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Asthma - the respiratory system gone wrong.

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Asthma - the respiratory system gone wrong.

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What Is Asthma?

Asthma is a condition that causes breathing problems. Kids may cough, wheeze, or be short of breath. This happens because airways in the lungs get swollen, smaller, and filled with mucus.

Asthma is common in kids and teens, and tends to run in families. It can be mild or so severe that it gets in the way of daily activities.

With medicine and the right care plan, asthma symptoms can be managed so that kids and teens can do just about anything they want to do.

What Causes Asthma?

No one knows exactly why some people develop asthma. Experts think it might be a combination of environmental factors and genes.

People with asthma may have a parent or other close relative with asthma. Those who are overweight may be more likely to have it.

How Asthma Affects Breathing

In asthma, air doesn't move through the lungs the way it should.

Normally, when someone breathes in, air goes in through the nose or mouth, down the windpipe (trachea), and into the airways (bronchioles) of the lungs. When people breathe out, air exits the body in the opposite direction.

With asthma, air has a harder time passing through. Airways swell and fill with mucus. The muscles around the airways tighten, making airways narrower. Things that can irritate the airways are called "triggers." Common triggers include cigarette smoke, allergies, and exercise.

Triggers can lead to asthma flare-ups or "attacks."

What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Asthma?

Asthma Flare-Ups

Flare-ups are when asthma symptoms get worse. They happen when airways get more irritated and inflamed (swollen) than usual.

During a flare-up, kids might have:

trouble breathing

a tight chest

a whistling sound while breathing (wheezing)

a cough

a fast heartbeat

Some flare-ups are serious, but others are mild. Flare-ups can happen suddenly or build up over time, especially if kids don't take their asthma medicines as directed.

Things that bring on a flare-up are called triggers. Triggers vary from person to person, but common ones include:

An important part of managing asthma is avoiding triggers. Your child's doctor will work with you to create a care plan that helps prevent flare-ups as much as possible.

How Is Asthma Diagnosed?

To diagnose asthma, doctors will ask questions about a child's health, problems with breathing, and family medical history. They'll also ask about any allergies, illnesses, and exposure to things that may make breathing worse.

Kids will have a physical exam and may have a lung function test. This usually involves testing breathing with a spirometer, a machine that analyzes airflow through the airways.

How Is Asthma Treated?

There's no cure for asthma, but it can be managed to prevent flare-ups. Asthma treatment involves two important things: avoiding triggers and taking medicine.

Avoiding Triggers

There are many ways to avoid triggers. After your child's triggers are identified, the doctor will work with you to come up with a plan to avoid them.

For example, if pet dander or mold in your home trigger your child's asthma symptoms, you can make your home asthma-safe by changing the linens often, vacuuming regularly, and keeping the family pet out of your child's bedroom. If outdoor allergies (like pollen) are a problem, your child should avoid the outdoors on days when pollen counts are high.

If exercise is a trigger, the doctor may prescribe a medicine for your child to take before physical activity to prevent airways from tightening up. Doctors help people with exercise-induced asthma manage physical activity, not avoid it. Exercise can help people stay healthier overall (in fact, many pro athletes have asthma!).

Getting a yearly flu shot is also important, as illnesses like the flu can trigger asthma flare-ups.

Asthma Medicines

Most asthma medicines are breathed directly into the lungs (inhaled), but some are pills or liquids. There are two types of asthma medicines:

Quick-relief medicines act fast to open up tight airways. They can be used as needed during a flare-up. Quick-relief medicines act fast, but their effect doesn't last long. These kinds of medicines are also called "fast-acting" or "rescue" medicines.

Long-term control medicines manage asthma by preventing symptoms from happening. They reduce inflammation in the airways, which is the cause of the swelling and mucus. (Quick-relief medicines only treat the symptoms caused by the inflammation.) Long-term control medicines - also called "controller" or "maintenance" medicines - must be taken every day, even when kids feel well.

Some kids with asthma only need quick-relief medicine; others need both kinds of medicine to keep their asthma in check.

What Else Should I Know?

Asthma care can seem overwhelming, especially at first. But many tools are available to help you care for your child.

