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The Nile was a most important river to the ancient Egyptian people. The Nile is the longest river in Africa. It's also the longest river in the world! The lower Nile, where the Nile meets the Mediterranean Sea, flowed through ancient Egypt bringing all kinds of benefits like water to irrigate crops and a river for sailing ships from ancient Egyptian port to port. The river was full of fish and the river banks were full of good things to eat.

Each year, water would melt on the mountain tops located to the south of Egypt. The water would rush down the mountain and into the Nile River. As the flood waters receded, they left behind rich soil. Crops grew very well in this rich soil.

The Nilometer was a device for measuring the height of the Nile River. This device was actually a series of steps. Ancient Egyptian scientists could tell how high the Nile was by how many steps it covered. The Nilometer gave the Egyptians a warning system for floods.

Today, the Nile no longer floods because of the construction of the Aswan Dam.
Gifts of the Nile River in Ancient Egypt Square Sails Trade (interactive) The Story of the Nile
The Aswan Dam
Geography of Ancient Egypt Interactive Quiz about Ancient Egypt (with answers)
Presentations in PowerPoint format about the Nile River

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Ancient Egypt for Kids - The Nile River - Ancient Egypt for Kids

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The Nile was a most important river to the ancient Egyptian people. The Nile is the longest river in Africa. It's also the longest river in the world! The lower Nile, where the Nile meets the Mediterranean Sea, flowed through ancient Egypt bringing all kinds of benefits like water to irrigate crops and a river for sailing ships from ancient Egyptian port to port.

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Ancient Egyptian History for Kids: Hieroglyphics

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Kids learn about Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphics. Picture writing of this world civilization.

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Thanks for your support over the years. This website is scheduled to close in December 2022 as the technology it uses has reached its end-of-life. We will move key resources to the Schools section of our main website.

Copyright © 1999 The Trustees of the British Museum

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Thanks for your support over the years. This website is scheduled to close in December 2022 as the technology it uses has reached its end-of-life. We will move key resources to the Schools section of our main website. Copyright © 1999 The Trustees of the British Museum Cookie information

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The ancient Egyptians were fascinating people, and thanks to the movies are often misunderstood. The ancient Egyptians were not in love with death. They were in love with life! They worked very hard, but saved time to enjoy family, friends, music, parties, swimming, fishing, hunting, sailing, and especially their children, all of which were very important to the ancient Egyptians. This ancient culture was not based on fear. It was based on kindness.

The ancient Egyptian believed that their life on earth was just the beginning. After they died, the next step in their journey would be to magically travel to their perfect afterlife, where they would live forever. There was a catch, though. To reach their afterlife, the ancient Egyptians believed they had to do many good deeds while they were alive to keep their heart light. What happened to them if their hearts werenot light when they died? Oh dear - find out here.

The ancient Egyptians had over 2,000 gods they believed would help them with their life and help them reach their afterlife. Most ancient Egyptian gods had animal heads or green bodies or something that set them apart from people. You might think the ancient Egyptian people would be afraid of these very scary looking gods. They were not afraid at all, at least, not of most of them anyway. They prayed to statues of their gods in their temples, and made wishes for things they wanted. If their prayers werenot answered, they might give the statue a little whack with a reed to let the gods know they were quite disappointed, but they understood that you could not always get everything you asked for.

Which all goes to explain why a popular family outing was visiting the family tomb with armloads of grave goods the family had made, things they might need in their afterlife to make their eternity comfortable and fun. They made little statues of people out of clay, each about 3-8 inches tall. They believed these little statues would come alive in their afterlife, and run around and do all the chores, leaving them free to enjoy themselves. As all ancient Egyptians knew, after you died, your Ka, your spirit, flew off to enjoy endless, perfect days along a magical Nile. At night, your Ba, your night spirit, returned to your tomb, because even mummies need a good night's sleep. The ancient Egyptians were, after all, very practical in their way.

Five thousand (5,000) years ago, the ancient Egyptian made their home at the mouth of the Nile River, where the Nile runs into the Mediterranean Sea. It was a wonderful place to live. The soil was rich. Food was plentiful. They were surrounded by desert, which kept them safe from intruders, but the Nile kept their world green. They did their best to chase away other ancient people who wanted to take over their land. They were not afraid to fight intruders to protect their unique life along the Nile.

Come meet the clever, creative, ancient Egyptians, and enter a world of free speech, tall tales, and many kinds of magic.

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The ancient Egyptians were fascinating people, and thanks to the movies are often misunderstood. The ancient Egyptians were not in love with death. They were in love with life! They worked very hard, but saved time to enjoy family, friends, music, parties, swimming, fishing, hunting, sailing, and especially their children, all of which were very important to the ancient Egyptians.

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Enter the world of the ancient Egyptians. Find out why their mysterious civilisation, gods, godesses and pyramids capture the imagination.

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Ancient Egypt Online

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Your guide to ancient Egypt: discover the facts about the pharaohs, king Tut, gods, mummies, pyramids, hieroglyphs, daily life and more...

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We are not maker of Egyptian History . We are made by Ancient Egyptian History - Ancient Egypt For Kids, Egyptian Gods, Art, Facts, Maps, Egyptian Pyramids

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Ancient Egypt, civilization in northeastern Africa that dates from the 4th millennium bce. Its many achievements, preserved in its art and monuments, hold a fascination that continues to grow as archaeological finds expose its secrets. This article focuses on Egypt from its prehistory through its...

Displaying Featured Egypt, Ancient Articles

See All Egypt, Ancient Articles

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Ancient Egypt, civilization in northeastern Africa that dates from the 4th millennium bce. Its many achievements, preserved in its art and monuments, hold a fascination that continues to grow as archaeological finds expose its secrets. This article focuses on Egypt from its prehistory through its...

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Understanding Ancient Egypt

We really hope you enjoy these fun facts about Egypt. You will learn about the Pharaoh's who were the Kings of all the land. Did you know that the ancient Egyptians worshipped hundreds of gods and goddesses?

Or that they invented things like the calendar and glass blowing! Things that we still use each and every day. Learn about Pyramids like the great pyramid at Giza. It can be fun to learn about history and all that happened in the past.

Monuments and Geography

King Tut was a pharaoh in Egypt who lived from 1341 B.C. to 1323 B.C. His full name was Tutankhamun. King Tut was the 12 th pharaoh
Read More

The Valley of the Kings was a place in Ancient Egypt that was located in the Southern part of Egypt and it was located west of the Nile River
Read More

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Ancient Egyptian History for Kids - Fun Facts to Learn

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Understanding Ancient Egypt We really hope you enjoy these fun facts about Egypt. You will learn about the Pharaoh's who were the Kings of all the land. Did you know that the ancient Egyptians worshipped hundreds of gods and goddesses? Or that they invented things like the calendar and glass blowing!

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Ancient Egyptian History: Geography and the Nile River

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Learn about Ancient Egyptian Geography and the Nile River. The Nile provided fertile land, transportation, and building materials for Egypt.

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Nile Valley

The aerial shots in Mysteries of Egypt capture the beauty of the Nile Valley. The majestic Nile River flows north from the headwaters in Burundi to the Mediterranean Sea, a distance of 6,650 kilometres. This makes it the longest river in the world!

The shape of the Nile River Valley resembles a lotus flower, the ancient Egyptian symbol for the regeneration of life. The long, narrow river valley is the stem, the delta that spreads out in the shape of a triangle is the flower, and Fayyum Region is a bud.

For centuries, the Nile River flooded the valley, enriching the land with a thick layer of alluvial soil. Flooding occurred from July to September as the result of the tropical rains in the Ethiopian tableland. The river attained its highest level in October, then began to recede to its lowest point sometime between April and June.

Some degree of flood control has been practised since early times. River banks were raised and canals dug to funnel the water over the land. Elaborate precautions were taken to prevent overflooding, but, at times, excessive flooding caused destruction and a loss of property and life. The land has not experienced flooding since the construction of the Aswan Dam, however. The dam was built in 1902 and raised to its current height sixty years later.

The flooding of the Nile rendered the narrow strip of land on either side of the river extremely fertile. Intensive agriculture was practised by the majority of the peasant population. As the flood waters receded, sowing and ploughing began, using primitive wooden ploughs.

Since rainfall is almost non-existent in Egypt, the floods provided the only source of moisture needed to sustain crops. Irrigation canals were used to control the water, particularly during dry spells. The principal crops cultivated during the Pharaonic era were barley, emmer (a coarse wheat), lentils, beans, cucumbers, leeks, onions, dates, figs and grapes. The abundance of flowers provided nectar for the bees to produce honey, which the Egyptians processed. Flax was grown for making linen, and papyrus was harvested to be converted into paper, ropes, mats, sandals and light skiffs.

A variety of domesticated animals were raised, including cattle, oxen, sheep, goats, pigs, ducks and geese. Donkeys and horses came from Asia around 1600 B.C., and camels were introduced much later. During the time of the early pharaohs, camels were unknown.

The Nile River was the highway that joined the country together. Up until the nineteenth century, travel by land was virtually unknown. Since there are no forests in Egypt, wood was brought from Lebanon. Acacia wood was used in Lower Nubia to build the boats that transported granite for the construction of pyramids. Today, the felucca, a small open sailboat, is a common mode of transporting people and goods on the Nile.

The Nile River Valley is truly a gift to Egypt. Without its water and rich soil, the Egyptian civilization would not have emerged.

main menu | civilization | geography

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Egyptian civilization - Geography - Nile valley

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Nile Valley The aerial shots in Mysteries of Egypt capture the beauty of the Nile Valley. The majestic Nile River flows north from the headwaters in Burundi to the Mediterranean Sea, a distance of 6,650 kilometres. This makes it the longest river in the world!

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Advanced Readers

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Discovering Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt, the lives of the pharaohs and their world has been a constant interest throughout my life. It began at the age of five when my grandfather entertained me with stories about the ancient Egyptians. He also gave me a respect for scientific method, inspired me with an appreciation of art and taught me to examine the world around me through observational drawing. As a result I grew up to become an artist with a love of science and Egyptology.

My artistic works over forty years have been heavily influenced by ancient Egyptian artistic conventions and my later works, writing books and reconstructing Egyptian monuments, are the result of twenty years of drawings, paintings, photos and observational notes I made while travelling the Egyptian Nile.

I apply a meticulous regard for material evidence and archaeological knowledge in my work. So if you believe that aliens built the pyramids this website is not for you and I do not reply to emails containing such ideas.

I hope you enjoy this website it has a basic description of hieroglyphic writing, you can have fun with the Hieroglyphic Typewriter - you can write your name in the ancient script and email secret messages to your friends. You will also learn about Egyptian numerals and test your knowledge with some mathematical problems set out using the ancient numbers.

There are stories of the great kings & queens, the ancient Egyptian gods and mummification is covered with diagrams and videos. In the pyramid & temple section you can explore the ancient monuments; using interactive maps, photos, drawings, and paintings. Also check out 3D Temples and see how these shrines, to the gods, may have appeared to ancient eyes.
Mark Millmore

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Discovering Ancient Egypt hieroglyphs pharaohs pyramids mummification

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Discovering Ancient Egypt pharaohs, pyramids, temples, mummification, Egyptian gods hieroglyphic write your name in hieroglyphs Hieroglyphic Typewriter.

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DK Find Out! | Fun Facts for Kids on Animals, Earth, History and more!

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Visit DK Find Out! to learn about dinosaurs, space, animals, nature & more. Fun learning activities for kids with videos, quizzes & galleries at DKFindOut.com

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Why did the ancient Egyptians mummify people? [3 Reasons]

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Egyptian Mummies or How to Live Forever

The ancient Egyptians believed in an afterlife, a real and beautiful place called the Land of Two Fields, where they played and lived after they died. To enjoy your afterlife, you couldn't just die. You had to prepare. The ancient Egyptians loved life. They wanted to live forever. They believed they had found the way to reach a joyous eternity. They spent a great deal of their life preparing for their afterlife. During their lifetime, the ancient Egyptians created grave goods, things they would need after their death, goods to be placed with them in their tomb, like little tiny people made out of clay who would magically do all their work for them in their afterlife - because everybody had jobs to do in ancient Egypt, even after your death. But, it wasn't easy to get to the Land of Two Fields. To achieve immortality, you had to satisfy some requirements.
Requirements:

(1) Your name had to be written down. You had to have your name written down somewhere, the more places the better. If it was not written down, you disappeared. One obvious place to include your name was or above your coffin. A nameplate was called a cartouche.

(2) You had to have a preserved body. Another thing you needed to move on to the afterlife was a preserved body. One way to preserve the body of a person who had died was to dry them out and wrap them up with linen bandages. That process was called mummification.

(3) You had to pass the Weighing of the Heart. This test was performed (out of human sight) by the gods in the Hall of Maat. Your heart was weighed against the weight of a magic feather. If your heart was light, because you had lived a good, hard working, caring life, and did lots of good deeds, the scale would balance, and you would move on to enjoy a wonderful afterlife in the heavenly land of Two Fields. But, if your heart did not pass - oh dear - you would be gobbled up and disappear forever.

You needed your name written down and a preserved body so that your Ba and Ka could do their jobs. The ancient Egyptians believed that your soul split into two parts after you died. One part, the Ba, flew off every morning to keep watch over your living family. The other part, the Ka, flew happily off to enjoy life in the Land of Two Fields. At night, both the Ba and the Ka returned home to your tomb to rest up for the next heavenly day. (Even mummies need a good night's sleep.) Without a preserved body, and your name written down somewhere, the Ba and Ka would get lost. That meant you were lost, and could no longer return to the heavenly Land of Two Fields. That's why pharaohs and rich Egyptians carved their name on everything they could, just to be sure their name was written down somewhere.

