, hemorrhoids, mastitis and other ailments ( 29, 30). Externally, chamomile has been used to treat diaper rash, cracked nipples, chicken pox, ear and eye infections, disorders of the eyes including blocked tear ducts, conjunctivitis, nasal inflammation and poison ivy ( 31, 32). Chamomile is widely used to treat inflammations of the skin and mucous membranes, and for various bacterial infections of the skin, oral cavity and gums, and respiratory tract. Chamomile in the form of an aqueous extract has been frequently used as a mild sedative to calm nerves and reduce anxiety, to treat hysteria, nightmares, insomnia and other sleep problems ( 33). Chamomile has been valued as a digestive relaxant and has been used to treat various gastrointestinal disturbances including flatulence, indigestion, diarrhea, anorexia, motion sickness, nausea, and vomiting ( 34, 35). Chamomile has also been used to treat colic, croup, and fevers in children ( 36). It has been used as an emmenagogue and a uterine tonic in women. It is also effective in arthritis, back pain, bedsores and stomach cramps.

5. SCIENTIFIC EVALUATION OF CHAMOMILE

5.1 Anti-inflammatory and antiphlogistic properties

The flowers of chamomile contain 1-2% volatile oils including alpha-bisabolol, alpha-bisabolol oxides A & B, and matricin (usually converted to chamazulene and other flavonoids which possess anti-inflammatory and antiphlogistic properties ( 12, 19, 35, 36). A study in human volunteers demonstrated that chamomile flavonoids and essential oils penetrate below the skin surface into the deeper skin layers ( 37). This is important for their use as topical antiphlogistic (anti-inflammatory) agents. One of chamomile's anti-inflammatory activities involve the inhibition of LPS-induced prostaglandin E(2) release and attenuation of cyclooxygenase (COX-2) enzyme activity without affecting the constitutive form, COX-1 ( 38).

5.2 Anticancer activity

Most evaluations of tumor growth inhibition by chamomile involve studies with apigenin which is one of the bioactive constituents of chamomile. Studies on preclinical models of skin, prostate, breast and ovarian cancer have shown promising growth inhibitory effects ( 39- 43). In a recently conducted study, chamomile extracts were shown to cause minimal growth inhibitory effects on normal cells, but showed significant reductions in cell viability in various human cancer cell lines. Chamomile exposure induced apoptosis in cancer cells but not in normal cells at similar doses ( 18). The efficacy of the novel agent TBS-101, a mixture of seven standardized botanical extracts including chamomile has been recently tested. The results confirm it to have a good safety profile with significant anticancer activities against androgen-refractory human prostrate cancer PC-3 cells, both in vitro and in vivo situation ( 44).

5.3 Common cold

Common cold (acute viral nasopharyngitis) is the most common human disease. It is a mild viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory system. Typically common cold is not life-threatening, although its complications (such as pneumonia) can lead to death, if not properly treated. Studies indicate that inhaling steam with chamomile extract has been helpful in common cold symptoms ( 45); however, further research is needed to confirm these findings.

5.4 Cardiovascular conditions

It has been suggested that regular use of flavonoids consumed in food may reduce the risk of death from coronary heart disease in elderly men ( 46). A study assessed the flavonoid intake of 805 men aged 65-84 years who were followed up for 5 years. Flavonoid intake (analyzed in tertiles) was significantly inversely associated with mortality from coronary heart disease and showed an inverse relation with incidence of myocardial infarction. In another study ( 47), on twelve patients with cardiac disease who underwent cardiac catheterization, hemodynamic measurements obtained prior to and 30 minutes after the oral ingestion of chamomile tea exhibited a small but significant increase in the mean brachial artery pressure. No other significant hemodynamic changes were observed after chamomile consumption. Ten of the twelve patients fell into a deep sleep shortly after drinking the beverage. A large, well-designed randomized controlled trial is needed to assess the potential value of chamomile in improving cardiac health.

5.5 Colic/Diarrhea conditions

An apple pectin-chamomile extract may help shorten the course of diarrhea in children as well as relieve symptoms associated with the condition ( 47). Two clinical trials have evaluated the efficacy of chamomile for the treatment of colic in children. Chamomile tea was combined with other herbs (German chamomile, vervain, licorice, fennel, balm mint) for administration. In a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, 68 healthy term infants who had colic (2 to 8 weeks old) received either herbal tea or placebo (glucose, flavoring). Each infant was offered treatment with every bout of colic, up to 150 mL/dose, no more than three times a day. After 7 days of treatment, parents reported that the tea eliminated the colic in 57% of the infants, whereas placebo was helpful in only 26% ( P<0.01). No adverse effects with regard to the number of nighttime awakenings were noted in either group ( 48). Another study examined the effects of a chamomile extract and apple pectin preparation in 79 children (age 0.5-5.5 y) with acute, non-complicated diarrhea who received either the chamomile/pectin preparation ( n = 39) or a placebo ( n = 40) for 3 days. Diarrhea ended sooner in children treated with chamomile and pectin (85%), than in the placebo group (58%) ( 49). These results provide evidence that chamomile can be used safely to treat infant colic disorders.

5.8 Hemorrhoids

Studies suggest that chamomile ointment may improve hemorrhoids. Tinctures of chamomile can also be used in a sitz bath format. Tincture of Roman chamomile may reduce inflammation associated with hemorrhoids ( 55, 56).