An asthma action plan is a care plan that you'll develop with the doctor. The plan gives detailed instructions on how to manage asthma, including:

what medicines your child needs and when

what your child's triggers are and how to avoid them

how to manage a flare-up

when to get emergency medical care

Following the plan can help your child do normal everyday activities without having asthma symptoms.

Keeping an asthma diary is another way to help manage asthma. Tracking your child's symptoms and medicines will help you know when your child is more likely to have a flare-up.

A peak-flow meter can help too. This handheld tool measures breathing ability. When peak flow readings drop, it's a sign of narrowing airways.

By using these tools, giving medicines as prescribed, and avoiding triggers, you'll help keep your child healthy and breathing well.

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Asthma is a condition that causes breathing problems. Kids may cough, wheeze, or be short of breath. This happens because airways in the lungs get swollen, smaller, and filled with mucus. Asthma is common in kids and teens, and tends to run in families.

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What Is Asthma?

Asthma is a condition that affects the airways. People with asthma (say: AZ-muh) have breathing problems that come and go. They may cough, wheeze, or be short of breath. This happens because airways get swollen, narrowed, and filled with mucus.

If you have asthma, you're not alone. Lots of kids have it - and lots take medicine to help them breathe better. With the right medicine and asthma action plan, asthma won't slow you down.

What Causes Asthma?

No one really knows why kids get asthma. Asthma tends to run in families, though. That means if a kid has asthma, they might have a parent, sibling, or other relative who has asthma or had it as a kid.

How Does Asthma Affect Breathing?

You take thousands of breaths every day. Normally, when you breathe in, air enters your nose or mouth and then goes to the windpipe, also called the trachea (say: TRAY-kee-uh). From there, the air travels into the lungs through breathing tubes. The whole process goes in reverse when you exhale.

In asthma, the airways are always a little inflamed (irritated and swollen), even when a person has no symptoms. They're also react to certain things ("triggers") that make them get even more inflamed, swollen, and filled with mucus, blocking the flow of air. The muscles around the airways tighten, making them even narrower, which makes it very hard to breathe. When this happens, it is called an asthma flare-up or asthma attack.

How Lungs Work

You breathe in. You breathe out. But what's happening inside? Watch this movie and find out!

What Are the Signs & Symptoms of Asthma?

A kid with asthma might have symptoms like:

a cough, especially at night or while active

trouble breathing

a tight chest

wheezing

Some kids might not have asthma symptoms at all between flare-ups. Others might always have mild symptoms that get worse during a flare-up. Some flare-ups are mild, but others can be serious. They can happen suddenly, but usually build up over time.

What Causes an Asthma Flare-Up?

Things that can cause you to have an asthma flare-up are called " triggers." Different kids have different triggers. Common triggers include:

respiratory infections, like a cold or the flu

allergies to things like pollen, mold, and pet dander

irritants and pollutants in the air, like cigarette smoke or smog

weather conditions, like cold and dry air, or hot and humid air

strong emotions, like laughing, crying, or feeling stressed

exercise

How Is Asthma Diagnosed?

If your doctor thinks you have asthma, you'll have to get checked out. One test that helps doctors diagnose asthma is spirometry. A spirometer is a device that measures how well your lungs work. It's as easy as blowing out your birthday candles!

How Is Asthma Treated?

It's important to have your asthma under control. Asthma treatment involves two important things: avoiding triggers and taking medicine.

Avoiding Triggers

When you know what your triggers are, you and your parents can take steps to avoid them. Here are some ideas:

Change your sheets and vacuum often to rid your home of dust.

Keep your pet out of your bedroom if you're allergic to pet dander.

Stay inside on days when pollen counts are high (ask your parents to check the local weather report).

If exercise makes your asthma worse, the doctor may prescribe a medicine to take before exercising to prevent your airways from tightening up. It's important for kids with asthma to stay active. Exercise can help them stay healthier overall (in fact, many pro athletes have asthma).

Taking Medicines

Kids with asthma usually also take medicine. Most asthma medicines are breathed right into the lungs, but some are pills or liquids. They work in two ways:

One way is by relaxing the muscles around the airways to help them open up. This works fast to make a kid feel better. That's why these medicines are sometimes called "quick-relief," "fast-acting," or "rescue" medicines.