The poor placed the bodies of their dead relatives out in the desert sand. The bodies dried naturally in the sun. That was a perfectly good system. It assured the dead a place in the afterlife (provided their heart was light from doing lots of good deeds while they were alive, and their name was written down somewhere) and they did not have to pay for an expense mummification process. Mummification was not free. The priests charged for this service, as did ancient Egyptians whose profession was mummy making.

The rich could afford to be more fussy. They hired professional mummy makers to help them look their very best.

Mummification Sequence Chain for Kids

You Wouldn't Want To Be An Egyptian Mummy - interactive

The Mummy Maker

Make a Mummy and Prepare a Pharaoh for his tomb (interactive)
Embalm a Mummy (magic book lesson) Mummies and the Underworld Challenge Egypt: Mummy of Hornedjitef Egyptian mummy (flash) Mummies - Magic School Bus (interactive) Sequence Chain: Funerals Canopic Jars Preparing for the Afterlife Interactive Quiz about Ancient Egypt (with answers)

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Ancient Egypt for Kids - Mummies and the Afterlife - Make a Mummy, What did it take to reach your afterlife in Ancient Egypt - Ancient Egypt for Kids

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report this ad The ancient Egyptians believed in an afterlife, a real and beautiful place called the Land of Two Fields, where they played and lived after they died. To enjoy your afterlife, you couldn't just die. You had to prepare. The ancient Egyptians loved life. They wanted to live forever.

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Ancient Egyptians believed in an afterlife when someone died. Mummification helped someone reach the afterlife as they believed that an afterlife could only exist if there was a form the ka (soul) could repossess after death. Egyptians believed that the only way to do this was if the body was recognisable.

This is why they spent so long on the process of mummification and why Pharoahs began the building of their tombs during their lifetimes.

Mummification was mainly done to wealthy people as poorer people could not afford the process.

The chief embalmer was a priest wearing a mask of Anubis. Anubis was the jackal headed god of the dead. He was closely associated with mummification and embalming, hence priests wore a mask of Anubis.

This is the step-by-step process of how mummification took place:

1. Insert a hook through a hole near the nose and pull out part of the brain

2. Make a cut on the left side of the body near the tummy

3. Remove all internal organs

4. Let the internal organs dry

5. Place the lungs, intestines, stomach and liver inside canopic jars

6. Place the heart back inside the body

7. Rinse inside of body with wine and spices

8. Cover the corpse with natron (salt) for 70 days

9. After 40 days stuff the body with linen or sand to give it a more human shape

10. After the 70 days wrap the body from head to toe in bandages

11. Place in a sarcophagus (a type of box like a coffin)

If the person had been a Pharaoh, he would be placed inside his special burial chamber with lots of treasure!

*To see a more detailed explanation of the mummification process, see another My Learning resource: Make me a mummy! Embalming tips.

To learn about an Egyptian tale of how mummification started, see Osiris and Isis: The Origin of Mummification.

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A Step by Step guide to Egyptian Mummification

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Ancient Egyptians believed in an afterlife when someone died. Mummification helped someone reach the afterlife as they believed that an afterlife could only exist if there was a form the ka (soul) could repossess after death. Egyptians believed that the only way to do this was if the body was recognisable.

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There were over 2,000 names of gods in Ancient Egypt.

Some images of Ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses show them with a human body and the head of a bird or an animal.

Animals were chosen to represent the powers of the god.

Bastet was the Goddess of Protection of joy, love, pleasure and pregnant woman.

In Egyptian mythology, the sacred cat is the animal incarnation of the goddess Bast or Bastet. She was the protector of women and childbirth, as well as a loving goddess who enjoyed music and dance. Find out more

Anubis the God of Mummification

He guided the dead to the next life via the court of Osiris in the Underworld. He was the one who looked after the mummification process. Find out more

Ra the God of the Sun.

Ra was the most important God. He was the lord of all the gods. He was usually shown in human form with a falcon head, crowned with the sun disc encircled by the a sacred cobra.

Ra sailed across the heavens in a boat called the 'Barque of Millions of Years'. At the end of each day Ra was thought to die and sailed on his night voyage through the Underworld, leaving the Moon to light the world above. Find out more

Amun
King of the Gods
When Amun was combined with the sun god Ra he was even more powerful. He was then called Amun-Ra.

Head of a ram

Anubis
God of Mummification (embalming and the dead).
His role was as the "guardian to necropolis"
Priests often wore a mask of Anubis during mummification ceremonies.

Head of a jackal

Bast (Bastet)
Goddess of Protection and of household entertainment
Thought to be the daughter of the sun god Ra

Head of a cat

Geb
Earth God
The ancient Egyptians believed that earthquakes were Geb's laughter.

Head of a goose

Horus
God of the sky
The Egyptians believed that the pharaoh was the 'living Horus'.

Head of a falcon

Further Informtation

The Myth of Osiris and Isis

Ancient Egyptian Gods - discover more

Egyptian Gods
Discover more about Egyptian gods. Click on a god's name or symbol name for picture and information or story.

78 Egyptian Gods
This site has great images of gods as well as interesting facts. Click on the name of the god you want on the left hand side of the page.

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There were over 2,000 names of gods in Ancient Egypt. Some images of Ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses show them with a human body and the head of a bird or an animal. Animals were chosen to represent the powers of the god. Bastet was the Goddess of Protection of joy, love, pleasure and pregnant woman.

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Pyramids Temples of Egypt reconstructions of pyramids and temples

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Pyramids Temples of Egypt computer-generated reconstructions of what the pyramids and temples might have looked like when they were first built.

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Ancient Egyptian History for Kids: Boats and Transportation

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Kids learn about the boats and transportation of Ancient Egypt. The Nile River was an important way to travel using ships and rafts.

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Explains what life was like for all different types of people!

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The popular view of life in ancient Egypt is often that it was a death-obsessed culture in which powerful pharaohs forced the people to labor at constructing pyramids and temples and, at an unspecified time, enslaved the Hebrews for this purpose. In reality, ancient Egyptians loved life, no matter their social class, and the ancient Egyptian government used slave labor as every other ancient culture did without regard to any particular ethnicity. The ancient Egyptians did have a well-known contempt for non-Egyptians but this was simply because they believed they were living the best life possible in the best of all possible worlds. Life in ancient Egypt was considered so perfect, in fact, that the Egyptian afterlife was imagined as an eternal continuation of life on earth. Slaves in Egypt were either criminals, those who could not pay their debts, or captives from foreign military campaigns. These people were considered to have forfeited their freedoms either by their individual choices or by military conquest and so were forced to endure a quality of existence far below that of free Egyptians.

The individuals who actually built the pyramids and other famous monuments of Egypt were Egyptians who were compensated for their labor and, in many cases, were masters of their art. These monuments were raised not in honor of death but of life and the belief that an individual life mattered enough to be remembered for eternity. Further, the Egyptian belief that one's life was an eternal journey and death only a transition inspired the people to try to make their lives worth living eternally. Far from a death-obsessed and dour culture, Egyptian daily life was focused on enjoying the time one had as much as possible and trying to make other's lives equally memorable.

Through the observance of balance & harmony people were encouraged to live at peace with others & contribute to communal happiness.

Sports, games, reading, festivals, and time with one's friends and family were as much a part of Egyptian life as toil in farming the land or erecting monuments and temples. The world of the Egyptians was imbued with magic. Magic () predated the gods and, in fact, was the underlying force which allowed the gods to perform their duties. Magic was personified in the god Heka (also the god of medicine) who had participated in the creation and sustained it afterwards. The concept of (harmony and balance) was central to the Egyptian's understanding of life and the operation of the universe and it was heka which made possible. Through the observance of balance and harmony people were encouraged to live at peace with others and contribute to communal happiness. A line from the wisdom text of Ptahhotep (the vizier to the king Djedkare Isesi, 2414-2375 BCE), admonishes a reader:

Let your face shine during the time that you live.

It is the kindliness of a man that is remembered

During the years that follow.

Letting one's face "shine" meant being happy, having a good spirit, in the belief that this would make one's own heart light and lighten those of others. Although Egyptian society was highly stratified from a very early period (as early as the Predynastic Period in Egypt of c. 6000-3150 BCE), this does not mean that the royalty and upper classes enjoyed their lives at the expense of the peasantry. The king and court are always the best-documented individuals because then, as now, people paid more attention to celebrities than their neighbors and the scribes who recorded the history of the time documented what was of greater interest. Still, reports from later Greek and Roman writers, as well as archaeological evidence and letters from different time periods, show that Egyptians of all social classes valued life and enjoyed themselves as often as they could, very like people in the modern day.

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Population & Social Classes

The population of Egypt was strictly divided into social classes from the king at the top, his vizier, the members of his court, regional governors (eventually called 'nomarchs'), the generals of the military (after the period of the New Kingdom), government overseers of worksites (supervisors), and the peasantry. Social mobility was neither encouraged nor observed for most of Egypt's history as it was thought that the gods had decreed the most perfect social order which mirrored that of the gods. The gods had given the people everything and had set the king over them as the one best-equipped to understand and implement their will. The king was the intermediary between the gods and the people from the Predynastic Period through the Old Kingdom (c. 2613-2181 BCE) when the priests of the sun god Ra began to gain more power. Even after this, however, the king was still considered god's chosen emissary. Even the latter part of the New Kingdom (1570-1069 BCE) when the priests of Amun at Thebes held greater power than the king, the monarch was still respected as divinely ordained.
Upper class
The king of Egypt (not known as a ' pharaoh' until the New Kingdom period), as the gods' chosen man, "enjoyed great wealth and status and luxuries unimaginable to the majority of the population" (Wilkinson, 91). It was the king's responsibility to rule in keeping with ma'at, and as this was a serious charge, he was thought to deserve those luxuries in keeping with his status and the weight of his duties. Historian Don Nardo writes:

The kings enjoyed an existence largely free from want. They had power and prestige, servants to do the menial work, plenty of free time to pursue leisure pursuits, fine clothes, and numerous luxuries in their homes. (10)

The king is often depicted hunting and inscriptions regularly boast of the number of large and dangerous animals a particular monarch killed during his reign. Almost without exception, though, animals like lions and elephants were caught by royal game wardens and brought to preserves where the king then "hunted" the beasts while surrounded by guards who protected him. The king would hunt in the open, for the most part, only once the area had been cleared of dangerous animals.

Members of the court lived in similar comfort, although most of them had little responsibility. The nomarchs might also live well, but this depended on how wealthy their particular district was and how important to the king. The nomarch of a district including a site such as Abydos, for example, would expect to do quite well because of the large necropolis there dedicated to the god Osiris, which brought many pilgrims to the city including the king and courtiers. A nomarch of a region which had no such attraction would expect to live more modestly. The wealth of the region and the personal success of an individual nomarch would determine whether they lived in a small palace or a modest home. This same model applied generally to scribes.
Scribes & Physicians
Scribes were valued highly in ancient Egypt as they were considered specially chosen by the god Thoth, who inspired and presided over their craft. Egyptologist Toby Wilkinson notes how "the power of the written word to render permanent a desired state of affairs lay at the heart of Egyptian belief and practice" (204). It was the scribes' responsibility to record events so they would become permanent. The words of the scribes etched daily events in the record of eternity since it was thought that Thoth and his consort Seshat kept the scribes' words in the eternal libraries of the gods. A scribe's work made him or her immortal not only because later generations would read what they wrote but because the gods themselves were aware of it. Seshat, patron goddess of libraries and librarians, carefully placed one's work on her shelves, just as librarians in her service did on earth. Most scribes were male, but there were female scribes who lived just as comfortably as their male counterparts. A popular piece of literature from the Old Kingdom, known as Duauf's Instructions, advocates a love for books and encourages young people to pursue higher learning and become scribes in order to live the best life possible.

All priests were scribes, but not all scribes became priests. The priests needed to be able to read and write to perform their duties, especially concerning mortuary rituals. As doctors needed to be literate to read medical texts, they began their training as scribes. Most diseases were thought to be inflicted by the gods as punishment for sin or to teach a lesson, and so doctors needed to be aware of which god (or evil spirit, or ghost, or other supernatural agent) might be responsible. In order to perform their duties, they had to be able to read the religious literature of the time, which includes works on dentistry, surgery, the setting of broken bones, and the treatment of various illnesses. As there was no separation between one's religious and daily life, doctors were usually priests until later in Egypt's history when there is a secularization of the profession. All of the priests of the goddess Serket were doctors and this practice continued even after the emergence of more secular physicians. As in the case of scribes, women could practice medicine, and female doctors were numerous. In the 4th century BCE, Agnodice of Athens famously traveled to Egypt to study medicine since women were held in higher regard and had more opportunity there than in Greece.

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Military
The military prior to the Middle Kingdom was made up of regional militias conscripted by nomarchs for a certain purpose, usually defense, and then sent to the king. At the beginning of the 12th Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom, Amenemhat I (c. 1991-c.1962 BCE) reformed the military to create the first standing army, thus decreasing the power and prestige of the nomarchs and putting the army directly under his control.