5.9 Health Promotion

It has been claimed that consumption of chamomile tea boosts the immune system and helps fight infections associated with colds. The health promoting benefits of chamomile was assessed in a study which involved fourteen volunteers who each drank five cups of the herbal tea daily for two consecutive weeks. Daily urine samples were taken and tested throughout the study, both before and after drinking chamomile tea. Drinking chamomile was associated with a significant increase in urinary levels of hippurate and glycine, which have been associated with increased antibacterial activity ( 57). In another study, chamomile relieved hypertensive symptoms and decreased the systolic blood pressure significantly, increasing urinary output ( 58). Additional studies are needed before a more definitive link between chamomile and its alleged health benefits can be established.

5.10 Inflammatory conditions

Inflammation is associated with many gastrointestinal disorders complaints, such as esophageal reflux, diverticular disease, and inflammatory disease ( 59- 61). Studies in preclinical models suggest that chamomile inhibits Helicobacter pylori, the bacteria that can contribute to stomach ulcers ( 60). Chamomile is believed to be helpful in reducing smooth muscle spasms associated with various gastrointestinal inflammatory disorders. Chamomile is often used to treat mild skin irritations, including sunburn, rashes, sores and even eye inflammations ( 62- 65) but its value in treating these conditions has not been shown with evidence-based research.

5.11 Mucositis

Mouth ulcers are a common condition with a variety of etiologies ( 66). Stomatitis is a major dose-limiting toxicity from bolus 5-fluorouracil-based (5-FU) chemotherapy regimens. A double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial including 164 patients was conducted ( 22). Patients were entered into the study at the time of their first cycle of 5-FU-based chemotherapy and were randomized to receive a chamomile or placebo mouthwash thrice daily for 14 days. There was no suggestion of any stomatitis difference between patients randomized to either protocol arm. There was also no suggestion of toxicity. Similar results were obtained with another prospective trial on chamomile in this situation. Data obtained from these clinical trials did not support the pre study hypothesis that chamomile could decrease 5-FU-induced stomatitis. The results remain unclear if chamomile is helpful in this situation.

5.12 Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a metabolic bone disease resulting from low bone mass (osteopenia) due to excessive bone resorption. Sufferers are prone to bone fractures from relatively minor trauma. Agents which include selective estrogen receptor modulators or SERMs, biphosphonates, calcitonin are frequently used to prevent bone loss. To prevent bone loss that occurs with increasing age, chamomile extract was evaluated for its ability to stimulate the differentiation and mineralization of osteoblastic cells. Chamomile extract was shown to stimulate osteoblastic cell differentiation and to exhibit an anti-estrogenic effect, suggesting an estrogen receptor-related mechanism ( 67). However, further studies are needed before it can be considered for clinical use.

5.13 Sleep aid/sedation

Traditionally, chamomile preparations such as tea and essential oil aromatherapy have been used to treat insomnia and to induce sedation (calming effects). Chamomile is widely regarded as a mild tranquillizer and sleep-inducer. Sedative effects may be due to the flavonoid, apigenin that binds to benzodiazepine receptors in the brain ( 68). Studies in preclinical models have shown anticonvulsant and CNS depressant effects respectively. Clinical trials are notable for their absence, although ten cardiac patients are reported to have immediately fallen into a deep sleep lasting for 90 minutes after drinking chamomile tea ( 47). Chamomile extracts exhibit benzodiazepine-like hypnotic activity ( 69). In another study, inhalation of the vapor of chamomile oil reduced a stress-induced increase in plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) levels. Diazepam, co-administered with the chamomile oil vapor, further reduced ACTH levels, while flumazenile, a BDZ antagonist blocked the effect of chamomile oil vapor on ACTH. According to Paladini et al. ( 70), the separation index (ratio between the maximal anxiolytic dose and the minimal sedative dose) for diazepam is 3 while for apigenin it is 10. Compounds, other than apigenin, present in extracts of chamomile can also bind BDZ and GABA receptors in the brain and might be responsible for some sedative effect; however, many of these compounds are as yet unidentified.

5.14 Anxiety and seizure

Chamomile has been reported in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). But the reports seem contradictory as an earlier report suggests that German chamomile showed significant inhibition of GAD activity ( 71). The recent results from the controlled clinical trial on chamomile extract for GAD suggests that it may have modest anxiolytic activity in patients with mild to moderate GAD ( 72). Extracts of chamomile ( M. recutita) possess suitable effects on seizure induced by picrotoxin ( 73). Furthermore, apigenin has been shown to reduce the latency in the onset of picrotoxin-induced convulsions and reduction in locomotor activity but did not demonstrate any anxiolytic, myorelaxant, or anticonvulsant activities ( 16).

5.16 Sore throat/hoarseness

The efficacy of lubrication of the endo-tracheal tube cuff with chamomile before intubation on postoperative sore throat and hoarseness was determined in a randomized double-blind study. 161 patients whose American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) physical status was I or II, and undergoing elective surgical, orthopedic, gynecological or urological surgeries were divided in two groups. The study group received 10 puffs of chamomile extract (Kamillosan M spray, total 370 mg of Chamomile extract) at the site of the cuff of the endotracheal tube for lubrication, while the control group did not receive any lubrication before intubations. Standard general anesthesia with tracheal intubations was given in both groups. 41 out of 81 patients (50.6%) in the chamomile group reported no postoperative sore throat in the post-anesthesia care unit compared with 45 out of 80 patients (56.3%) in the control group. Postoperative sore throat and hoarseness both in the post-anesthesia care unit and at 24 h post-operation were not statistically different. Lubrication of endo-tracheal tube cuff with chamomile extract spray before intubations can not prevent post operative sore throat and hoarseness ( 77). Similar results were obtained in another double blind study ( 78).