The other way is by making the airways less inflamed. Usually, kids take this kind of medicine every day to keep flare-ups from happening. That's why it's sometimes called "long-term control," "controller," or "maintenance" medicine.

Some kids will get both types of medicines from one inhaler (say: in-HAY-lur) device. They might need to use this "combination" inhaler every day, with added doses from it when they have symptoms. A kid with mild asthma might use a combination inhaler only for quick relief when they have symptoms, or before they exercise. Your health care team will be able to help you and your parents figure out which inhaler is best, and how and when you should use it.

Using an inhaler can be tricky, so a spacer helps. It attaches to the inhaler and holds the mist of medicine in one place (between the inhaler and your mouth). A spacer lets you breathe in when you're ready, so it's easier to inhale all the medicine into your lungs.

Can Asthma Go Away?

There's no cure for asthma, but a lot of kids find their asthma goes away or gets less serious as they get older. Some doctors think this happens because the airways grow wider as a kid grows up and gets bigger. With more room in the airways, the air has an easier time getting in and out.

Some people do have asthma as adults, but it doesn't have to slow them down. With medicine and the right care plan, your asthma symptoms can be managed so that you can do just about anything you want to do.

Date reviewed: September 2023

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Asthma makes it hard to breathe. Find out more in this article for kids.

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   How can the digestive system go wrong?

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   How can the digestive system go wrong?

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What Is the Digestive System?

Food is our fuel, and its nutrients give our bodies' cells the energy and substances they need to work. But before food can do that, it must be digested into small pieces the body can absorb and use.

The first step in the digestive process happens before we even taste food. Just by smelling that homemade apple pie or thinking about how delicious that ripe tomato is going to be, you start salivating - and the digestive process begins in preparation for that first bite.

Almost all animals have a tube-type digestive system in which food:

enters the mouth

passes through a long tube

exits the body as feces (poop) through the anus

Along the way, food is broken down into tiny molecules so that the body can absorb nutrients it needs:

Protein must be broken down into amino acids.

Starches break down into simple sugars.

Fats break down into into fatty acids and glycerol.

The waste parts of food that the body can't use are what leave the body as feces.

How Does Digestion Work?

The digestive system is made up of the alimentary canal (also called the digestive tract) and other organs, such as the liver and pancreas. The alimentary canal is the long tube of organs - including the esophagus, stomach, and intestines - that runs from the mouth to the anus. An adult's digestive tract is about 30 feet (about 9 meters) long.

Digestion begins in the mouth, well before food reaches the stomach. When we see, smell, taste, or even imagine a tasty meal, our salivary glands in front of the ear, under the tongue, and near the lower jaw begin making saliva (spit).

As the teeth tear and chop the food, spit moistens it for easy swallowing. A digestive enzyme in saliva called amylase (AH-meh-lace) starts to break down some of the carbohydrates (starches and sugars) in the food even before it leaves the mouth.

Swallowing, done by muscle movements in the tongue and mouth, moves the food into the throat, or pharynx (FAIR-inks). The pharynx is a passageway for food and air. A soft flap of tissue called the epiglottis (ep-ih-GLAH-tus) closes over the windpipe when we swallow to prevent choking.

From the throat, food travels down a muscular tube in the chest called the esophagus (ih-SAH-fuh-gus). Waves of muscle contractions called peristalsis (per-uh-STALL-sus) force food down through the esophagus to the stomach. A person normally isn't aware of the movements of the esophagus, stomach, and intestine that take place as food passes through the digestive tract.

At the end of the esophagus, a muscular ring or valve called a sphincter (SFINK-ter) allows food to enter the stomach and then squeezes shut to keep food or fluid from flowing back up into the esophagus. The stomach muscles churn and mix the food with digestive juices that have acids and enzymes, breaking it into much smaller, digestible pieces. An acidic environment is needed for the digestion that takes place in the stomach.

By the time food is ready to leave the stomach, it has been processed into a thick liquid called chyme (kime). A walnut-sized muscular valve at the outlet of the stomach called the pylorus (pie-LOR-us) keeps chyme in the stomach until it reaches the right consistency to pass into the small intestine. Chyme is then squirted down into the small intestine, where digestion of food continues so the body can absorb the nutrients into the bloodstream.