After this, the military was made up of upper-class leaders and lower-class rank and file members. There was the possibility of advancement in the military, which was not affected by one's social class. Prior to the New Kingdom, the Egyptian military was primarily concerned with defense, but pharaohs like Tuthmose III (1458-1425 BCE) and Ramesses II (1279-1213 BCE) led campaigns beyond Egypt's borders in expanding the empire. Egyptians generally avoided travel to other lands because they feared that, if they should die there, they would have greater difficulty reaching the afterlife. This belief was a definite concern of soldiers on foreign campaigns and provisions were made to return the bodies of the dead to Egypt for burial.

There is no evidence that women served in the military or, according to some accounts, would have wanted to. The Papyrus Lansing, to give only one example, describes life in the Egyptian army as unending misery leading to an early death. It should be noted, however, that scribes (especially the author of the Papyrus Lansing) consistently depicted their job as the best and most important, and it was the scribes who left behind most of the reports on military life.
Farmers & Laborers
The lowest social class was made up of peasant farmers who did not own the land they worked or the homes they lived in. The land was owned by the king, members of the court, nomarchs, or priests. A common phrase of the peasants to start the day was "Let us work for the noble!" The peasants were almost all farmers, no matter what other trade they cultivated (ferryman, for example). They planted and harvested their crops, gave most of it to the land owner, and kept some for themselves. Most had private gardens, which women tended while the men went out to the fields. Up until the time of the Persian invasion of 525 BCE, the Egyptian economy operated on the barter system and was based on agriculture. The monetary unit of ancient Egypt was the deben, which according to historian James C. Thompson, "functioned much as the dollar does in North America today to let customers know the price of things, except that there was no deben coin" (Egyptian Economy, 1). A deben was "approximately 90 grams of copper; very expensive items could also be priced in debens of silver or gold with proportionate changes in value" (ibid). Thompson continues:

Since seventy-five litters of wheat cost one deben and a pair of sandals also cost one deben, it made perfect sense to the Egyptians that a pair of sandals could be purchased with a bag of wheat as easily as with a chunk of copper. Even if the sandal maker had more than enough wheat, she would happily accept it in payment because it could easily be exchanged for something else. The most common items used to make purchases were wheat, barley, and cooking or lamp oil, but in theory almost anything would do. (1)

The lowest class of society produced the goods used in trade and therefore provided the means for the entire culture to thrive. These peasants also made up the labor force which built the pyramids and other monuments of Egypt. When the Nile River flooded its banks, farming became impossible and the men and women would go to work on the king's projects. This work was always compensated, and the claim that any of the great structures of Egypt were built by slave labor - especially the claim of the biblical Book of Exodus that these were Hebrew slaves oppressed by Egyptian tyrants - is not supported by any literary or physical evidence at any time in Egypt's history. The claim by certain authors such as Egyptologist David Rohl that one misses the evidence of a mass enslavement of Hebrews by looking at the wrong time period is untenable since no such evidence exists no matter what period of Egyptian history one examines.

Work on monuments like the pyramids and their mortuary complexes, temples, and obelisks provided the only opportunity for upward mobility of the peasantry. Especially skilled artists and engravers were in high demand in Egypt and were better paid than unskilled laborers who simply moved the stones for the buildings from one place to another. Peasant farmers could also improve their status by practicing a craft to provide the vases, bowls, plates, and other ceramics people needed. Skilled carpenters could make a good living creating tables, desks, chairs, beds, storage chests, and painters were required for decoration of upper-class homes, palaces, tombs, and monuments.

Brewers were also highly respected, and breweries were sometimes run by women. In early Egyptian history, in fact, they seem to have been entirely operated by females. Beer was the most popular drink in ancient Egypt and was frequently used as compensation (wine was never that popular except among royalty). Workers at the Giza plateau were given a beer ration three times a day. The beverage was thought to have been given to the people by the god Osiris, and breweries were presided over by the goddess Tenenet. Beer was taken very seriously by the Egyptians as the Greek pharaoh Cleopatra VII (69-30 BCE) learned when she imposed a beer tax; her popularity plummeted more for this one tax than for her wars with Rome.

The lower class could also find opportunity through work in metals, gems, and sculpting. The exquisite jewelry of ancient Egypt, gems mounted delicately in ornate settings, was created by members of the peasantry. These people, the majority of the Egyptian population, also filled the ranks of the army, and in rare cases, could become scribes. One's job and position in society, however, was usually handed down to one's son.

Homes & Furnishings

These artists were responsible for creating the furnishings for the lavish palaces, upper-class homes, and temples of Egypt as well as the tombs which were considered a person's eternal home. The king, his queen, and family lived in a palace which was richly decorated and had their needs tended to by servants. Scribes lived in or near the mortuary or temple complexes in special apartments and worked from scriptoriums while, as noted, nomarchs lived in greater or lesser accommodations according to their level of success. The peasants who provided the food for the upper classes also helped build their homes and supply them with chests, drawers, chairs, tables, and beds while they themselves could not afford any of these things. Nardo writes:

After a hard day's work, the farmers returned to their houses, which stood near the fields or in small rural villages located nearby. An average agricultural peasant's house featured walls made of mud bricks. The ceiling was fashioned from bundles of plant stems, and the floors consistend of hard-beaten earth covered by a layer of straw or mats made from reeds. There were one or two rooms (perhaps occasionally three) in which the farmer and his wife and children (if any) lived. In many cases, the stabled some or all of their farm animals in the same rooms. Because such modest homes lacked bathrooms, the residents had to use an outside latrine (a hole in the ground) to relieve themselves. Needless to say, water had to be hauled in buckets from the river or the nearest hand-dug well. (13)

By contrast, the palace of the pharaoh Amenhotep III (1386-1353 BCE), known as Malkata today, covered over 30,000 square meters (30 hectares) and included spacious apartments, conference rooms, audience chambers, a throne room and receiving hall, a festival hall, libraries, gardens, storerooms, kitchens, a harem, and a temple to the god Amun. The palace's outer walls were painted bright white while the interior colors were vibrant blues and yellows and greens. The entire structure, of course, had to be furnished and these articles were supplied by the lower class workers. In its time the palace was known as 'the house of rejoicing' and other similar names. It is known as Malkata today from the Arabic for 'place where things are picked up' owing to the massive debris field found there from the ruined palace.

The apartments and homes of scribes, as with those of the nomarchs, were opulent or modest depending on their level of success and the region in which they lived. The author of the Papyrus Lansing, Nebmare Nakht, claimed to live in grand style and to own land and slaves on par with a great king. This claim is no doubt true, too, as it is well established that priests were able to achieve the same level of wealth and power as some rulers in Egypt, and scribes would have had that same opportunity.

Crime & Punishment

In ancient Egypt, as in every era of human history, the wealth of one person was often coveted by another who might choose to steal it, and in such cases, Egyptian law was swift. After the New Kingdom there was a police force, but even before this time, people were brought before the local official and charged with crimes ranging across the spectrum of criminal activity in the modern day. The state did not involve itself in local affairs unless the criminal had robbed or vandalized state property, such as robbing or defacing a tomb. Egyptologist Steven Snape writes:

The opportunities for criminal activity provided by the concentration of weatlth and property in towns and sities were seized upon wholeheartedly by some ancient Egyptians, just as they have been within all societies. Equally, significant centres of population and administration provided places where justice could be done and punishments meted out. However, the picture we get from ancient Egypt is that the administration of justice was pushed as far down to local lecel as possible. Villagers were expected to regulate their own affairs. (111)

Judgment and justice were ultimately the responsibility of the vizier, the king's right-hand man, who delegated that responsibility to officials beneath him, who further delegated to others. Even prior to the New Kingdom, there was an administrative building in any city called the Judgment Hall where cases were heard and verdicts rendered. In small towns and villages, these courts might be held in the market place. The local court was known as the kenbet, made up of community leaders of sound moral judgment, who would hear cases and decide on guilt or innocence. In the New Kingdom, the judgment hall and the kenbet were gradually replaced by oracular judgments in which the god Amun would be consulted directly on a verdict. This was accomplished by a priest of Amun asking the statue of the god a question and then interpreting his answer through various means. Sometimes the statue would nod its head, and other times there would be different signs given. If the defendant were found guilty, then punishment was swift.

Most punishments were fines for minor offenses, but rape, robbery, assault, murder, or tomb robbing could result in mutilation (cutting off of the nose, ears, or hands), incarceration, forced labor (essentially slavery for life in many cases), or death. The Great Prison at Thebes held convicted felons who were used for manual labor on the Temple of Amun at Karnak and other projects. There was no death row in Egyptian prisons since a person who was found guilty of a serious offense meriting the death penalty was executed immediately. There were no lawyers to argue a case and no appeals made after a verdict was rendered. The priests were entrusted by the people to give a fair and just hearing to any complaint and to judge according to the precepts of the gods, knowing that they faced a far worse fate in the afterlife should they fail in these duties.

Family & Leisure

Priests could be male or female. The chief priest of any religious cult was usually the same sex as the deity they served; the head of the Cult of Isis was female, that of the Cult of Amun, male. Priests could and did have families, and their children usually became priests after them.

Social mobility was neither encouraged nor observed for most of Egypt's history as it was thought that the gods had decreed the most perfect social order which mirrored that of the gods.

This was the paradigm for all of Egypt as far as succession went: the children carried on the occupation of the parents, usually the father. Women had almost equal rights in ancient Egypt. They could own their own businesses, their own land, and their own homes, could initiate divorce, enter into contracts with men, have abortions, and dispose of their own property as they saw fit; this was a level of sexual equality which no other ancient civilization approached and which the modern era only initiated - under duress - in the mid-20th century CE.

At least four women ruled Egypt, the best known two being Hatshepsut (1479-1458 BCE) and Cleopatra VII. This was not the norm, however, as most rulers were male. Royal women, for the most part, had slaves and servants who cared for the children and had no responsibility for cleaning or tending the home. They assisted their husbands in receiving foreign dignitaries and advancing certain policies. Women of the upper classes knew a similar lifestyle but might have taken more time caring for the children, while in the lower classes, the care of the home and children were wholly the woman's responsibility.

Marriages in ancient Egypt were more of a secular than religious affair. Most marriages, in any of the classes, were arranged by the parents. Girls were usually married around the age of 12 and boys around age 15. Royal children were often betrothed to those of foreign kings to seal treaties when they were little more than infants, though it was forbidden for women to leave Egypt as brides for foreign rulers since it was thought they would not be happy outside of their own land. Since Egypt was the best of all places, it was considered disrespectful to a young woman to send her off to some lesser place. It was perfectly acceptable for foreign-born women to come to Egypt as brides, however. Once in Egypt, these women were accorded the same respect as natives. Women of all social classes were considered on par with their husbands, even though the man was considered the head of the household. Nardo notes:

Upper-class husbands and wives dined, held parties, and went hunting together, while both well-to-do and poorer women shared many legal rights with men. In fact, ancient Egyptian women seem to have enjoyed more freedom in their private lives than women in most other ancient societies, even if men made most of the really important decisions. Egyptian men benefitted from positive, loving relationships as much as their wives did. (23)

Although the wives of farmers did not go out to the fields with their husbands (for the most part), they still had plenty of work to do keeping the house clean, tending to any animals not used in plowing, administering to the needs of the elderly in the family, and raising the children. Women and children also would tend the family garden, which was an important resource for any family. Cleanliness was an important value of the Egyptians, and one's person and home needed to reflect that. Women and men of all classes bathed frequently (priests more than any other profession) and shaved their heads to prevent lice and cut down on maintenance. When an occasion called for it, they wore wigs. Men and women also both wore makeup, especially kohl under the eyes, to help with the sun's glare and keep the skin soft. Tomb inscriptions and paintings also often show men and women plowing and harvesting in the fields together or building a home.

The life of the ancient Egyptians was hardly all work, however. They found plenty of time to enjoy themselves through sports, board games, and other activities. Ancient Egyptian sports included hockey, handball, archery, swimming, tug of war, gymnastics, rowing, and a sport known as 'water jousting,' which was a sea battle played in small boats on the Nile River in which a 'jouster' tried to knock the other out of his boat while a second team member maneuvered the craft. Children were taught to swim at an early age, and swimming was among the most popular sports, which gave rise to other water games. The board game of Senet was extremely popular, representing one's journey through life to eternity. Music, dance, choreographed gymnastics, and wrestling were also popular, and among the upper classes, hunting large or small game was a favorite pastime.

There was also a sport called 'shooting the rapids,' which is described by the Roman playwright Seneca the Younger (1st century CE) who lived in Egypt:

The people embark on small boats, two to a boat, and one rows while the other bails out water. Then they are violently tossed about in the raging rapids. At length they reach the narrowest channels and, swept along by the whole force of the river, they control the rushing boat by hand and plunge head downward to the great terror of the onlookers. You would believe sorrowfully that by now they were drowned and overwhelmed by such a mass of water when, far from the place where they fell, they shoot out as from a catapult, still sailing, and the subsiding wave does not submerge them but carries them on to smooth waters. (cited in Nardo, 20)

After or even during such events, spectators enjoyed their favorite beverage: beer. The favored recipe most often consumed was Heqet (also given as Hecht), a honey-flavored beer similar to, but lighter than, the later mead of Europe. There were many kinds of beer (generally known as zytum), and it was frequently prescribed as a medicine as it made the heart lighter and improved one's spirits. Beer was brewed commercially and at home and was especially enjoyed at the many festivals the Egyptians celebrated.

Festivals, Food & Clothing

All of the Egyptian gods had birthdays which needed to be celebrated, and then there were individual birthdays, the anniversaries of great deeds of the king, observances of acts of the gods in human history, and also funerals, wakes, house-warming events, and births. All of these and more were celebrated with a party or a festival.