5.17 Vaginitis

Vaginal inflammation is common in women of all ages. Vaginitis is associated with itching, vaginal discharge, or pain with urination. Atrophic vaginitis most commonly occurs in menopausal and postmenopausal women, and its occurrence is often associated with reduced levels of estrogen. Chamomile douche may improve symptoms of vaginitis with few side effects ( 79). There is insufficient research data to allow conclusions concerning possible potential benefits of chamomile for this condition.

5.18 Wound healing

The efficacy of topical use of chamomile to enhance wound healing was evaluated in a double-blind trial on 14 patients who underwent dermabrasion of tattoos. The effects on drying and epithelialization were observed, and chamomile was judged to be statistically efficacious in producing wound drying and in speeding epithelialization ( 80). Antimicrobial activity of the extract against various microorganisms was also assessed. The test group, on day 15, exhibited a greater reduction in the wound area when compared with the controls (61 % versus 48%), faster epithelialization and a significantly higher wound-breaking strength. In addition, wet and dry granulation tissue weight and hydroxyproline content were significantly higher. The increased rate of wound contraction, together with the increased wound-breaking strength, hydroxyproline content and histological observations, support the use of M. recutita in wound management ( 81). Recent studies suggest that chamomile caused complete wound healing faster than corticosteroids ( 82). However, further studies are needed before it can be considered for clinical use.

6.0 CONTRAINDICATIONS AND SAFETY ISSUES WITH CHAMOMILE

A relatively low percentage of people are sensitive to chamomile and develop allergic reactions ( 87). People sensitive to ragweed and chrysanthemums or other members of the Compositae family are more prone to develop contact allergies to chamomile, especially if they take other drugs that help to trigger the sensitization. A large-scale clinical trial was conducted in Hamburg, Germany, between 1985 and 1991 to study the development of contact dermatitis secondary to exposure to a mixture of components derived from the Compositae family. Twelve species of the Compositae family, including German chamomile, were selected and tested individually when the mixture induced allergic reactions. During the study, 3,851 individuals were tested using a patch with the plant extract ( 88). Of these patients, 118 (3.1%) experienced an allergic reaction. Further tests revealed that feverfew elicited the most allergic reactions (70.1% of patients) followed by chrysanthemums (63.6%) and tansy (60.8%). Chamomile fell in the middle range (56.5%). A study involving 686 subjects exposed either to a sesquiterpene lactone mixture or a mixture of Compositae extracts led to allergic reactions in 4.5% of subjects ( 89). In another study it was shown that eye washing with chamomile tea in hay fever patients who have conjunctivitis exacerbates the eye inflammation, whereas no worsening of eye inflammation was noted when chamomile tea was ingested orally ( 90). Chamomile is listed on the FDA's GRAS (generally recognized as safe) list. It is possible that some reports of allergic reactions to chamomile may be due to contamination of chamomile by "dog chamomile," a highly allergenic and bad-tasting plant of similar appearance. Evidence of cross-reactivity of chamomile with other drugs is not well documented, and further study of this issue is needed prior to reaching conclusions. Safety in young children, pregnant or nursing women, or those with liver or kidney disease has not been established, although there have not been any credible reports of toxicity caused by this common beverage tea.

7.0 CONCLUSIONS

Chamomile has been used as an herbal medication since ancient times, is still popular today and probably will continue to be used in the future because it contains various bioactive phytochemicals that could provide therapeutic effects. Chamomile can help in improving cardiovascular conditions, stimulate immune system and provide some protection against cancer. Establishing whether or not therapeutic effects of chamomile are beneficial to patients will require research and generation of scientific evidence. There is a need for continued efforts that focuses on pre-clinical studies with chamomile involving animal models of various diseases. This may then be consequently validated in clinical trials that will help in developing chamomile as a promising therapeutic agent. Without such evidence, it will remain unclear whether these untested and unproven medical treatments are truly beneficial. It is advisable that the discriminate and proper use of chamomile preparations could be safe and provide therapeutic benefits however the indiscriminate or improper use can be unsafe and harmful.

Acknowledgements

The original work from author's laboratory outlined in this review was supported by United States Public Health Service Grants RO1 AT002709 and RO1 CA108512

Abbreviations

REFERENCES

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Chamomile: A herbal medicine of the past with bright future

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Chamomile is one of the most ancient medicinal herbs known to mankind. It is a member of Asteraceae/ Compositae family and represented by two common varieties viz. German Chamomile ( Chamomilla recutita) and Roman Chamomile ( Chamaemelum nobile). The dried flowers of chamomile contain many terpenoids and flavonoids contributing to its medicinal properties.

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Matricaria from matrix -icis meaning "womb" as it is used against menstrual disorders

chamomila from Greek chamaimelon, literally "earth apple," from chamai meaning "on the ground" + mēlon meaning "apple" due to its subtle apple like scent.

References:
http://floraattica.blogspot.com/2011/04/chamomilla-recutita.html
https://www.etymonline.com/word/camomile?ref=etymonline_crossreference

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Kingdom:  | Plantae
Clade:  | Angiosperms
Clade:  | Eudicots
Clade:  | Asterids
Order:  | Asterales
Family:  | Asteraceae
Genus:  | Matricaria
Species:  | M. chamomilla

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Synonym: Matricaria recutita L.

Vernacular names: chamomile (en), hamomilie (gr)

It has a branched, erect and smooth stem, which grows to a height of 15–60 cm (6–23.5 in). The long and narrow leaves are bipinnate or tripinnate.