The small intestine is made up of three parts:

1. the duodenum (due-uh-DEE-num), the C-shaped first part

2. the jejunum (jih-JU-num), the coiled midsection

3. the ileum (IH-lee-um), the final section that leads into the large intestine

The inner wall of the small intestine is covered with millions of microscopic, finger-like projections called villi (VIH-lie). The villi are the vehicles through which nutrients can be absorbed into the blood. The blood then brings these nutrients to the rest of the body.

The liver (under the ribcage in the right upper part of the abdomen), the gallbladder (hidden just below the liver), and the pancreas (beneath the stomach) are not part of the alimentary canal, but these organs are essential to digestion.

The liver makes bile, which helps the body absorb fat. Bile is stored in the gallbladder until it is needed. The pancreas makes enzymes that help digest proteins, fats, and carbs. It also makes a substance that neutralizes stomach acid. These enzymes and bile travel through special pathways (called ducts) into the small intestine, where they help to break down food. The liver also helps process nutrients in the bloodstream.

From the small intestine, undigested food (and some water) travels to the large intestine through a muscular ring or valve that prevents food from returning to the small intestine. By the time food reaches the large intestine, the work of absorbing nutrients is nearly finished.

The large intestine's main job is to remove water from the undigested matter and form solid waste (poop) to be excreted.

The large intestine has three parts:

1. The cecum (SEE-kum) is the beginning of the large intestine. The appendix, a small, hollow, finger-like pouch, hangs at the end of the cecum. Doctors believe the appendix is left over from a previous time in human evolution. It no longer appears to be useful to the digestive process.

2. The colon extends from the cecum up the right side of the abdomen, across the upper abdomen, and then down the left side of the abdomen, finally connecting to the rectum.

The colon has three parts: the ascending colon and the transverse colon, which absorb fluids and salts; and the descending colon, which holds the resulting waste. Bacteria in the colon help to digest the remaining food products.

3. The rectum is where feces are stored until they leave the digestive system through the anus as a bowel movement.

It takes hours for our bodies to fully digest food.

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Food is our fuel, and its nutrients give our bodies' cells the energy and substances they need to work. But before food can do that, it must be digested into small pieces the body can absorb and use. The first step in the digestive process happens before we even taste food.

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 “Why do I burp?”  “Why do I throw up?”  “Why do dairy products make me sick?”

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 “Why do I burp?”  “Why do I throw up?”  “Why do dairy products make me sick?”

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Lactose intolerance is the inability to digest a sugar called lactose that is found in milk and dairy products.

Normally when a person eats something containing lactose, an enzyme in the small intestine called lactase breaks it down into simpler sugar forms called glucose and galactose. These simple sugars are then easily absorbed into the bloodstream and turned into energy - fuel for our bodies.

People with lactose intolerance do not produce enough of the lactase enzyme to break down lactose. Instead, undigested lactose sits in the gut and gets broken down by bacteria, causing gas, bloating, stomach cramps, and diarrhea.

Lactose intolerance is fairly common and seems to affect guys and girls equally. Little kids are less likely to have it, but many people eventually become lactose intolerant in adulthood - some while they are still teens. Some health care providers view lactose intolerance as a normal human condition and therefore don't really consider it a disease.

Who Gets Lactose Intolerance?

A person may be or may become lactose intolerant for different reasons:

Ethnic background. People of Asian, African, Native American, and Hispanic backgrounds are more likely to develop lactose intolerance at a young age.

Other problems with the digestive tract. People who have inflammation of their upper small intestine, such as celiac disease or Crohn's disease, have a reduced level of the lactase enzyme.

Medicines. Certain antibiotics can trigger temporary lactose intolerance by interfering with the intestine's ability to produce the lactase enzyme.

Infection. After a bout of infectious diarrhea, some kids can develop a temporary lactose intolerance that usually improves after a few days or weeks.

Age. As people get older, their bodies usually stop producing the lactase enzyme, and most people will naturally become lactose intolerant over time.

What Happens When Someone Has It?

People with lactose intolerance may have a variety of symptoms. It all depends on how much dairy or how many milk-containing foods the person eats and how little lactase the body produces.