The festivals of ancient Egypt were each unique in character depending on the nature of the event, but all had in common drinking and feasting. The Egyptian diet was mainly vegetarian and consisted of grains (wheat) and vegetables. Meat was very expensive, and usually only royalty was able to afford it. Meat was also difficult to keep in the arid Egyptian climate, and so animals who were ritually slaughtered had to be used quickly.

Festivals were the perfect opportunity for indulging in every kind of excess, including meat eating for those who chose to do so, though self-indulgence was not appropriate at every gathering. Each celebration or commemoration had its own unique characteristics as historian Margaret Bunson explains:

The Beautiful Feast of the Valley, in honor of the god Amun, held in Thebes, was celebrated with a procession of the barks of the gods, with music and flowers. The Feast of Hathor, celebrated at Dendera, was a time of pleasure and intoxication, in keeping with the myths of the goddesses' cult. The feast of the goddess Isis at Busiris and the celebration honoring Bastet at Bubastis were also times of revelry and intoxication. (91)

These festivals were "normally religious in nature and held in conjunction with the lunar calendar in temples" but could also "commemorate certain specific events in the daily lives of the people" (Bunson, 90). At funerals, as one would expect, people dressed in respectful black (though the priests usually wore white) while at birthdays or other celebrations one wore whatever one pleased. At the Festival of Bastet, women wore nothing but a short kilt which they often raised in honor of the goddess.

Clothing in ancient Egypt was linen woven from cotton. In the Predynastic and Early Dynastic Periods, women and men both wore simple linen kilts. Children went naked from birth until around the age of ten. Bunson notes that "In time women wore an empire-type long skirt that hung just below their uncovered breasts. Men kept to the simple kilts. These could be dyed in exotic colors or designs although white was probably the color used in religious rituals or court events"(67). By the time of the New Kingdom women wore linen dresses which covered their breasts and went to their ankles while men wore the short kilt and sometimes a loose shirt. Lower-class women, female slaves, and female servants are often shown wearing only a kilt through the New Kingdom period. At this same time, royal or noble women are shown wearing form-fitting dresses from the shoulder to the ankles and men are seen in sheer blouses and skirts. In the colder weather of the rainy season, cloaks and shawls were used.

Most people, of every social class, went barefoot in emulation of the gods who had no need for footwear. On special occasions, or when someone was going on a long journey or to a place where they might injure their feet or in colder weather, they wore sandals. The cheapest sandals were made of woven rushes while the most expensive were of leather or painted wood. Sandals do not seem to have a great deal of importance to the Egyptians until the Middle and New Kingdoms when they came to be seen as status symbols. A person who could afford good sandals was obviously doing well while the poorest people went barefoot. These sandals were often painted or decorated with images which could be quite elaborate.

At festival times - and there were many of them throughout the Egyptian year - the clothing of the priests was white, but people could wear anything they wanted or almost nothing at all. The Egyptians wanted to live life to its fullest, to experience all their time on earth had to give, and looked forward to its continuance after death.

One's earthly life was only a part of an eternal journey, and one's death was seen as a transition from one phase to the next. A proper burial was of the utmost importance to the ancient Egyptians of every class. The body of the deceased was washed, dressed in wrappings (mummified), and buried with those objects which they would want or need in the afterlife. The more money one had, of course, the more elaborate one's tomb and grave goods, but even the poorest people provided proper graves for their loved ones. Without a proper burial one could not hope to move on to the Hall of Truth and pass the judgment of Osiris. Further, if a family did not honor the dead properly at death, they were almost guaranteeing the return of that person's spirit, which would haunt them and cause all manner of trouble. Honoring the dead meant not only paying respects to that individual but to the individual's contributions and achievements in life, all of which were made possible by the goodness of the gods.

Living with mindfulness of kindness, harmony, balance, and gratitude toward the gods, they hoped to find their hearts lighter than the feather of truth when they came to stand in judgment before Osiris after death. Once they had been justified, they would pass on to an eternity of the very daily life they had left behind when they died. Everything in their lives which seemed lost at death was returned in the afterlife. Their emphasis, in every aspect of their lives, was to create a life worth living for an eternity. No doubt many individuals often failed at this, but the ideal was one worth striving for and imbued the daily lives of the ancient Egyptians with a meaning and purpose which infused and inspired their impressive culture.

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The popular view of life in ancient Egypt is often that it was a death-obsessed culture in which powerful pharaohs forced the people to labor at constructing pyramids and temples and, at an unspecified time, enslaved the Hebrews for this purpose.

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Interactive

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In this episode of Garner It, you can take a look at daily life in ancient Egypt. Learn about the social pyramid of Egypt and how your social class affects your job, housing, food and entertainment. This video goes perfectly with TCI History Alive, The Ancient World chapter 9.

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Daily Life - Temples & Rituals of Ancient Egypt

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Ancient Egyptian History for Kids: Pharaohs

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Kids learn about Ancient Egyptian Pharaohs. The rulers and kings of this world civilization.

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Pharaohs were the kings of ancient Egypt. A couple were women, but most pharaohs were men. In ancient Egypt, whether the pharaoh was a man or a woman, all pharaohs were kings. Pharaohs were the leaders of government and religion. There were about 170 different pharaohs over time, but there was only one pharaoh at a time. In ancient Egypt, the people referred to a pharaoh not "the" pharaoh, but simply as Pharaoh.

Pharaoh Ruled Everything: As you research ancient Egypt on the web, you will see pharaohs referred to as living gods, or like-gods, or as the go between mortal man and gods, and other god related positions. During the Old Kingdom, pharaohs believed themselves to be living gods. But they were mortal. During the Middle Kingdom, pharaohs no longer thought of themselves as living gods, but rather as the representatives of the gods on earth. Pharaoh was the king of Egypt and the High Priest of all temples. His (or her) power was absolute and overwhelming. He was not worshipped. He was obeyed.

Pharaoh Owned Everything: The ancient Egyptians believed that all the wealth of Egypt and all the wealth in the world belonged to Pharaoh. Every house, brick, stone, animal, amulet, jewelry, statue, man, woman, child, clothing, temples, store houses, tombs, eggs found along the Nile, everything, absolutely everything belonged to Pharaoh. In exchange for all Pharaoh owned and controlled, Pharaoh was responsible for Ma'at - for the health and happiness of ancient Egypt. If Pharaoh did not do his or her job, the Nile would not rise and leave rich soil behind for planting as the waters receded. If the people did not obey Pharaoh, the Nile would not rise.

Pharaoh, like everyone in ancient Egypt, had a job to do. His (or her) job was to take care of the people. Every decision made had to be in the best interest of the people. For example, if Pharaoh announced that all bread was free for everyone, that might sound very nice, but it would put people out of work. Bakers would not be able to trade for what they needed. That would not be in the best interest of all the people. So Pharaoh rarely made a snap decision. Everything was thought through, and Pharaoh received advice from his many advisors and government officials, whose job was to help Pharaoh run the country.

Viziers: In the early centuries of ancient Egypt, the people could talk directly to Pharaoh. As time went by, and the population grew and expanded, the Egyptian kings began to rely on the Vizier to talk for them to the people. The Vizier was the highest rank in government, next only to Pharaoh. From the lowest to the highest, each adviser had to submit an oral or written (by a scribe) report each day to the official above him. These officials reported to those above them, and so on, until all reports reached the Vizier. Each day, the Vizier reported to Pharaoh everything the Vizier had done, including all the decisions he had made, in case Pharaoh wished to change anything, along with a recap of reports the Vizer had received that day from lesser officials all over Egypt. It was an amazing system of government. It worked for over 3,000 years!
Pharaohs (story & game) Pharaoh's Palace A Day in the Life of a Pharaoh Square sails - building Pharaoh's boat
Prepare a Pharaoh for his tomb (interactive)
Famous Pharaohs: Rameses II - The Pharaoh Who Made A Name for Himself (cartoon illustrated PowerPoint, give it time to load)
All pharaohs were kings.

King Tut - The Boy King

Hatshepsut - The Woman Who Was King

Symbols of gods and pharaohs: The Crook and the Flail
Very short stories of Egyptian Kings & Queen by Mark Millmore 65 narrated video tours - Valley of the Kings

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Ancient Egypt for Kids - Pharaohs - Ancient Egypt for Kids

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Pharaohs were the kings of ancient Egypt. A couple were women, but most pharaohs were men. In ancient Egypt, whether the pharaoh was a man or a woman, all pharaohs were kings. Pharaohs were the leaders of government and religion. There were about 170 different pharaohs over time, but there was only one pharaoh at a time.

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King Tut is short for King Tutankhamen. His name is actually pronounced like this: Toot-ong-kah-men. King Tut was only Pharaoh for about 9 years. Yet he is probably one of the most famous pharaohs of all.

King Tut was nine years old when he became Pharaoh. He was a teenager when he died. His people did not have time in nine years to built a huge tomb for him. They had to quickly finish a tiny tomb. Because his tomb was so small, grave robbers most probably did not discover it.

It was not until 1922 that Howard Carter entered Tut's tomb. He found a bag of gold rings dropped on the floor. But it might have fallen accidentally. If robbers had been there, they did not take very much. There was still a solid gold mask on King Tut's face. The tomb was full of treasures.

All over the modern world, ancient Egypt was the hot topic of conversation. Movies were made. Jewelry was created. Clothing was sewn using Egyptian designs. This enormous interest in all things Egyptian generated funding, which helped Egyptologists (archaeologists who study ancient Egypt) continue to discover more about this fascinating ancient civilization.
Tut's Tomb Adventure (bbc)
All about Howard Carter (with help from the Biography Channel, bio.com)

King Tutankhamen Song - Listen and Learn
King Tut - The Boy King
Hear Tut's Trumpet
Ancient Egyptian Tombs Interactive Quiz about Ancient Egypt (with answers)

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King Tut's Tomb and Howard Carter for Kids - Ancient Egypt for Kids

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King Tut is short for King Tutankhamen. His name is actually pronounced like this: Toot-ong-kah -men. King Tut was only Pharaoh for about 9 years. Yet he is probably one of the most famous pharaohs of all. King Tut was nine years old when he became Pharaoh.

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The Tomb of Tutankhamun | Lost Treasures of Egypt

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First female Pharaoh!

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The pharaoh that wouldn't be forgotten - Kate Green

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Ancient Egyptian Biography for Kids: Ramses II

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Kids learn about the biography of Ramses II of Ancient Egypt. The greatest of the Egyptian Pharaohs, he ruled for 66 years.

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Ancient Egyptian Houses - Facts for Kids

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Almost all of Egypt is a desert, and in ancient Egypt they needed to use any fertile land for growing crops. This means that there weren’t that many trees for building houses. The Egyptians had to use whatever they had around and that included mud and reeds. Since the Nile River floods lasted three…

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No one cared how big you built your home in ancient Egypt. It was up to you. Homes were built with bricks made of mud and straw. The ancient Egyptians invented molds to make bricks. That let them make many bricks at one time. Most bricks were not baked in an oven, although if they wanted the bricks to be extra strong, they might bake them. But mostly, bricks were dried in the sun. Some large homes were built of stone, but most homes of both the rich and the poor were build of brick.

The rich lived in huge homes or villas along the Nile River. They painted the outside of their homes white because it kept their home cooler. The very wealthy lined the outside of their homes with white limestone. Limestone was expensive, but it made their homes sparkle in the sunshine.

Although the best artists were busy working on the pyramids or tombs, the walls of each villa were highly decorated by the best artists their money could buy. Some walls were washed with pastel colors to brighten, lighten and clean.

Some of these huge homes had as many as 30 rooms. Many were store rooms. Some were guest rooms, bedrooms, kids rooms, and even bathrooms! (No running water, though.)

Homes had front and back doors. Each door was built about 4 feet off the ground to reduce the amount of sand that worked itself inside the house. You reached the door via a ramp. Ramps, rather than stairs, were used to reach various levels in the house.

The windows were cut high to keep out sand. The windows had bars on them to keep out wild animals. They also acted to reduce theft, although crime was very low in ancient Egypt.

The center of the house was the living room or family area. It was usually raised up a bit from the rest of flooring, again to reduce the amount of sand that got into everything in ancient Egypt. Because it was in the center of the villa, surrounded by other rooms, this central living area was cool in the summer and warm in the winter.

Behind the living room was the master bedroom suite. It usually had its own bathroom, complete with toilet. Other bathrooms were scattered through the home. Pipes led from the bathrooms to various parts of the garden outside. Other rooms were used for a variety of purposes, including the children's bedrooms and playrooms. Some of the rooms were storerooms full of sealed jars of food.

A typical home in ancient Egypt had mirrors, pots and pans, ovens, shelves, beds, comfortable sitting areas, lighting for evenings, heat, and fountains to naturally cool their homes. In the bedrooms, you would find cosmetic pots and perfume pots, and clean clothes. They kept beautifully designed chests to hold linens and clothes and other goods.

Many homes of the rich had gardens and pools both inside and outside the house. Some pools were stocked with brightly colored fish. Gardens had daisies and cornflowers planted amongst the trees.

A peasant's home was tiny by comparison. It was still very nice. Each peasant family had their own home. A door led into an open courtyard with walls but no roof. From the courtyard, a ramp led up, and a door led inside the house. The ramp led to the second floor roof, where the peasant family could enjoy the evening together. Some homes had a third story with a ramp that led from the second floor roof to the third floor roof.