The flowers are borne in paniculate flower heads (capitula). The white ray florets are furnished with a ligule, while the disc florets are yellow. The hollow receptacle is swollen and lacks scales. This property distinguishes German chamomile from corn chamomile (Anthemis arvensis), which has a receptacle with scales. The flowers bloom in early to midsummer, and have a strong, aromatic smell.

References:
http://portal.cybertaxonomy.org/flora-greece/cdm_dataportal/taxon/1e95e646-04a3-4372-b07f-dac64d3df634/synonymy?highlite=68591a63-8dfb-4eac-8f52-03ecac3c541b&acceptedFor=68591a63-8dfb-4eac-8f52-03ecac3c541b#68591a63-8dfb-4eac-8f52-03ecac3c541b
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matricaria_chamomilla

Photo by ΝΙΚΟΣ ΝΙΚΗΤΙΔΗΣ

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Χαμομήλι ονομάζουμε μια μικρή μαργαρίτα που ανθίζει χάμω στα έδαφος και έχει άρωμα που μοιάζει με το μήλο. Η ονομασία είναι αρχαία (χαμαί+μήλο) και την ερμηνεία την έχει δώσει ο Γαληνός ήδη από την όψιμη αρχαιότητα. Ο Θεόφραστος ονομάζει το χαμομήλι "Άνθεμον το αφυλλανθές", κατ' αντίθεση με το "Άνθεμον το φυλλώδες" που είναι οι μαργαρίτες με ψηλούς βλαστούς. Πράγματι, η ανθοφορία του χαμομηλιού είναι τόσο πυκνή ώστε δεν φαίνονται τα φύλλα του και δίνει την εντύπωση ότι δεν έχει φύλλα και είναι "αφυλλανθές".
Το χαμομήλι είναι δημοφιλές και βασικό θεραπευτικό βότανο από τα προϊστορικά χρόνια. Ο Ιπποκράτης, ο Διοσκουρίδης και οι άλλοι αρχαίοι γιατροί το χρησιμοποιούσαν ως άριστο αντισηπτικό και καταπραϋντικό φάρμακο για ένα πλήθος παθήσεων. Το χαμομήλι περιέχει αιθέριο έλαιο, φλαβονοειδή, κουμαρίνες και χολίνη. Το εκχύλισμα του χαμομηλιού και σήμερα έχει σημαντική χρήση για κομπρέσες στα μάτια και πλύσεις του στόματος και των αυτιών. Είναι χαλαρωτικό και ηρεμιστικό. Φαρμακευτικά είναι τα άνθη του χαμομηλιού που έχουν ιδιότητες αντιφλογιστικές, χωνευτικές, σπασμολυτικές, επουλωτικές, αντιφυσητικές, αντιαλλεργικές, λιποδιαλυτικές, καταπραϋντικές, αντιφλεγμονώδεις. Είναι ομοιοπαθητικό φάρμακο. Το χαμομήλι φύεται άφθονο στην Ευρώπη.
Επίσημο βοτανικό όνομα: Matricaria recutita L.1753.
Συνώνυμα: Matricaria chamomilla L. 1753 & Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert 1974
Ετυμολογία:
Matricaria > matrix -icis μήτρα, επειδή θεωρείται εμμηναγωγό > ή από mater μητέρα
recutita > re (επαναληπτικό) + quatio κινώ, κουνώ = ανακινούμενο
chamomilla > χαμαί + μήλον (επειδή έχει άρωμα που μοιάζει με μήλο) = χαμομήλι.

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Χαμομήλι ονομάζουμε μια μικρή μαργαρίτα που ανθίζει χάμω στα έδαφος και έχει άρωμα που μοιάζει με το μήλο. Η ονομασία είναι αρχαία (χαμαί+μήλο) και την ερμηνεία την έχει δώσει ο Γαληνός ήδη από την όψιμη αρχαιότητα. Ο Θεόφραστος ονομάζει το χαμομήλι "Άνθεμον το αφυλλανθές", κατ' αντίθεση με το "Άνθεμον το φυλλώδες" που είναι οι μαργαρίτες με ψηλούς βλαστούς.

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"Salvia officinalis [...] has been used for the treatment of different kinds of disorders including seizure, ulcers, gout, rheumatism, inflammation, dizziness, tremor, paralysis, diarrhea, and hyperglycemia."

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Pharmacological properties of Salvia officinalis and its components

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Salvia officinalis (Sage) is a plant in the family of Labiatae/Lamiaceae. It is native to Middle East and Mediterranean areas, but today has been natu...

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Usually consumed as a herbal infusion, recent studies  on Salvia species "suggest that [...] in addition to treating minor common illnesses, might potentially provide novel natural treatments for the relief or cure of many serious and life-threatening diseases"

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Abstract

For a long time, sage ( Salvia) species have been used in traditional medicine for the relief of pain, protecting the body against oxidative stress, free radical damages, angiogenesis, inflammation, bacterial and virus infection, etc., Several studies suggest that sage species can be considered for drug development because of their reported pharmacology and therapeutic activities in many countries of Asia and Middle East, especially China and India. These studies suggest that Salvia species, in addition to treating minor common illnesses, might potentially provide novel natural treatments for the relief or cure of many serious and life-threatening diseases such as depression, dementia, obesity, diabetes, lupus, heart disease, and cancer. This article presents a comprehensive analysis of the botanical, chemical, and pharmacological aspects of sage ( Saliva).