Usually within 30 minutes to 2 hours after eating, someone with lactose intolerance will experience nausea, stomach cramps, bloating, gas, and diarrhea. This can be unpleasant, not to mention embarrassing if you're at school or out with friends.

Because many people may think they're lactose intolerant when they really aren't, it helps to see a doctor who can diagnose the condition correctly and advise you on ways to manage it.

How Do Doctors Diagnose It?

If your doctor thinks you might be lactose intolerant, he or she will take your medical history by asking about any concerns and symptoms you have, your past health, your family's health, any medications you're taking, any allergies you may have, and other issues. Your doctor will also do a physical exam.

Doctors can test for lactose intolerance by using the hydrogen breath test. Normally very little hydrogen gas is detectable in the breath. However, undigested lactose in the colon ferments (breaks down) and produces various gases, including hydrogen.

If your doctor decides to give you a hydrogen breath test, you'll be asked to blow into a tube for a beginning sample. You'll then swallow a drink with lactose in it, wait a while, and breathe into the tube again. You'll be asked to blow into the tube every half hour for 2 hours in order to measure hydrogen levels in your breath. The levels should go up over time if you have lactose intolerance.

Doctors also can find out if you're able to digest lactose by testing for the presence of lactase with an endoscopy. During this procedure, doctors view the inside of the intestines by inserting a long tube with a light and a tiny camera on the end into the mouth.

A doctor can then take tissue samples and pictures of the inside of your gut and look for clues to why you've been having problems with what you're eating. The amount of lactase enzyme can be measured in one of these tissue samples.

Living With Lactose Intolerance

Lactose usually can be easily managed if you're in tune with your body. Everyone's different, but most people with lactose intolerance can eat a small amount of dairy. The trick is to eat dairy products in combination with other foods that don't contain lactose and not to eat too much dairy at once. It can also help to keep a food diary to learn which foods your body can or can't tolerate.

Dairy foods are the best source of calcium, a mineral that's important for bone growth. Because growing teens need about 1,300 milligrams (mg) of calcium each day, experts recommend that even teens who have lactose intolerance continue to include some dairy in their diet.

Foods like cheese or yogurt may be easier to digest than milk, so try a cup of yogurt for dessert or add a piece of cheese to your sandwich. Lactose-free milk is also a great way to get calcium in your diet without the problems that can come with lactose.

Taking a lactase enzyme supplement might help too. Taking this before eating foods that contain dairy will help the body digest the lactose sugar in dairy so you don't develop the symptoms of lactose intolerance, like pain, cramping, bloating, gas, and diarrhea.

Teens with the most severe symptoms of lactose intolerance might have to avoid all dairy products. It's extra important that these teens find other good calcium sources, so talking to a registered dietitian is a good idea. Dietitians are trained in nutrition and they can help people who are lactose intolerant come up with eating alternatives and develop a well-balanced diet that provides lots of calcium for developing strong bones.

Here are some tips for dealing with lactose intolerance:

Choose lactose-reduced or lactose-free milk.

Take a lactase enzyme supplement (such as Lactaid) just before you eat dairy products. These can be taken in drops or tablets and even added directly to milk.

When you do drink milk or eat lactose-containing foods, eat other non-lactose foods at the same meal to slow digestion and avoid problems. (For example, if you are going to have a milkshake, don't drink it by itself. Have something else with it, like a healthy sandwich.)

Drink juices that are fortified with calcium.

Eat a variety of dairy-free foods that are rich in calcium, such as broccoli, beans, tofu, or soy milk. Consider hard cheeses such as cheddar, which are lower in lactose.

Yogurts that contain active cultures are easier to digest and much less likely to cause lactose problems.

Learn to read food labels. Lactose is added to some boxed, canned, frozen, and prepared foods like bread, cereal, lunchmeats, salad dressings, mixes for cakes and cookies, and coffee creamers. Be aware of certain words that might mean the food has lactose in it: butter, cheese, cream, dried milk, milk solids, powdered milk, and whey, for example.

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tips for dealing with lactose intolerance

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Lactose intolerance is the inability to digest a sugar called lactose that is found in milk and dairy products. Normally when a person eats something containing lactose, an enzyme in the small intestine called lactase breaks it down into simpler sugar forms called glucose and galactose.