In town, the bottom level was used for a business. It was the bakery or the store or workshop. The top levels were used for the family home. Homes were built close together, like townhouses are built today. They had shared walls. In the cities, the peasants and middle class workers were crowded together in close quarters and neighborhoods. But each family had their own home.

In pyramid-towns, homes were provided for the workers. In the city, quite often the city planners would have homes built for workers.

In the country, the homes of peasants were even more roomy. The first level might be used to hold wild birds for eggs and meat. Outside, behind the house, you would probably find a vegetable garden. Brick was cheap. People were talented. Although the master had the final say, it was usually up to the peasant how big he or she wished to build their home.
Furniture in Ancient Egypt Return to Daily Life in Ancient Egypt

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Ancient Egypt for Kids - Homes - Ancient Egypt for Kids

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No one cared how big you built your home in ancient Egypt. It was up to you. Homes were built with bricks made of mud and straw. The ancient Egyptians invented molds to make bricks. That let them make many bricks at one time.

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Facts about hieroglyphics | National Geographic Kids

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Join us here at Nat Geo Kids to discover fascinating facts about hieroglyphics. Discover the Egyptian symbols, what they mean and even spell your own name!

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Early form of Paper!

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Who was the secretary of ancient Egypt? Answer: The scribe.

Scribes were the people in ancient Egypt who wrote things down. In ancient Egypt, everything was written down. From the writings we have found, we have learned a great deal about these ancient people, including their love of written lists!

What did the ancient Egyptians use for paper? Answer: papyrus

Besides the need for lists in government and in the daily life of Egyptians citizens, scribes also wrote coffin texts. Over a thousand different coffin texts have been discovered by archaeologists. Coffin texts are spells written on coffins. Scribes also wrote the Book of the Dead, which was not a book, but was a collection of single pieces of papyrus, each with a written spell that you could purchase in the marketplace.

There were scribes schools in the Houses of Life in every major city in ancient Egypt. There were powerful scribe families in ancient Egypt where the ability to write had been passed down from father to son, generation after generation. But newcomers did break into this elite group if they could pass the test. Scribe school was open to anyone who could afford the fee. Typically, very few students passed the exam unless they had prior training, but all those who passed, whatever their prior background, were in high demand. There was tremendous prestige attached to being a scribe. Scribes were busy, but they also lived very good lives, with many luxuries.

The ancient Egyptians wrote on obelisks, pyramids, tombs, coffins, sarcophagi, statues, walls of their homes, and papyrus scrolls. Even if the ancient Egyptians had invented the camera or the tape recorder, they still would have written things down. They wanted to make sure they had records of everything, especially records of the good deeds they had done, and their many achievements, to prove the many good deeds they had done. Doing good deeds kept their hearts light. This made sure they would reach their afterlife.

Scribes were very high on the social scale, right under priests.
Hieroglyphics Professions Houses of Life - Education Centers Free Powerpoints about Ancient Egyptian Scribes Return to Ancient Egyptian Daily Life

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Scribes in Ancient Egypt for Kids - Ancient Egypt for Kids

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Who was the secretary of ancient Egypt? Answer: The scribe. Scribes were the people in ancient Egypt who wrote things down. In ancient Egypt, everything was written down. From the writings we have found, we have learned a great deal about these ancient people, including their love of written lists!

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People worked very hard in ancient Egypt. Everybody had a job. In ancient Egypt, women could work at a job outside the home as well. Jobs included bakers, priests, noblemen, soldiers, farmers, merchants, fishermen, hunters, craftsmen, artists, and scribes. There were many professions in ancient Egypt, most of which were inherited. For the most part, whatever job your father had, you had. If he was a farmer, when you grew up, you would become a farmer. Other inherited jobs included doctors, teachers, bakers, fishermen, herders, boatmen, administrators, and traders.

But there were a couple of professions that could help you move up the social ladder. One was to become a scribe, the people who wrote things down. The other was to become a craftsman or an artist if you were talented. Anyone could join the army. Thanks to Egypt's natural barriers, Egypt had little need for a large army. The army protected the delta region and the area to the south. They army also settle local differences.

The biggest job of all was that of Pharaoh. Pharaoh's job was to take care of his people. Pharaoh made laws, collected taxes, defended Egypt from invasion, and was the high priest. Pharaoh owned everything in ancient Egypt. But of course, he did not do all these jobs himself. Pharaoh had many helpers, called administrators. His most important administrators, his right hand man, was called the Vizier.

Nobles and Administrators
Scribes in Ancient Egypt Craftsmen & Artists in Ancient Egypt Priests in Ancient Egypt Soldiers in Ancient Egypt
Merchants, the Egyptian Marketplace
Farmers in Ancient Egypt

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Jobs and Occupations in Ancient Egypt for Kids - Ancient Egypt for Kids

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People worked very hard in ancient Egypt. Everybody had a job. In ancient Egypt, women could work at a job outside the home as well. Jobs included bakers, priests, noblemen, soldiers, farmers, merchants, fishermen, hunters, craftsmen, artists, and scribes. There were many professions in ancient Egypt, most of which were inherited.

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Ancient Egyptian jobs just like in any other ancient societies revolved around a few main areas of economic and religious activity. The Egyptian upper classes were mainly involved in the administration of the kingdom and belonged to the aristocracy, keeping watch over the empire as a whole. The job of dealing with religious affairs and administration were held by priests and scribes. Scribes, other than performing religious duties, also belonged to various other professions such as medicine and engineering. Jobs for the common people were generally passed down from father to son, for example a farmer's son usually grew up to be a farmer, and played a critical part in society.

The history of Egyptian jobs can be traced back to the inception of the first Egyptian dynasty. Of course the jobs associated with governance became available after the kingdom was established but jobs related to agriculture and trade existed even before that. Agriculture was mainly done around the River Nile and jobs in that area mainly consisted of agricultural work. Trade and commerce also existed in ancient societies and continued to flourish with the passage of time. Jobs of priests and administrators became established particularly after the establishment of the Egyptian Kingdom around 3150BC.

Types of jobs in Egyptian Society

The most important type among all Egyptian jobs was of course farming. Most of the people farmed the land and grew barley and wheat for bread, in addition to various vegetables and fruits. Another popular job was that of craftsmen which included carpenters, jewellers, leather workers, potters and every other craft you can think of. Relatively well to do people also indulged in trade and commerce, which offered bigger profits than your typical farming job. One way to increase your social status in Egyptian society was to become a solider which was considered a respectable job, and could allow a commoner to rise among the ranks. Finally, there were the jobs of priests, priestesses, scribes and government officials which we will go into more detail about later.

Jobs in the Egyptian Government

Various kinds of jobs from the government were available in ancient Egypt. Most of the time, however, these jobs were hereditary and thus remained in a small circle of aristocracy. Thus the son of an official grew up to become the same official for example. In certain cases however people from outside the aristocracy could also attain government jobs. The most important government jobs included the job of a vizier, military generals, administrator of finance and court officials. There were also various other noblemen who acted as state administrators in certain areas and were granted estates by the government for their services.

Scribes Priests and Astrologers

Among the most important ancient Egyptian jobs were the jobs of scribes, priests, priestesses, and astrologers. The scribes, other than indulging in religious affairs, also held the job of documenting the legal affairs for the government. They also got the jobs of teaching in addition to acting in other professions such as medicine and engineering. The priests and priestesses on the other hand looked after the temples and administered the religious affairs of the kingdom. Astrologers were usually employed by the government to predict the impact of certain events or expeditions.

The Servants

The servants like most other professions were also determined at birth, with their family dictacting their career. This means that the children of servants usually ended up being servants themselves. These servants were mainly employed by wealthy households for cooking, cleaning, and other manual work. Serving girls acted as nannies for the children of the aristocracy. The jobs for servants also included working in the fields and helping the masters. Male servants working for the royalty were involved in building projects and sometimes were sent to fight in the military. Servants had restricted rights and could not inherit property or land.

Engineers and Architects of Egypt

Engineers and architects had some of the most important jobs in ancient Egypt. These jobs include the construction of grand temples and religious edifices in addition to overlooking the construction of pyramids. These engineers and architects had a vast number of slaves and servants at their disposal that could be used as manpower in the construction projects. The pyramids and grand temples sometimes took decades to complete and the king was free to employee as many slaves as he liked. Engineers and architects used various innovative techniques for the construction of grand monuments.

Builders and Artists

The actual builders of the pyramids and temples were the slaves and servants who worked under the supervision of the engineers and architects. Other than the hereditary slaves, the king could also use his subjects in building projects. The lives of these builders were quite harsh compared to the lives of common people.Jobs for the artists on the other hand mainly included decorating the homes of the wealthy Egyptians in addition to the painting of tombs and temples. Craftsmen were also employed in building projects and were delegated the tasks of cutting stone and creating sculptures.

The Egyptian Military

The job of a soldier was considered one of the more respectable in all of Egypt at the time. Thus this was among those ancient Egyptian jobs that were coveted by the common people and they could use it to raise their social status. The most common form of job in the military was that of the footman. The new recruits were put through rigorous training process where they were taught wrestling, the use of weapons, and various military tactics.
Entertainers in Ancient Egypt

The jobs of the entertainers mainly revolved around music and dance, and wasn't a role for everyone. The performance of music and dance was an essential ingredient of religious and social life. Large numbers of musical instruments and inscriptions have been found belonging to that era which signify the importance that music and dance enjoyed in ancient Egypt. Dance and music were essential in religious as well as secular festivals of ancient Egypt.

Slaves in Ancient Egypt

Slavery was an important part of life in ancient Egypt. Other than being captured in a war, people could be enslaved for various reasons such as failure to pay a debt, poverty, and punishment etc. Jobs for salves mainly comprised of manual labour and they were expected to help their masters in agriculture and other manual tasks.

Ancient Egypt jobs summary

Ancient Egyptian jobs related to almost every sphere of life, from agriculture and commerce to administration of religious affairs and national defence. Agricultural jobs were the most common because most of the people were farmers. Government jobs, on the other hand, were mainly reserved for the aristocracy. For the Egyptian who wanted to grow in status the military proved a critical job for common people to improve their social standing.

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Where you stood in society in Ancient Egypt would often dictate the kind of job you might have. The Egyptian government was typically held by the upper class, and manual labour like farming was always required in Egypt.

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HISTORY'S HISTORIES You are history. We are the future.

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What was it like to be a king in ancient Egypt? Well, for one thing, if you were Pharaoh, you would be a god. A pharaoh had absolute power over everything and everyone. No one could argue with you. No one could yell at you. No one could even call you by your name. They did not call you "the pharaoh," but simply Pharaoh.

If you were Pharaoh, you would own everything - the ground, the plants, the crops, the people, the people's homes, and all the crafts created by the people - everything would be yours. People could use things as long as you let them, but you would be the actual owner. If you wanted something done, you would simply tell your assistants and they would see that it was done. If you wanted something built, your assistants would see to that, too. Of course, that sounds nice. It was, however, a tough job to be a pharaoh, one that had the great weight of massive responsibility.

Since you owned everything you had a lot to take care of. Luckily, the people - people whom you also took care of - were happy to respond by helping take care of you. Everyone in Egypt knew that it was their job to help Pharaoh take care of Egypt. Basically, everyone worked for the state. In a way, ancient Egypt operated very much like a modern state.

For this lesson, you will learn a bit what it was like to work in ancient Egypt. In doing so, you will learn a lot about what it was like to live in ancient Egypt.
Professions: Peasants, Artists, Scribes, Soldiers,
The native born Egyptian peasant was not a slave. He was a As a way to escape working during the hottest hours of the day, peasants, along with most of ancient Egypt, took breaks for mid-day serf. He was bound to the service of his master and his master's land. His master could be a nobleman, a pharaoh, or a temple. At the same time, a serf could possess land and property of his own.

Since the masters of Egypt had a belief in fairness and in justice, this system worked for everyone. Most peasants were farmers. Some accepted employment in the homes of the rich and noble as nannies or servants. All peasants were paid for their work.

siestas. During their mid-day siesta, peasants ate and drank. After siesta, it was back to work until dark. They had a lot to do. They had their master's garden to tend, along with their own. They took care of the beehives and the cattle. They caught fish and birds. They were busy, but there was always time to enjoy one of the many festivals put on by the priests, paid for by their masters, for their entertainment. If a peasant had the money, he could buy his wife a linen dress.

Peasants had private homes of their own. They had children they loved and enjoyed. They spent time with their family. The peasant's life was busy but contented. While they waited for the flood waters of the Nile to each year, every adult male peasant had to enroll in a work gang. During this period, they were expected to give a certain number of days of labor to public works programs. They might be assigned to fix the canals, or to work on the roads, or to replace the boundary stones between properties in their proper location. Some peasants also signed up to work on the pyramids. This system was agreeable. Laboring on public works projects during the Nile's flood season ensured steady pay throughout the year.

​Of all their jobs, the two most important were the planting and the harvesting of crops each year. Many magic spells were spoken. Many religious festivals were held. At the earliest possible moment, when the Nile receded and the land had dried out enough but not too much, the peasants planted the fields. When the crops were tall, the peasants spent long hours in the fields, bringing in the crops.

Occasionally, peasants got into trouble. They stole or they cheated on their taxes. When that happened, the hated police came and took them to court. If they were found guilty, they might get off with a warning. Or, they might get a beating by the police. They could have their nose cut off, but that almost never happened. Their crime would have to be very bad to receive a punishment like that. Because peasants were important to the welfare of all Egyptians, were merciful.