Pharmacological property, Sage ( Keywords: Salvia species), Traditional remedies

INTRODUCTION

The genus Salvia, commonly known as sage, is the largest member of Lamiacea or mint family containing over 900 species throughout the world.[ 1, 2] The plants are mostly aromatic and perennial [Figures and ], with flowers in different colors [].[ 3] Many species of Salvia, including Salvia officinalis (common sage), are native to the Mediterranean region and some of the Salvia species have been used worldwide as flavoring spices as well as traditional herbal medicine.[ 3, 4]

Sage tea has been traditionally used for the treatment of digestive and circulation disturbances, bronchitis, cough, asthma, angina, mouth and throat inflammations, depression, excessive sweating, skin diseases, and many other diseases.[ 5, 6, 7] Salvia essential oils have been used in the treatment of a wide range of diseases like those of the nervous system, heart and blood circulation, respiratory system, digestive system, and metabolic and endocrine diseases. In addition, sage essential oil has been shown to have carminative, antispasmodic, antiseptic, and astringent properties.[ 8, 9]

The essential oil of Salvia species has various compositions depending on the genetic, climatic, seasonal, and environmental factors.[ 10] Some chemical compounds like flavonoids, terpenoids, and essential oils are present in different species of Salvia [].[ 3] Essential oils are very important sources for the screening of anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and free radical scavenging agents.[ 11] S. officinalis (common sage) is considered to have the highest amount of essential oil compared to the other species of Salvia.[ 5, 12]

In all analyzed samples of S. officinalis, the major components, although present in different concentrations, are: 1,8-cineole, camphor, borneol, bornyl acetate, camphene, α- and β-thujone, linalool, α- and β-caryophyllene, α-humulene, α- and β-pinene, viridiflorol, pimaradiene, salvianolic acid, rosmarinic acid, carnosolic acid, ursolic acid, etc.[ 7, 12] Studies have shown that some biological properties of the essential oil of Salvia depend on camphor, 1,8-cineole, α-thujone, and β-thujone.[ 9] The essential oil of sage contains about 20% camphor, and as the leaves expand, the camphor content also increases.[ 13] In a study, the most powerful scavenging compounds were reported to be α-thujone and β-thujone, bornyl acetate, camphor, menthone, and 1,8-cineol in the essential oil.[ 11] In the same study, the essential oil of Melissa officinalis and S. officinalis showed better antioxidant activities than some other Lamiaceae plants.[ 11]

Sage is also a natural source of flavonoids and polyphenolic compounds [] (e.g., carnosic acid, rosmarinic acid and caffeic acid) possessing strong antioxidant, radical-scavenging, and antibacterial activities.[ 14] The majority of the phenolic acids in Salvia species are derivatives of caffeic acid which is the building block of a variety of plant metabolites.[ 15] Caffeic acid plays a central role in the biochemistry of the Lamiaceae plants, and occurs mainly in a dimer form as rosmarinic acid.[ 15] Carnosic acid and rosmarinic acid, which are present at high concentrations in the extract of sage plants, have shown strong antioxidant properties.[ 16] Ursolic acid, also a component of sage, has strong anti-inflammatory properties, and in sage preparations, it is considered as a quality control measurement for the anti-inflammatory effects of different solutions.[ 17]

COMMON NAMES

S. officinalis has numerous common names. Some of the best known names include sage, common sage, garden sage, golden sage, kitchen sage, true sage, culinary sage, dalmatian sage, and broadleaf sage. Cultivated forms include purple sage and red sage. In Turkey, S. officinalis is widely known as adaçayı, meaning "island tea." In the Levant, it is called maramia.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

In the commonly known form sage of S. officinalis, a total of 28 components were identified []. The principal components in the sage oil were 1,8-cineole, camphor, α-thujone, β-thujone, borneol, and viridiflorol. The chemotypes of sage were not determined in the investigated samples. The concentrations of the main compounds in the drugs obtained from different types of sage and at different locations varied about the same range as the concentrations of these compounds in the oils of drugs obtained from other countries. The comparatively high concentration of toxic thujones seems to be characteristic of sage leaves cultivated in different locations as well.

Table 1

ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY

Antioxidants play a very important role in protecting the body against the oxidative stress and free radical induced damages which are the cause of various ailments such as diabetes, heart diseases, cancer, brain dysfunction, weakened immune system, etc.[ 18]

In a study conducted on the antioxidant activity of many plant extracts, like sage ( S. officinalis), it was found that the phenolic and flavonoid compounds are mainly responsible for the antioxidant and free radical scavenging effects of these plants.[ 18, 19] Phenolic compounds such as carnosol, carnosic and rosmarinic acids, rosmadial, rosmanol, epirosmanol, methyl carnosate, and luteolin-7- O-β-glucopyranoside have a high antioxidative activity and are usually extracted from sage with ethanol.[ 20] The phenolic compounds can either stimulate endogenous antioxidant defense systems or scavenge reactive species.[ 21]

The antioxidant properties of sage have been studied intensively, and are found to be related to the presence of rosmarinic acid and carnosic acid.[ 22, 23] In addition, salvianolic acid, which is a rosmarinic acid dimer isolated from the sage extract, showed a high antioxidant activity and is a very significant scavenger of free radicals [].[ 23] The aqueous extract of S. officinalis has been shown to have antioxidant and antiviral effects. In a study, it was observed that after drinking sage tea (common sage) for 2 weeks, the liver antioxidant status improved.[ 24]