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acid indigestion Definition: A burning sensation that seems to occur in the area of the heart and is usually related to spasms of the lower esophagus or the upper stomach.  Also called heartburn, acid indigestion affects most people at one time.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) Definition: A backflow of acid from the stomach into the oesophagus; also called reflux or reflux esophagitis. If someone has recurring, frequent, and severe heartburn, they may be suffering from GERD.

Lactose intolerance: A condition in which a person cannot digest enough lactose, the sugar found in milk and milk products; occurs when an individual has a deficiency of an enzyme known as lactase.  Common symptoms of lactose intolerance include abdominal bloating, cramps, diarrhea, gas, and nausea. ]

Ulcer: A painful sore or hole in the stomach Context: Most ulcers are caused by a specific bacterium, and can be treated by antibiotics

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What is an ulcer and how does it affect my digestive system?

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What is an ulcer and how does it affect my digestive system?

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"If you guys don't stop yelling, you'll give me an ulcer!"

"There's been so much stress at work lately, I'm sure I'll get an ulcer."

"Don't worry so much. Do you want an ulcer?"

When people talk like this, it sounds like ulcers are easy to give and easy to get. It also sounds like stress is to blame. But is that the real story?

What Is an Ulcer?

An ulcer is a sore, which means it's an open, painful wound. Peptic ulcers are ulcers that form in the stomach or the upper part of the small intestine, called the duodenum (pronounced: doo-uh-DEE-num).Peptic ulcers are actually very common.

What Causes an Ulcer?

For almost 100 years, doctors believed that stress, spicy foods, and alcohol caused most ulcers. Now we know that most peptic ulcers are caused by a particular bacterial infection in the stomach and upper intestine, by certain medications, or by smoking.

In 1982, two doctors - Barry Marshall and Robin Warren - discovered a certain kind of bacteria that can live and grow in the stomach. Both doctors went on to win the Nobel Prize for their discovery. The medical name for these bacteria is Helicobacter pylori (or H. pylori, for short). Today doctors know that most peptic ulcers are caused by an infection from H. pylori.

Experts believe that 90% of all people with ulcers are infected with H. pylori. But strangely enough, most people infected with H. pylori don't develop an ulcer. Doctors aren't completely sure why, but think it may partly depend upon the individual person - for example, those who develop ulcers may already have a problem with the lining of their stomachs.

It's also thought that some people may naturally secrete more stomach acid than others - and it doesn't matter what stresses they're exposed to or what foods they eat. Peptic ulcers may have something to do with the combination of H. pylori infection and the level of acid in the stomach.

How Ulcers Form

When H. pylori bacteria do cause ulcers, here's how doctors think it happens:

1. Bacteria weaken the protective coating of the stomach and upper small intestine.

2. Acid in the stomach then gets through to the sensitive tissues lining the digestive system underneath.

3. Acid and bacteria directly irritate this lining resulting in sores, or ulcers.

Although H. pylori are responsible for most cases of peptic ulcers, these ulcers can happen for other reasons, too. Some people regularly take pain relievers known as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as aspirin or ibuprofen, that fight inflammation in the body and are used to treat long-term painful conditions like arthritis. If taken in high daily doses over a long period of time, NSAIDs can cause ulcers in some people.

Smoking also is associated with peptic ulcers. Smoking increases someone's risk of getting an ulcer because the nicotine in cigarettes causes the stomach to produce more acid. Drinking a lot of alcohol each day for a period of time can also increase a person's risk of ulcers because over time alcohol can wear down the lining of the stomach and intestines.

In certain circumstances stress can help cause ulcers. But this usually only happens when illness involving severe emotional or physical stress is involved - such as when someone too sick to eat for a long period of time.

Ulcers occur because of uncontrolled increased acid production in the stomach and changes in the immune system (the body system that fights infection). With any illness where the body's ability to heal is challenged (such as when someone has serious burns from a fire), there is a risk for developing ulcers.

Signs and Symptoms

Stomach pain is the most common symptom of an ulcer. It usually feels like sharp aches between the breastbone and the belly button. This pain often comes a few hours after eating. It can also happen during the night or early in the morning, when the stomach is empty. Eating something or taking an antacid medication sometimes makes the pain go away for awhile.