The peasants knew that their jobs were important to all of Egypt and it gave them great pride to do their job well. Peasants in ancient Egypt were respected for the work they did. They were paid for the work they did. And, they were thanked by the pharaoh, by their master, and by the gods for the work they did. Peasants whose hearts were light could dwell forever in the afterlife, just like everyone else in ancient Egypt.

While ancient Egyptian art is remarkable for its originality and beauty, as well as for the influence it had on the art of other civilizations around the Mediterranean, especially the Greeks, Egyptian artists were considered to be craftsmen rather than artists. They were not given the honor due their work. While we often think of as artist as one who toils away alone in the service of a , the ancient Egyptians perceived artists - and the artists perceived themselves - as one of a group.

In order to make a statue, for instance, you needed a whole team of craftsmen. First, a stone-cutter had to cut the stone. Then a stone-hauler hauled the stone. Then, you needed a sculptor to sculpt the stone. When the sculptor completed his work, the statue had to be delivered to the artist who specialized in cutting hieroglyphs in stone. That artist added the owner's name and descriptions of the owner's achievements to the statue. To make the statue as lifelike as possible, the statue was then transferred to the artist who specialized in coloring. That artist painted the statue. Finally, the sculpture was ready for delivery to its owner. Each member of the team was paid, but no one received recognition for his work. What was important was that the statue was the best statue you, collectively as part of a team, could make.

​What was the most important job of an artist?

Most statues were ordered for tombs, so it was doubly important that each statue should look as much like the owner as possible. This was to avoid confusion. A man's name was not just a label. It was the man himself. If his name vanished, so did he. To an ancient Egyptian painter, working on a tomb wall, the easiest way to represent 100 people was to simply paint 100 people in organized rows so they would be easy to count. That's what they did, and they did it beautifully. In spite of the low esteem in which artists were held, their art was magnificent. The surviving statues show us how people looked, and the surviving tomb paintings are vivid pictures of the real everyday life in ancient Egypt. These painting and statues show us the ancient Egyptians at work, at play, in their homes, in the city, and in the country. They show us their incredible love for life.

Brainbox: Why do you think artists did not take credit for their work?

Other countries did not want to send their armies marching across a vast desert to finally reach ancient Egypt and start a battle. In the beginning, thanks to Egypt's natural barriers, Egypt had little need for a huge army. During the Old Kingdom, provinces, instead, had local armies whose purpose was to solve local problems. During the time period of the Middle Kingdom, pharaohs created a properly trained central army led by commanders. The pharaoh was in charge of the army and served as commander-in-chief. The pharaoh's war helmet was bright blue. The army was always looking for new recruits "to support the blue." When they did not have enough people enlisted in the army, the royal recruiting officer went to each of the local villages. He "recruited" one man from every ten into

Why did the Egyptians need an army?

Natural barriers did not totally protect them, however. The Egyptians needed extra protection in the eastern Delta region and in the south. They built fortresses in the eastern Delta region, and they built a line of fortresses in the south to protect them from their African neighbor, the Nubians.
compulsory service. Being required to serve in the army upset a lot of the population.

Recruits usually came from the peasant class. The Egyptian peasant was a peaceful soul. Forcing him to join the military was unpopular as well as ineffective. The peasants were not fighters. They were farmers. The thought of spending years locked up in a barracks, marching up and down to the sound of a trumpet, was not a happy thought. They would rather work in the fields. Sure, it was hard work, but it was work that mattered, and it was close to home. As a result, during this time, the Egyptians lost a great many of their battles.

What does the ability to speak out against the military without fear of punishment shows that the ancient Egyptians had?

The schoolteachers often spoke out against the military as a career choice for their students. Believe it or not, teachers were quite outspoken. Of course, that was a good thing. It shows the Egyptians enjoyed a good deal of freedom of speech. Teachers, wanting the best for their students, knew how tough military service could be. In an effort to get their students to apply themselves in school, they would frequently tell horror stories abut the military service that awaited a student who performed poorly. One of the stories they told was about a poor soldier who wrecked his chariot just as the commander was making an inspection. First, he was whipped until he was a bloody mess. Then, he was forced to march over the mountains carrying a heavy backpack. The pack was so heavy that it broke his back. He had to drink foul water, because he was too far away from the Nile. He received almost nothing to eat because he was too far away from the grain storage to pull his fair share. Finally, at last, when he was allowed to return home, he had to come home tossed over the back of a donkey because his legs no longer worked. On the way home, he was set upon by bandits who stole his pay and his donkey. There was nothing left for him but to crawl all the way home to the Nile. Poor soldier,the teacher reminded his students, what a life he chose for himself.

Perhaps the ancient Egyptians were not the best of soldiers, but they were fabulous administrators. The Two Lands became great, not from battle, but from their ability to manage large territories and large numbers of people. That order was provided by their scribes.

Scribes knew how to read and write. If you were a scribe, you did not have to row a boat, or work in the fields, or carry a basket. Your job was to write everything down. The profession of scribe held great prestige.

Some of the peasants could read and write, but most could not. To show how important they considered reading and writing, noblemen, princes, and even the pharaoh had artists depict them sitting cross-legged with a scroll of papyrus paper.

You could learn to be a scribe, and if you became one you would have many job opportunities. As a scribe, you could enter the royal service or the temple service. You could work for a provincial nobleman, or serve a senior administrator, or serve the courts. You could become an authority on tax, or train as an engineer or as an architect. In a world in which jobs were inherited it was almost impossible to move up the social scale. Scribes were the exception. Scribes were definitely upper class or, at the very worst, upper middle class.

The same schoolteachers who told horrible tales about the life of a soldier encouraged their students to become scribes. They told their students that if they became a scribe, their hands would be soft, their presence treated with respect, and they could wear a white robe to show that they were not a peasant.

Priests were some of the busiest people in ancient Egypt. Not only did they work to meet the spiritual needs of the people, they were also recognized as , the ancient Egyptian equivalent of a doctor. Priests were highly respected for their ability to heal. In fact, they were so highly respected that if you were to get sick in the ancient world you might hope that you got sick in ancient Egypt. Professions: Priests

In addition to being healers, of course, priests were religous leaders. People were not afraid of their gods or of their highly respected priests. The temples were places where religious ceremonies were held. They were also schools, universities, libraries, and centers of administration, as well as workshops, farms and granaries. The Egyptians loved their animal-headed gods. They did not find them frightening. They found them comforting. The ancient Egyptians treated their gods almost as one of the family.

Home Life: Priests were married. They had families. Often, homes for the priests and their families were part of a temple complex. That way. they were always close to their work and could more easily take care of their many responsibilities. Some of their duties included working in the fields and tending to the temple's beehives. They also made daily rounds of the people who could not come to the temple because of illness or age.

It was not easy to become a priest. Like other jobs in ancient Egypt, priesthood was handed down from father to son.

The Daily Rite: One of the most important jobs of the priests was the Daily Rite. The Daily Rite was performed in the capital and in every temple along the Nile. Here's how it worked: There was a door into the shrine where the statue of the god was displayed. At night, the door was closed and a clay seal was fixed to the door. In the morning, accompanied by assistant priests and female singers, the clay seal was broken and the door was opened. The head priest removed the statue from the shrine and offered it food, just as a child would pretend to feed a doll. They robed it in royal clothes, and rouged its cheeks. The statue was then replaced in the shrine. The door to the shrine was sealed again and everyone left the room walking backwards, sweeping a wide palm leaf over the floor to remove any footprints they might have made on the sandy floor.
In the provinces of Egypt, who was in charge of governing?
Professions: Nobles and Administrators
Several million people lived in ancient Egypt. It was a big place to manage. The pharaoh was in charge of everything. He was the head of the military, the top priest, the head of government, and the main farmer. In reality, however, the pharaoh had lots of help. Lots. He had an organized army, a police force, and a huge number of ministers and government officials who all reported to their own boss. Their boss reported to the pharaoh's right hand man, the vizier. And, the vizier reported to the pharaoh.

Nomarchs: A pharaoh's palace was not only his home, it was the seat of government. Many officials had offices in the palace. Many others had offices in the nomes. The country of Egypt was divided into provinces, which they called nomes. There were about 20 nomes in Lower Egypt and a little over 20 nomes in Upper Egypt. Each nome (province) had a nomarch in charge. Nomarchs were not elected. They were appointed by the pharaoh or by the vizier in the pharaoh's name. Typically, the nomarch was a member of the royal family.

Overseers: Each nomarch had many senior and middle-ranking officials to help them run the local government. Those officials were called overseers. Overseers also had people to help them do their jobs. At each level of government, officials employed scribes to help them with the royal archives.

The archives were important to the ancient Egyptians. They are equally important to us and have greatly served to further our understanding of the life the Egyptians enjoyed along the Nile thousands of years ago. Everything in ancient Egypt was written down and recorded - wills, deeds, tax lists, court results, journals, letters, memos, regulations, inventories, notes from meetings - everything. Everything they wrote down was sent to the vizier, to be reviewed, and ultimately to be included in the archives. The vizier, who reported directly to the pharaoh, was responsible for seeing that the archives were up to date and accurate. But that was only one of the vizier's many jobs.

﻿ Vizier: Next to the pharaoh, the most important person in ancient Egypt was the vizier. Everyone reported to the vizier. In turn, the vizier reported to the pharaoh. He had a huge staff of scribes and assistants to help him do his job well.

The Egyptians loved titles. They gave themselves a string of titles, very impressive titles that were, for the most part, quite meaningless. Some of the princes called themselves viziers, but they did not do the job of a vizier. They just liked the title. The real viziers acquired such a reputation for honesty, integrity, wisdom, and dedication that they were often permitted burial in the Valley of the Kings and were, in later years, worshiped as gods. Their job, however, was not to be a god. Their job was to deal out justice. Well, I guess that's not too different from the job of a god after all.

The vizier had to submit a daily report to the pharaoh. The vizier's daily report contained details about the entire state of Egypt. The report included everything that the vizier had done and learned that day. One of the vizier's many jobs was to hear court cases that had not been settled in lower courts. In order to hear complaints from the people, Egypt had three lower courts. Sometimes, no matter how hard everyone tried, people still wound up unhappy with the decision of the lower court. If that turned out to be the case, the people had the right to come before the vizier and be heard. One of the rules was that cases were taken in order - first come, first served, no exceptions. Another rule was that everyone had rights. Everyone.

The vizier could not send away anyone unheard. He had to listen patiently and carefully to each complaint. Once the vizier announced his decision in a case, he had to explain why he made that decision to the audience. The vizier's day was not done. On a typical day, he might meet with a governor of one of the many nomes. That meeting might be followed by a meeting with a visiting diplomat from a neighboring tribe or country. He might study the tax collection receipts and create a report for pharaoh. He might check into the latest repair needs for one of the many canals that held precious water. Before he could go home to his family and relax, the vizier still had to put in several hours catching up on all his paperwork.

Who were the nobles and administrators? Relatives of the pharaoh were considered nobles. Nobles had jobs. Peop le were not allowed to be lazy in ancient Egypt. Some nobles worked in civil service as administrators. Some administrators were high officials, who, over time, achieved the same social status as a noble. It was important to work because jobs were inherited. Families were known for the job that they did. If you were a baker, your sons would most probably become bakers and all your kids would work in the bakery. The ancient Egyptians did not like change. The goal was not to find a different job, but to do the job for which your family was known and to do it well.

Did the system work? The ancient Egyptian system for organizing their society worked really well. However, Egypt was huge and, from time to time, some problems emerged. In each of the nomes, a noble was the head of local government. In their province, they were the top dog, and s ome of the nobles acted like little pharaohs. Some of the provincial nobility were more concerned with building their own tombs than they were with the comfort and security of their people. That sort of neglect led to problems and in some cases it led to war. Other local administrators, however, were very proud of the job they did on behalf of the people. Ameni, who was a nobleman ruler of Upper Egypt was, as he said, proud that his subjects had enjoyed perfect justice, that the poor and widows had lived in perfect security, and that he had abolished poverty and looked after agriculture so perfectly that no one had gone hungry, even in the days of scarcity.

What is another name for a pharaoh?

Pharaoh is another name for king. As very small children, pharaohs were allowed to run and play with their friends. That sense of freedom and fun did not last very long, however. The job of running the country of Egypt fell on a future pharaoh's shoulders quite early. Some remarkably able, fair, patient, far-sighted rulers ruled Egypt. The kings of Egypt might have been looked upon as gods. If so, for the most part, they proved to be hard working gods.

Pharaohs married when they were very young, usually in childhood. The people believed that a pharaoh was an actual blood relative of the sun god Ra. To keep the god's blood pure, pharaohs had to marry within the royal family - their sister, or perhaps their aunt. This was true only for pharaohs. No one else was allowed to marry someone that closely related to him or her. For mortals, that relationship would be too close to produce strong children for Egypt. Pharaohs and their families were exceptions.

Why did the pharaohs carry a crook and a flail?​

Like a shepherd with his flock, the pharaoh's responsibilities could be broken down into two big categories - peace and protection. As a result, the sign of the pharaoh was the crook and the flail. The crook represented his responsibility to guide his flock. The flail, a small, multi-tailed whip, represented his ability to meet out justice to friends and enemies alike. By doing so the pharaoh protected his flock and ensured the future prosperity of Egypt. Essentially, The crook and the flail were symbols of power. Since the crook and flail were also symbols for Osiris, the king of the afterlife, they also served as reminders that pharaohs were related by blood to Ra's grandson, Osiris. These symbols helped to show their respect for their blood relation, and helped to emphasize that pharaohs were gods.