MEMORY

Amongst many herbal extracts, Salvia species are known for the beneficial effects on memory disorders, depression, and cerebral ischemia.[ 25, 26] S. officinalis (common sage), Salvia lavandulaefolia (Spanish sage), and Salvia miltiorrhiza (Chinese sage) have been used for centuries as restoratives of lost or declining mental functions such as in Alzheimer's disease (AD).[ 25, 26, 27] In AD, the enzyme acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) is responsible for degrading and inactivating acetylcholine, which is a neurotransmitter substance involved in the signal transferring between the synapses. AChE inhibitor drugs act by counteracting the acetylcholine deficit and enhancing the acetylcholine in the brain.[ 28] Essential oil of S. officinalis has been shown to inhibit 46% of AChE activity at a concentration of 0.5 mg/ml.[ 28]

A study shows that S. officinalis improves the memory and cognition, and with increasing dosage, the mood gets elevated as well as alertness, calmness, and contentedness increase.[ 29] A randomized, double-blind clinical study has shown that an ethanolic extract from common sage ( S. officinalis) as well as Spanish sage ( S. lavandulaefolia) is effective in the management of mild to moderate AD, and study on patients did not show any adverse effect on them on taking sage.[ 30, 31] Administration of S. lavandulaefolia (Spanish sage) has been reported to be effective in improving the speed of memory and mood. Salvia essential oil also has been reported to improve immediate word recall.[ 27]

A number of studies have investigated the effects of the aromas of plant essential oils on cognition and mood.[ 32] The aroma of S. officinalis produced significant enhancement effect in the quality of memory factor derived from Cognitive Drug Research (CDR) system.[ 32] The findings suggest that the aromas of essential oils of Salvia species have some, but not all the effects found following the oral consumption of the herb.[ 32] The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of the S. officinalis or S. lavandulaefolia may offer a long-term protection in the pathogenesis of dementia.[ 29] Also, the mood-enhancing properties of the herb may have applications in the treatment of advanced dementia, in which disturbed mood and agitation feature as a major problem.[ 29] There is no report of negative side effects associated with S. officinalis or S. lavandulaefolia despite many years of usage.[ 29]

The cytoprotective effect of sage against Aβ (amyloid beta plaques) toxicity in neuronal cells has also been proven by the data presented in a study which provides the pharmacological basis for the traditional use of sage in the treatment of AD.[ 31] Rosmarinic acid as a component of sage has shown neuroprotective, antioxidative, and anti-apoptotic effects against Aβ toxicity, and this could contribute, at least in part, to the neuroprotective effect of sage. Therefore, it is possible that rosmarinic acid, the very low toxic natural compound, could be used as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of AD.[ 31]

DIABETES

S. officinalis has been used as a traditional remedy against diabetes in many countries and its glucose-lowering affects have been demonstrated in animal studies.[ 33] In a study, it was found that methanolic extracts of S. officinalis significantly decreased serum glucose in type I diabetic rats without affecting pancreatic insulin production.[ 33] An aqueous extract of S. officinalis has been found to exhibit insulin-like activities.[ 33]

In a study, drinking of sage tea (common sage) (300 ml, twice a day) showed increase in antioxidant defenses and improved the lipid profile, without causing any hepatotoxicity or inducing any adverse affects such as changes in blood pressure, heart rate, and body weight, which may indirectly improve the diabetic condition.[ 21] Tea infusions of S. officinalis have shown to be as effective as metformin, which is an oral anti-diabetic drug used for the treatment of type II diabetes, and act by reducing liver glucose production as well as increasing the action of insulin.[ 33] In many studies, the sage extract was found to have hypoglycemic effect in diabetic animals and further researches need to consider the additional therapeutic effects of this plant in future.[ 34]

CANCER

Cancer is characterized by abnormal growth of cells which tend to proliferate in an uncontrolled way, and in some cases, spread to other parts of the body.[ 35] The important factor in proliferating and spreading of cancer cells is the ability of tumors to produce a large number of new blood vessels, which is known as angiogenesis.[ 36] Most primary solid tumors are dependent on angiogenesis for survival, growth, invasion, and metastasis.[ 36] It was found in a study that S. officinalis extract at pharmacological concentrations inhibits angiogenesis in vivo, which could be a novel starting point for the development of a new anti-angiogenic drug.[ 35] Ursolic acid found in sage effectively inhibits angiogenesis, invasion of tumor cells, and metastasis, and suppresses the lung colonization of B16 melanoma cells in vivo.[ 37]

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a common type of cancer and a significant cause of mortality in Western societies. It develops by genetic and epigenetic alterations which transfer normal colon cells to proliferating cells.[ 38] This study has shown that dietary compounds can change the epigenetic status. Many food plants are rich in bioactive compounds and have shown to possess anticancer properties.[ 38] The effect of drinking sage ( S. officinalis) herbal tea was studied on the prevention of colon cancer in rats. It was found that S. officinalis water extract significantly decreased the oxidative H ₂O ₂-induced DNA damage in vitro.[ 38]

Some diterpenoids isolated from the roots of S. officinalis have been found to have cytotoxic and DNA-damaging activity in human colon carcinoma Caco-2 cells and human hepatoma HepG2 cells in in vitro conditions.[ 10] The sesquiterpene fraction of S. officinalis containing α-humulene demonstrated a strong cytotoxic activity in human prostate carcinoma LNCaP cells.[ 10] Also, trans-caryophyllene, which is the main component of the sesquiterpene fraction in S. officinalis, shows high cytotoxic activity against the melanotic melanoma and renal adenocarcinoma cells.[ 8] Presence of α-humulene as a component of S. officinalis demonstrated a strong cytotoxic activity on the human prostate carcinoma LNCaP cells.[ 8]