Other symptoms of ulcers can include:

loss of appetite

sudden, sharp stomach pains

nausea

frequent burping or hiccuping

weight loss

vomiting (if blood is in the vomit or the vomit looks like coffee grounds, which only happens with severe ulcers, call a doctor right away)

bloody or blackish bowel movements (this could indicate a serious problem, so call a doctor right away if you see this)

Anyone who thinks he or she may have an ulcer needs to see a doctor. Over time, untreated ulcers grow larger and deeper and can lead to other problems, such as bleeding in the digestive system or a hole in the wall of the stomach or duodenum, which can make someone very sick.

How Are Ulcers Diagnosed?

In addition to doing a physical examination, the doctor will take a medical history by asking about any concerns and symptoms you have, your past health, your family's health, any medications you're taking, any allergies you may have, and other issues. If you have stomach pain or other symptoms of an ulcer, the doctor will perform some tests to help make the diagnosis.

One test is called an upper gastrointestinal (GI) series. This is a type of X-ray of the stomach, duodenum, and esophagus, the muscular tube that links the mouth to the stomach. A person drinks a whitish liquid called barium while getting an X-ray, and if he or she has an ulcer, it should be outlined on the X-ray.

Another common procedure to look for an ulcer is called an endoscopy (pronounced: en-DOSS-kuh-pee). During this test, the doctor uses an endoscope, a skinny, lighted tube with a special camera on the end.

A person getting an endoscopy is given anesthesia and will have no memory of the procedure. For an endoscopy, the doctor gently guides the endoscope into the throat and down into the esophagus, and finally into the stomach and upper intestines. The doctor is able to look at the inner lining of these organs from the camera on a television screen and can even take pictures. Tissue can be removed during an endoscopy and then tested for H. pylori bacteria.

A doctor can also do a blood test for H. pylori bacteria. This may be important if an ulcer is found in the upper GI series. The blood test can be done right in the doctor's office. Sometimes a bowel movement or a person's breath can also be specially tested to check for the H. pylori bacteria.

How Are Ulcers Treated?

Ulcers caused by H. pylori bacteria are generally treated with a combination of medications:

Usually two antibiotics to kill the H. pylori bacteria are taken every day for about 2 weeks.

Antacids - acid blockers or proton pump inhibitors - are given for 2 months or longer to lessen the amount of acid in the stomach and help protect the lining of the stomach so the ulcer can heal.

Ulcer Prevention

Doctors are not totally certain how H. pylori bacteria are transmitted from person to person. The bacteria have been found in saliva, so kissing may be one way. They also may be spread through food, water, or contact with vomit (puke) that has been infected with the bacteria.

The best advice in ulcer prevention is to always wash your hands after you use the bathroom and before you eat and to take good care of your body by exercising regularly and not smoking or drinking.

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"If you guys don't stop yelling, you'll give me an ulcer!" "There's been so much stress at work lately, I'm sure I'll get an ulcer." "Don't worry so much. Do you want an ulcer?" When people talk like this, it sounds like ulcers are easy to give and easy to get.

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Why do some people get these terrible headaches?

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Emily remembers her first bad headache. "It was really scary. The pain was unbelievable and I felt like I was going to throw up," she said. "I had no idea what was happening." The headaches struck once a month, then once a week. They were getting worse and worse. Emily told her mom, who took her to the doctor.

It turned out that Emily had migraines (say: MY-graynz). Luckily, the doctor gave Emily some medicine to treat her headaches. The doctor also taught her how to know when a migraine is coming and how to avoid them.

What's a Migraine?

Almost everyone gets headaches. You might have one after bumping your head or during a cold or bout with the flu. Some types of headaches may happen only once in a while, whereas others can happen as often as every day. Most headaches produce a dull pain around the front, top, and sides of your head, almost like someone stretched a rubber band around your noggin.

But a migraine is worse than a regular headache. Migraines usually occur about one to four times a month. The pain is often throbbing and can happen on one or both sides of the head.

Kids with migraines often feel dizzy or sick to their stomachs. During the headache, some kids are sensitive to light, noise, or smells, and want to sleep. When they wake up, they usually feel better. Most migraines last from 30 minutes to 6 hours but some can last a day or two.