A pharaoh inherited the throne though the female line. It was the Queen Princess who inherited the throne. Her husband or her son, however, would rule. If she died, the next Queen Princess in line took over, and her husband or son would rule. To solve this, the first thing a new pharaoh did was to marry any woman who seemed to have even a remote chance of inheriting the throne.

What is another name for a dynasty?​

Since Pharaohs typically had several wives and lots of kids, the throne was safely handed down to someone in the family for generations, creating a dynasty of rulers. A dynasty is another name for a single family of rulers.

Over 3000 years, Egypt was ruled by 31 dynasties. Here are just a few of the many Pharaohs who ruled Egypt during the 3000-year period when Egypt was ruled by dynasties.

The First Pharaoh: King Narmer (also known as King Menes)
Around 3000 BCE, King Narmer, who ruled Upper Egypt, conquered Lower Egypt. King Narmer combined the two countries into one new country called Egypt.

The sign for Upper Egypt was a red crown. The sign for Lower Egypt was a white crown. King Narmer combined these two signs to make a Double Crown - white inside red. He established Egypt ' s first dynasty. The dynasty system continued for the next 3000 years.

The First Female Pharaoh: Hatshepsut (pronounced hat-chep-suit)
Hatshepsut's husband's son by a minor wife inherited the throne of Egypt when he was only a young boy. Because of his age, Hatshepsut was appointed to serve as his regent, a sort of helper. They ruled jointly for while. Tired of sharing, around 1500 BCE, Hatshepsut crowned herself Pharaoh. Egypt had never had a female Pharaoh and they did not like it much. Hatshepsut, however, ignored the people. She dressed in men's clothing and ran the affairs of the nation with the full support of the priests. Hatshepsut is known as having been a good ruler who greatly expanded the Egypt through trade rather than through warfare. When her stepson, Thutmose III grew up, he led a revolt to reclaim the throne. Hatshepsut disappeared. Thutmose had her statues and temples and buildings mutilated.

The Pharaoh Who Tried to Change Religion: Amenhotep IV (also known as Akhenaton)
Akhenaton was very strange. He decided that a god named Aten should replace Amon as the most important God in ancient Egyptian religion. In fact, he built a whole new capital for Egypt devoted to the worship of only Aten, thereby creating the world ' s first monotheistic religion. No one could stop him because, after all, he was Pharaoh. He also changed Egyptian art. Moving away from the highly stylized art practiced for thousands of years, Akhenaton favored more realistic art. The people were not pleased. Neither were the priests. After Akhenaton died, his monuments were destroyed and, to make sure he was erased from existence and could never live in the afterlife, his name was removed from walls and statues. Still, his son, King Tut, became the next Pharaoh.

The Longest Living Pharaoh: Rameses II (called Rameses the Great)
​Ramesses lived to be 96 years old. He did not have to worry about running out of sons to take over after he died. He had 200 wives, 96 sons, and 60 daughters. He ordered a great many monuments to be built in honor of him. The temple at Abu Simbel is a great example. This temple has many huge statues of Rameses II. The little statues at his feet, about the size of his big toe, are tiny statues of some of his wives. Looking at Ramesses ' many monuments, you can easily see which person he believed was the most important person in the world. Of course, the answer is Rameses II! While he was powerful, perhaps his greatest achievement is in his signing of one of the wold 's first peace treaties. After battling the Hittites for fifteen years and fighting to a draw, Ramesses signed a declaration of peace that lasted for the remainder of his reign. Ramesses being Ramesses, the first thing he did after agreeing to the terms of peace was have the treaty carved on the walls of a temple, giving himself credit for the accomplishment, of course.

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What was it like to be a king in ancient Egypt? Well, for one thing, if you were Pharaoh, you would be a god. A pharaoh had absolute power over everything and everyone. No one could argue with you. No one could yell at you. No one could even call you by your name.

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Ancient Egyptian History for Kids: Pyramids

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Kids learn about Ancient Egyptian Pyramids. The great structures of this world civilization.

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The Great Pyramids of Giza (article) | Khan Academy

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Exploring inside the Great Pyramid of Khufu, near Giza

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Learn more about what is—and is not—inside the Great Pyramid of Khufu, near Giza, Egypt.

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Temples were very important in ancient Egypt and people believed that these were places where gods and goddesses lived. Every god or goddess had a different temple where he or she was worshipped by the priests of the temple and the pharaoh. Temples in ancient were not a place of communal worship. Only the king and the priests were allowed to conduct rituals in the temple and only after undergoing rigorous purification. The public was only allowed in the temple during the festivals when the god supposedly came out of the temple. The Temples of ancient Egypt were of very high value and played an important role in the economy of the country as well. Temples were endowed with large agricultural lands where a large number of people were employed in service to the temple and temples were believed to be the physical location where the Egyptian pharaohs and priests could connect with the gods.

Types Of Egypt Temples

There were two main types of temples built during the ancient Egyptian period.

The first one was a cult temple that was dedicated to a particular god or goddess. An example is the Temple of Horus at Edfu and the Temple of Isis at Aswan.

The second type of temples were the mortuary temples which were dedicated to the pharaoh after their death and where the pharaoh was worshipped as a god. An example is the Temples of Ramesses II at Thebes.

How Were The Temples Made?

The larger temples in Egypt were made out of stone to ensure they lasted longer. The floors of the temples rose through courts and halls of columns which were shaped in the form of papyrus, palms, and lotus flowers. The ceilings of the temples were decorated with stars and the sanctuary represented the primeval mound by being at the highest point. The east-west orientation of the temples which could be seen in most temples meant that the sun rose between the towers of the monuments lying at the gateway and the sunset over the shrine. The inside of the temples was decorated with the pharaoh performing the cult rituals of the deity and also scenes of the Pharaoh fighting in battles, while on the outside the pharaoh was shown repelling the forces of chaos. Famous Temples Of Ancient Egypt

The earliest temples of ancient Egypt were constructed around the 4th millennium B.C. and depicted the shape of reed huts. The last of the Egyptian temples were built at Philae which was stopped using after the 6th century A.D., so the temples of ancient Egypt covered a large variety of different structures that evolved over a long period of time. When visiting Egypt these temples are a definite must-see.

Some of ancient Egypt's most famous temples which are well worth a visit are listed below:

Medinet Habu

Temple of Kom Ombo

Philae Temples

Temple of Edfu

Temple of Seti I

Temple of Hatshepsut

Temple of Karnak

Luxor Temple

Temples of Abu Simbel

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Temples Of Egypt | Egypt Temples - AskAladdin

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Egypt Travel guide to All temples of Egypt.

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DK Find Out! | Fun Facts for Kids on Animals, Earth, History and more!

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Visit DK Find Out! to learn about dinosaurs, space, animals, nature & more. Fun learning activities for kids with videos, quizzes & galleries at DKFindOut.com

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DK Find Out! | Fun Facts for Kids on Animals, Earth, History and more!

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DK Find Out! | Fun Facts for Kids on Animals, Earth, History and more!

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DK Find Out! | Fun Facts for Kids on Animals, Earth, History and more!

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DK Find Out! | Fun Facts for Kids on Animals, Earth, History and more!

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DK Find Out! | Fun Facts for Kids on Animals, Earth, History and more!

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DK Find Out! | Fun Facts for Kids on Animals, Earth, History and more!

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DK Find Out! | Fun Facts for Kids on Animals, Earth, History and more!

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DK Find Out! | Fun Facts for Kids on Animals, Earth, History and more!

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Ancient Egyptian History for Kids: Valley of the Kings

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Kids learn about Ancient Egyptian Valley of the Kings. The great structures of this world civilization.

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Ancient Egyptian History for Kids: Valley of the Kings

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Kids learn about Ancient Egyptian Valley of the Kings. The great structures of this world civilization.

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The Rosetta Stone

The Rosetta Stone

What is the Rosetta Stone?

The Rosetta Stone is a stone with writing on it in two languages (Egyptian and Greek), using three scripts (hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek).

Why is it in three different scripts?

The Rosetta Stone is written in three scripts because when it was written, there were three scripts being used in Egypt.

The first was hieroglyphic which was the script used for important or religious documents.

Detail of hieroglyphic and demotic script on the Rosetta Stone

The second was demotic which was the common script of Egypt.

The third was Greek which was the language of the rulers of Egypt at that time.

The Rosetta Stone was written in all three scripts so that the priests, government officials and rulers of Egypt could read what it said.

When was the Rosetta Stone made?

The Rosetta Stone was carved in 196 B.C..

When was the Rosetta Stone found?

The Rosetta Stone was found in 1799.

Who found the Rosetta Stone?

The Rosetta Stone was found by French soldiers who were rebuilding a fort in Egypt.

Where was the Rosetta Stone found?

The Rosetta Stone was found in a small village in the Delta called Rosetta (Rashid).

Why is it called the Rosetta Stone?

It is called the Rosetta Stone because it was discovered in a town called Rosetta (Rashid).

What does the Rosetta Stone say?

The Rosetta Stone is a text written by a group of priests in Egypt to honour the Egyptian pharaoh. It lists all of the things that the pharaoh has done that are good for the priests and the people of Egypt.

Who deciphered hieroglyphs? Many people worked on deciphering hieroglyphs over several hundred years. However, the structure of the script was very difficult to work out.

After many years of studying the Rosetta Stone and other examples of ancient Egyptian writing, Jean-François Champollion deciphered hieroglyphs in 1822.

How did Champollion decipher hieroglyphs?

Champollion could read both Greek and coptic.

He was able to figure out what the seven demotic signs in coptic were. By looking at how these signs were used in coptic he was able to work out what they stood for. Then he began tracing these demotic signs back to hieroglyphic signs.

By working out what some hieroglyphs stood for, he could make educated guesses about what the other hieroglyphs stood for.

back...

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The Rosetta Stone The Rosetta Stone What is the Rosetta Stone? The Rosetta Stone is a stone with writing on it in two languages (Egyptian and Greek), using three scripts (hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek). Why is it in three different scripts?

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Ancient Egyptian History for Kids: Army and Soldiers

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Kids learn about Ancient Egyptian army and soldiers including their weapons and chariots. The history of this world civilization.

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The ancient inhabitants of the Nile were closely aware of their physical surroundings, especially the other living things in the valley. Egyptian art is filled with wonderful pictures of the animals and plants that the Ancient people knew and loved. Because of the nature of the country, there were two different kinds of animals and plants: those of the desert and those of the river and fertile land. Animals of the desert included jackals, vultures, antelope and lions. By the river, the wild life included birds of all varieties, fish, and domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep and goats.

Many of these animals were important not only because of the role they played in the daily lives of the people, but because of their religious significance. The Ancient Egyptians saw and admired the power and beauty of the animals they lived with. They used images of those animals as metaphors for the power and beauty of their gods. Hawks or falcons, who soar high in the sky, and, sharp-eyed, swoop suddenly to catch their prey, were used to depict the sun-god. The gentle cow, with her lovely big brown eyes, could be used as an image of Hathor, goddess of love and beauty. Baboons, who look and sometimes act like humans, and ibises who spend much of their time searching, were associated with the god of wisdom.

Some animals which appear in ancient Egyptian representations, such as lions and wild bulls, are no longer found in the Nile Valley; these two animals were hunted out nearly 2,000 years ago. Other animals which appear on objects from around 3,000 BCE are no longer seen because of changes in climate over thousands of years. The size of the Sahara desert has also waxed and waned with changes in climate.

The annual flood enabled farmers to plant and cultivate vegetables and many grains, such as spelt, millet, barley and emmer wheat, and high protein lentils and chick-peas. Pomegranates, figs, dates, grapes and other fruits also grew well. This gave the average Egyptian of the Old Kingdom a fairly wide selection of foods. The basis of everyman's simple diet was bread, made with emmer wheat or barley, along with vegetables, fruits, and beer. Red meat, such as goat, mutton and perhaps pork, and poultry were not regular items of a poor person's diet, although fish and water birds may have been more readily available. Beef was a luxury reserved. Tomatoes and potatoes, both widely eaten in modern Egypt, would not become available until contact with North and South America.

Everybody, rich and poor, young and old, drank beer. Unlike modern beers, it was made without hops, and tended to be a bit thick. It was made at home by taking barley or wheat mash, adding more liquid, and sometimes sweetener or spice, and letting it ferment. Wine made from grapes was a luxury item, made in the Delta and the Oases. Other wines were made from the fermented juices of pomegranates and dates.

Flax was an important crop which could be processed into linen for clothing and other necessities. One of the most useful crops was papyrus. Although today the only papyrus left in Egypt is cultivated, in prehistoric and pharaonic times the wetter parts of the Nile Valley and large areas of the Delta were papyrus swamp, in which the plants grew to heights of up to 3 metres. Scribes wrote records and books on papyrus, but this was not the only use. The stalks were twined and bundled to make boats; the inner bark was woven into sailcloth, matting, blankets and ropes; and the lower stock and roots were eaten by both people and cattle.

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The ancient inhabitants of the Nile were closely aware of their physical surroundings, especially the other living things in the valley. Egyptian art is filled with wonderful pictures of the animals and plants that the Ancient people knew and loved.

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( Click here to see a photo of a mummified cat )

Animals were reared mainly for food, whilst others were kept as pets.