Salvia libanotica (Lebanese sage) is one of the largely used sage species in traditional medicine, which has been used for many years to cure diseases such as abdominal pains, headaches, indigestion, and heart disorders.[ 2] The oil extract of this species was shown to possess strong antimicrobial and antitumor effects.[ 2] The components of Lebanese sage essential oil were identified by gas chromatography, and three of the components which contain on average 9.1% camphor (Ca), 1.3% α-terpineol (Te), and 1.1% linalyl acetate (Ly) were found to be responsible for the oil's antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor effects.[ 2] In this study, Ly, Te, and Ca synergistically induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis resulting in the inhibition of the growth of human colon cancer cell lines, HCT-116 (p53+/+ and p53−/−), without any effect on the growth of normal human intestinal cell lines.[ 2]

CHOLESTEROL

The metabolite profile of S. miltiorrhiza (SM) or Chinese sage is similar to that of common sage, and recently, it was shown that an extract of SM was able to lower the plasma cholesterol, low density lipoprotein (LDL), and triglycerides (TGs), as well as increase the high density lipoprotein (HDL) levels in lipidemic rats.[ 33]

The extract of S. officinalis is found to activate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) which is a regulator of genes involved in energy spending as well as lipid and glucose metabolism, and its activation improves the HDL/LDL ratio and lowers TGs in serum, reduces insulin resistance, and reduces the size of adipose (fat) tissue.[ 33]

Extracts from some sage species have been shown to be effective in the prevention of cardiovascular disease due to, at least in part, prevention of LDL-cholesterol oxidation.[ 21]

OBESITY

Overweight and obesity are recognized to cause a number of abnormalities including Type II diabetes, dylipidemia, hypertension, etc., which are all important risk factors in developing serious diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, chronic kidney diseases, and many others.[ 39] To regulate fat absorption, the effective way is to reduce body weight and obesity.[ 40]

Pancreatic lipase is well known to play an important role in lipid digestion.[ 40] In several studies on anti-obese components from natural medicine, the effects of S. officinalis and its active components on the pancreatic lipase activity and lipid digestion were investigated.[ 41] The methanolic (MeOH) extract from the leaves of S. officinalis L. significantly inhibited the pancreatic lipase activity and suppressed serum TG elevation in olive oil-loaded mice.[ 41] Carnosic acid and carnosol are two of the diterpenes isolated from the methanolic extract of S. officinalis with an inhibitory activity on pancreatic lipase. Carnosic acid also significantly inhibited TG elevation in olive oil-loaded mice and reduced the gain of body weight and the accumulation of epididymal fat weight in high fat diet-fed mice after 14 days.[ 41] In the course of several studies on anti-obese components from natural medicine, the extract of S. officinalis leaves showed inhibitory effect against the pancreatic lipase activity and eventually was effective in reducing body weight and obesity.[ 41]

HOT FLASHES

Menopause is considered as a physiological adjustment process to an altered hormonal balance.[ 42] Menopausal symptoms include hot flashes, insomnia, night-time sweating, dizziness, headaches, and palpitations. These symptoms reflect adaptation of the body to estrogen deprivation which affects various central neurotransmitters.[ 42]

Sage ( S. officinalis) has been traditionally used to treat sweating and menopausal hot flashes, as well as to alleviate the associated menopausal symptoms.[ 42] The efficacy of sage for the treatment of hot flashes during menopause was proven by a multi-center open clinical trial.[ 6] A fresh sage preparation demonstrated clinical value in the treatment of hot flashes and associated menopausal symptoms.[ 42] Once-daily application of the fresh sage extract demonstrated good clinical value in terms of safety, efficacy, and tolerability in the treatment of menopausal hot flashes and climacteric symptoms, validated by statistical analysis and the clinically relevant verdict of patients and physicians.[ 42] The study findings provide a scientific rationale for sage's use in folk medicine, offering a valuable option for patients and healthcare providers seeking alternative approaches for the treatment of menopausal hot flashes and climacteric complaints.[ 42]

ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY

A study conducted on the antibacterial effect of sage against selected food spoiling bacteria in vitro indicates that the sage aqueous extract exerted significant antibacterial activity and it was most effective against Bacillus mycoides, Bacillus subtilis, Enterobacter cloacae, and Proteus sp.[ 24] This has made sage essential oil a good alternative to the traditional antibiotics as well as food preservatives.[ 5]

The findings of a study support the view that the hydroalcoholic extract of S. officinalis has growth inhibitory effect on some dental caries causing bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, and Actinomyces viscosus. Based on this study and the global interest in using traditional treatments instead of chemical solutions, S. officinalis with its bactericidal effect could be a natural remedy for the treatment of diseases affecting mouth and teeth.[ 43]

A study showed that sage, along with different plant extracts was comparable to synthetic preservatives, and the result confirmed that the aqueous extract of S. officinalis can be used in biotechnology as a natural preservative ingredient in food industry.[ 24]

A study of the antibacterial activities of the essential oil of S. officinalis proved that sage essential oil in higher concentration exhibited a better efficiency than antibiotics.[ 5]

ANTI-DIARRHEAL ACTIVITY

Based on the medicinal use of sage in diarrhea and abdominal spasm, the crude extract of sage was tested for its anti-diarrheal and antispasmodic activities using the in vitro and in vivo assays. A study demonstrated that the crude extract provides protection against diarrhea through its inhibitory effect on gut motility by the presence of some gut relaxant components.[ 7] The data of a study suggest that the crude extract of S. officinalis possesses anti-diarrheal and antispasmodic activities, mediated possibly through activation of voltage-sensitive K⁺ channels, together with a weak Ca⁺⁺ antagonist effect.[ 7] Therefore, this study provides pharmacological basis for the medicinal use of S. officinalis in hyperactive gut disorders such as abdominal colic and diarrhea.[ 7]