Animals of all kinds were important to the Ancient Egyptians. The Egyptians understood the animals' characteristics and admired them, especially those that were dangerous or had powers human beings lacked. They believed animals were symbols, for example, the beetle - the Egyptians noticed how it buries itself and therefore used it as a symbol of survival.

Particular powers of each Egyptian god were symbolised by animals with similar characteristics.

Jackals

The Ancient Egyptians realised that these dogs are able to find the good part of old meat and eat that part and not die. They also ravaged the desert graves in ancient times. The jackal was used as a symbol in the judgement death scene - where a heart is weighed by Anubis (the god with a jackal head) to tell the good and bad heart.
Click here for information on jackals
Cats

Cats were very important animals in Ancient Egypt, they were both pets and symbols of cat gods such as Bast.

The domesticated cat was a symbol of grace and poise because of the way it hunts its prey.
More information on Bast
Scarab Beetle

The most famous Ancient Egyptian insect is the Scarab Beetle. The Egyptian name for the scarab was Kheper.

The scarab beetle was the most important *amulet worn by ancient Egyptians. It was symbolically as sacred to the Egyptians as the cross is to Christians.

*An amulet was worn to protect the wearer against evil and was worn on a chain, cord, or strap.

The Egyptians believed that Scarabs were associated with the Egyptian god, Khepri. It was Khepri that pushed the sun across the sky, just like a Scarab bettle would roll a ball of dung. The scarab beetle became an ancient Egyptian symbol for rebirth, the ability to be reborn. Each day the sun disappeared, always to rise again and be reborn the following day.

The scarab beetle was also a symbol of rebirth after death. When the Egyptians mummified a body they would remove the heart and put a a stone carved like the beetle in its place.

What are Scarab Beetles?

Crocodiles

The Egyptians both respected and feared the power of the crocodile as they were a real danger to them. The Nile, which was full of crocodiles, was important to the livelihood of the Egyptians. It therefore made good sense to have a god which could appease these ferocious beasts.

Crocodiles were represented by the god called Sobek. Possessing the strength and nature of a crocodile, which Egyptians would both fear and respect, he was a symbol of the Pharaoh's power.

Hippos

The hippopotamus was a danger to boats on the river Nile, and to people working on or near the river banks. Egyptians feared them because of their huge mouths, teeth, and size and their aggressive natures when angered. However, Egyptians also saw them as symbols of rebirth. The hippo is represented in the goddess Tauret (Taweret), who protects women in childbirth.

What animals did the Egyptian farmers have?

Animals were very important to Egyptian farmers. Animals helped them with jobs like trampling in the seeds, pulling the plough, eating unwanted grain or wheat and providing the Egyptians with food and drink. They kept animals such as cattle, goats, pigs, ducks, cows, and geese.
Further Information
Animals Gallery
View the animals considered important to the ancient Egyptians.
The Animals of Ancient Egypt
Animals of the River Nile
Many different types of animals, birds, and fish all call the Nile River home.
Animals and the Ancient Egyptian Gods

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( Click here to see a photo of a mummified cat ) Animals were reared mainly for food, whilst others were kept as pets. Animals of all kinds were important to the Ancient Egyptians. The Egyptians understood the animals' characteristics and admired them, especially those that were dangerous or had powers human beings lacked.

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What Is a Sphinx?

A sphinx (or sphynx) is a creature with the body of a lion and the head of a human, with some variations. It is a prominent mythological figure in Egyptian, Asian, and Greek mythology.

In ancient Egypt, the sphinx was a spiritual guardian and most often depicted as a male with a pharaoh headdress-as is the Great Sphinx-and figures of the creatures were often included in tomb and temple complexes. For instance, the so-called Sphinx Alley in Upper Egypt is a two-mile avenue that connects the temples of Luxor and Karnak and is lined with sphinx statues.

Sphinxes with the likeness of the female pharaoh Hatshepsut also exist, such as the granite sphinx statue at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and the large alabaster sphinx at the Ramessid temple in Memphis, Egypt.

From Egypt, the sphinx imported to both Asia and Greece around 15th to 16th century B.C. Compared with the Egyptian model, the Asian sphinx had eagle wings, was frequently female, and often sat on its haunches with one paw raised in depictions.

In Greek traditions, the sphinx also had wings, as well as the tail of a serpent-in legends, it devours all travelers unable to answer its riddle.

How Old Is the Sphinx?

The most common and widely accepted theory about the Great Sphinx suggests the statue was erected for the Pharaoh Khafre (about 2603-2578 B.C.).

Hieroglyphic texts suggest Khafre's father, Pharaoh Khufu, built the Great Pyramid, the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in Giza. When he became Pharaoh, Khafre constructed his own pyramid next to his father's; though Khafre's pyramid is 10 feet shorter than the Great Pyramid, it is surrounded by a more elaborate complex that includes the Great Sphinx and other statues.

Residues of red pigments on the face of the Sphinx suggest the statue may have been painted.

Given the organization of the pyramids and the Sphinx, some scholars believe there may have been a celestial purpose to the Great Sphinx and temple complex, that is, to resurrect the soul of the pharaoh (Khafre) by channeling the power of the sun and other gods.

Khafre

Several lines of evidence exist that tie the Great Sphinx to Pharaoh Khafre and his temple complex.

For one thing, the head and face of the Sphinx are strikingly similar to a life-size statue of Khafre that French archaeologist Auguste Mariette found in the Valley Temple-the ruins of a building situated adjacent to the Great Sphinx-in the mid-1800s.

Additionally, Mariette discovered remnants of a causeway (processional road) that connect the Valley Temple to a mortuary temple next to Khafre's pyramid. In the early 1900s, French archaeologist Emile Baraize dug up another building (the Sphinx Temple) directly in front of the Sphinx that's similar in design to the Valley Temple.

In the 1980s, researchers uncovered evidence that the limestone blocks used in the walls of the Sphinx Temple came from the ditch surrounding the great statue, suggesting workmen hauled away quarry blocks for the Sphinx Temple as they were being chipped off the Great Sphinx during its construction.

Researchers estimate that it would have taken 100 people 3 years to carve the Great Sphinx out of a single mass of limestone. But there's some evidence that these workers may have suddenly quit before fully finishing the sphinx and temple complex, such as partially quarried bedrock and remnants of a workman's lunch and tool kit.

Other Theories

Over the years, researchers have put forth many other theories for the Great Sphinx's origins, though most are refuted by mainstream Egyptologists.

Some theories suggest the face of the sphinx actually resembles Khufu and, therefore, Khufu built the structure. Alternatively, Pharaoh Djedefre-Khafre's older half-brother and Khufu's other son-built the Great Sphinx in commemoration of his father.

Other theories hold that the statue depicts Amenemhat II (around 1929 to 1895 B.C.) based on the style of the stripes on the sphinx's head cloth.

Some scientists also contend that the Great Sphinx is far older than is widely believed, based on the potential age of the causeway or various patterns of erosion of the statue.

Riddle of the Sphinx

What Egyptians called the Great Sphinx during its prime remains a riddle, because the word sphinx originates from Greek mythology some 2,000 years after the statue was built.

It's also unclear in what regard Egyptians held the Great Sphinx during the Old Kingdom (c. 2613-2181 B.C.), as there are few texts that discuss the statue. However, Khafre associated himself with the god Horus and the Great Sphinx may have been known as Harmakhet ("Horus on the Horizon"), as it was during the New Kingdom (1570-1069 B.C.).

Whatever the case, the statue began to fade into the desert background at the end of the Old Kingdom, at which point it was ignored for centuries.

Inscriptions on a pink granite slab between the Great Sphinx's paws tell the story of how the statue was saved from the sands of time. Prince Thutmose, son of Amenhotep II, fell asleep near the Sphinx, the story goes. In Thutmose's dream, the statue, calling itself Harmakhet, complained about its state of disarray and made a deal with the young prince: It would help him become pharaoh if he cleared away the sand from the statue and restored it.

Whether or not the dream actually occurred is unknown, but when the prince did, in fact, become Pharaoh Thutmose IV, he introduced a Sphinx-worshipping cult to his people. Statues, paintings, and reliefs of the figure popped up across the country and the sphinx became a symbol of royalty and the power of the sun.

Great Sphinx Restoration

The Great Sphinx was eventually forgotten again. Its body suffered from erosion and its face became damaged by time as well.

Though some stories claim Napoleon's troops shot off the statue's nose with a cannon when they arrived in Egypt in 1798, 18th-century drawings suggest the nose went missing long before then. More likely, the nose was purposely destroyed by a Sufi Muslim in the 15th century to protest idolatry. Part of the Sphinx's royal cobra emblem from its headdress and sacred beard have also broken off, the latter of which is now displayed in the British Museum.

The Sphinx was actually buried in sand up to its shoulders until the early 1800s, when a Genoese adventurer named Capt. Giovanni Battista Caviglia attempted (and ultimately failed) to dig out the statue with a team of 160 men.

Mariette managed to clear some of the sand from around the sculpture and Baraize made another large excavation push in the 19th and 20th centuries. But it wasn't until the late 1930s that Egyptian archaeologist Selim Hassan was able to finally free the creature from its sandy tomb.

Today, the Sphinx is continuing to deteriorate thanks to wind, humidity, and pollution. Restoration efforts have been ongoing since the mid-1900s, some of which failed and ultimately caused more damage to the Sphinx.

In 2007, authorities learned that the local water table under the statue was rising due to sewage being dumped in a nearby canal. The moisture ultimately spread through the porous limestone of the structure, causing the rock to crumble and break away in large flakes in some cases. Authorities installed pumps close to the Great Sphinx, diverting the groundwater and saving the relic from further destruction.

Sources

Sphinx-lined road unearthed in Egypt; PhysOrg.

The Great Sphinx of Giza; Ancient History Encyclopedia.

The Mystery of the Great Sphinx; Ancient History Encyclopedia.

Old Kingdom of Egypt; Ancient History Encyclopedia.

What happened to the Sphinx's nose?; Smithsonian.

Saving the Sphinx; PBS/NOVA.

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The Sphinx - Egypt, Giza & Riddle | HISTORY

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The Great Sphinx of Giza is a 4,500-year-old statue near Egypt's Great Pyramid. At 240 feet long and 66 feet high, it is one of the world's largest monuments.

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Ancient Egyptian afterlife – What was it like?

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National Geographic: Stories of Animals, Nature, and Culture

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Explore National Geographic. A world leader in geography, cartography and exploration.

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The Evolution of Ancient Egypt's Pyramids | Lost Treasures of Egypt

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Rivers of Life
The River Nile is the only permanent river in the whole of Egypt, and its presence allowed an incredible civilization to rise out of the Sahara desert - the largest hot desert in the world. The Ancient Egyptians revered the Nile, even giving it its own God.

Aired: 06/19/19

Rating: TV-PG

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Rivers of Life | Ancient Egypt | Episode 1

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Rivers of Life The River Nile is the only permanent river in the whole of Egypt, and its presence allowed an incredible civilization to rise out of the Sahara desert - the largest hot desert in the world. The Ancient Egyptians revered the Nile, even giving it its own God.

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The Egyptian Book of the Dead: A guidebook for the underworld - Tejal Gala

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Ancient Egyptian Pharaohs...in five minutes or less

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Transportation

The Nile River was the highway that joined the country together. Up until the nineteenth century, travel by land was virtually unknown. Ships and boats were the main means of transporting people and goods around the country. Egyptian watercraft had a high stern and bow, and by the New Kingdom, they were equipped with cabins at both ends. The prevailing winds blew south, propelling boats travelling in that direction, while boats heading north relied on the current and oars.

The simplest type of boat used in ancient Egypt was the skiff, made from papyrus reeds that were tied together. Since the reeds are filled with air pockets, they are particularly buoyant. Skiffs were used for fishing and hunting game in the marshes, or for travelling short distances.

Large wooden ships were equipped with square sails and oars. Their planks, held together with rope, expanded in the water, making the vessel watertight. Acacia wood was used in Lower Nubia to build the ships that transported massive blocks of stone from the Aswan district to the building sites of the pyramids, temples and cities along the Nile. Ships could travel with ease up and down the Nile from the delta region to the First Cataract at Aswan.

Replica of a model barge found in Tutankhamun's tomb Tutankhamun's royal ship

Boats also served a ceremonial purpose. They were used to move images of gods from temple to temple, and to transport the mummified bodies of royals and nobles across the Nile to their tombs on the west bank. Even the sun god travelled by boat (the solar bark) on his daily journey across the sky. Today, the Egyptians still cross the Nile by boat. The vessel they use is the fellucca, a small boat with a large triangular sail.

The roads in ancient Egypt were little more than paths. To get around on land, people walked, rode donkeys or travelled by wagon. They carried goods on their head, but the donkeys and wagons hauled heavier loads. Camels were almost unknown in Egypt until the end of the pharaonic period.

The wheel was probably introduced into Egypt by the Hyksos, an Asiatic people who invaded the country and ruled it in the fifteenth and sixteenth dynasties. The Hyksos most likely had horse-drawn chariots, which were used in warfare. New Kingdom pharaohs and nobles adopted this mode of transportation for hunting expeditions, but it was not used for travel by the common people.

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Egyptian civilization - Daily life - Transportation

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Transportation The Nile River was the highway that joined the country together. Up until the nineteenth century, travel by land was virtually unknown. Ships and boats were the main means of transporting people and goods around the country. Egyptian watercraft had a high stern and bow, and by the New Kingdom, they were equipped with cabins at both ends.