TOXICITY OF SAGE

As far as we know, there are no reports of the negative side effects associated with S. lavandulaefolia or S. officinalis despite their usage for many centuries.[ 29] The normal usage of sage is very safe; however, there might be an adverse effect on using S. officinalis in excessive amount, which can be caused by the high content of thujone.[ 6] A study has shown that S. lavandulaefolia (Spanish sage), compared to S. officinalis (common sage), has similar compositions without the thujone content, which makes it more suitable for those concerned about the excessive usage of sage as a treatment.[ 40]

CONCLUSION

The objective of this paper is to review the recent advancements in the exploration of sage ( Salvia species) as phytotherapy and to illustrate its potential as a therapeutic agent. Salvia species may represent a natural, safe, and effective treatment for many diseases and their symptoms. In recent decades, with the increase in pharmacological knowledge about the beneficial effects of sage, especially S. officinalis, these herbal medicines with antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, free radical scavenging, and antitumor activities have been found to be very effective in the development of novel natural drugs to prevent, control, and treat many minor health problems as well as more serious and complicated diseases such as diabetes, Alzheimer's, and cancer. It must be kept in mind that clinicians should remain cautious until more definite studies demonstrate the safety, quality, and efficacy of S. officinalis. For these reasons, extensive pharmacological and chemical experiments, together with human metabolic studies should be the focus of our future studies, and further potential of S. officinalis has to be employed in new therapeutic drugs and provide a basis for future research on the application of medicinal plants.

REFERENCES

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Chemistry, Pharmacology, and Medicinal Property of Sage (Salvia) to Prevent and Cure Illnesses such as Obesity, Diabetes, Depression, Dementia, Lupus, Autism, Heart Disease, and Cancer

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For a long time, sage ( Salvia) species have been used in traditional medicine for the relief of pain, protecting the body against oxidative stress, free radical damages, angiogenesis, inflammation, bacterial and virus infection, etc., Several studies suggest that sage species can be considered for drug development because of their reported pharmacology and therapeutic activities in many countries of Asia and Middle East, especially China and India.

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Salvia sp mentioned in an article about medicinal plants of Greece

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Salvia from Latin, salvus meaning "healthy" or salvo "healing".  So called for its healing or preserving qualities (it was used to keep teeth clean and relieve sore gums, and boiled in water to make a drink to alleviate arthritis).

ringens from ríngor  meaning "getting angry" referring to the opening of the flower lips which make them look angry!

References:
http://floraattica.blogspot.com/2011/06/salvia-ringens.html
https://www.etymonline.com/word/sage#etymonline_v_22602

Photo by ΝΙΚΟΣ ΝΙΚΗΤΙΔΗΣ in Parnitha Mt, 2011

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Kingdom:  | Plantae
(unranked):  | Angiosperms
(unranked):  | Eudicots
(unranked):  | Asterids
Order:  | Lamiales
Family:  | Lamiaceae
Genus:  | Salvia
| Species:  | S. ringens

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Vernacular names: sage (en), faskomilo (gr)

A hardy herbaceous perennial, native to the southern and eastern parts of the Balkan Peninsula, found between 300-1900 m.
Salvia ringens forms a basal clump of pinnately divided leaves, typically less than 1 foot high and wide. The leaves are dark green with a grayish cast, with petioles and stems that stand out with a wine color. From summer through autumn the plant produces tall (2 foot) flowering stems with two to four flowers at the top, in widely spaced whorls. There are only a few stems at any given time. The 1.5 inch violet-blue flowers are very showy and large, held in a small calyx covered with hair and glands.

References:
http://portal.cybertaxonomy.org/flora-greece/cdm_dataportal/taxon/88cd1b52-29e2-4c61-b514-dbeb009f4581
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvia_ringens#cite_note-Clebsch-1

Photo
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4003706/

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It is also the first one (near Athens) to cover up in the protective coat of snow!
December 1, 2016

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Having suffered a massive wildfire in 2007, the forest slowly recovers, with extensive human efforts.
https://www.wwf.gr/en/areas/forests/after-fires

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One of Greece's National Parks, Parnitha mountain "protects" Athens from the cold northern winds and offers the closest forested area, characterized by the presence of Greek  fir (Abies cephalonica) above 1000 m.

References:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parnitha
http://www.parnitha.net/content.asp?id=26

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A Natura2000 wetland, Vravrona hosts the Sanctuary of Artemis, a temple of the 6th c. BC dedicated to the goddess of wilderness. As it is formatted by the course of a small river Erasinos and its estuary, the area combines freshwater, saline, maquis and agricultural habitats.

References:
http://www.ornithologiki.gr/page_cn.php?tID=1790&aID=819
https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%85%CF%81%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%B1

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The old town (Palaia Chora) of Aegina, abandoned by humans and reclaimed by plants.

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Aegina is a small island in the Saronic gulf, half an hour from Athens, inhabited since 3.500 BC and hiding an extinct volcano. It has been the first city-state to issue coins in Europe, the Aeginetic stater back in 550 BC, which portrayed a sea-turtle, maybe a hint to the islands biodiversity!
This photo was taken during a visit in late February 2017 and as you can see, Spring was all over the place!

References:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegina
https://hanfranke.wixsite.com/flora-of-aegina

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Theme 1: Plant diversity in Attica Region, GR

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Theme 1: Plant diversity in Attica Region, GR