If you have migraines, you're not alone. About 1 out of every 20 kids, or about 8 million children in the United States, gets migraines. Before age 10, an equal number of boys and girls get migraines. But after age 12, during and after puberty, migraines affect girls three times more often than boys.

Migraines aren't contagious, which means you can't catch them from someone who has them.

What Causes a Migraine?

A migraine begins when, for some reason, blood vessels in the brain narrow (constrict) temporarily. When that happens, the amount of blood and oxygen flowing to the brain drops. So the brain sends a message: "Hey, guys, we need some more blood and oxygen here!"

That causes other blood vessels to dilate (expand). When those blood vessels expand, they become inflamed, throb, and cause a pounding pain. Because it involves changes in blood vessels, a migraine is a vascular (say: VAS-kyuh-lur) headache.

Some scientists believe that people who get migraines have inherited a tendency for their nervous systems to react differently to changes in their bodies or their environment. Certain things may trigger a reaction in the person's nervous system and start a migraine attack.

Some common triggers are:

stress

menstruation (having a period)

skipping meals

too much caffeine (like cola drinks)

certain foods (cheese, pizza, chocolate, ice cream, fatty or fried food, lunch meats, hot dogs, yogurt, or anything with MSG, which is a seasoning often used in Asian foods)

too much or too little sleep

weather changes

travel

No one is really sure why people get migraines. But chances are, if you get migraines, another member of your family gets them as well. That's because scientists think migraines are genetic, which means that certain genes passed on from parents make a kid more likely to get them.

Do You Know a Migraine Is Coming?

Migraines begin differently. Some kids just don't feel right. Light or sound may bother them or make them feel worse, and they may even get sick to their stomachs and throw up. Before or during a migraine headache, some kids may have muscle weakness, lose their sense of coordination, stumble, or even have trouble talking.

About 1 in 5 kids gets an aura (say: AWR-uh), a kind of warning that a migraine is on the way. The most common auras include blurred vision and/or seeing spots, colored balls, jagged lines, or bright lights, or smelling a certain odor.

An aura usually starts about 10 to 30 minutes before the start of a migraine headache, although auras can happen the night before the headache starts. An aura usually lasts about 20 minutes.

Treatments for Migraines

Getting a migraine once in a while may be annoying, but usually doesn't cause any big problems for a kid. But be sure to tell your mom or dad if you have headaches that:

last a long time

seem to be getting worse

happen more often

cause problems with balance

interfere with school or after-school activities

Your doctor will want to know about those problems and can try to help. Your doctor also may want you to keep a headache diary. By keeping track of your headaches, you may be able to figure out what triggers them. Answer all the questions in the diary each time you have a headache. The information will help your doctor figure out the best treatment.

Your doctor may suggest one or more medicines you can take. They could include:

pain relievers like acetaminophen or ibuprofen

medicines that reduce nausea and vomiting

sedatives, which can help you to go to sleep and get rid of the headache

medicines to prevent migraines or make them less severe

Some doctors may also try to teach you biofeedback. This technique helps you learn to relax and use your brain to gain control over certain body functions. If a migraine begins slowly, many people can use biofeedback to remain calm and stop the attack.

How to Prevent a Migraine

The good news is that many kids outgrow migraines. In the meantime, follow your doctor's instructions and take your medicine as instructed. Make sure you have the medicine on hand in case a migraine starts at school or when you're away from home.

Also try to stay away from your migraine triggers. If certain foods like chocolate or cheese or caffeinated drinks trigger your migraines, it's a good idea to avoid them. Also, take breaks from activities that seem to trigger your migraines, such as using the computer for a long time or listening to loud music.

Fight stress by making a plan so you don't feel freaked out by all the stuff you need to get done. Regular exercise also can reduce stress and make you feel better. The more you understand migraines, the better prepared you can be to fight them before they become a big pain!

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Emily remembers her first bad headache. "It was really scary. The pain was unbelievable and I felt like I was going to throw up," she said. "I had no idea what was happening." The headaches struck once a month, then once a week. They were getting worse and worse.

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If you get headaches, you're not alone. Lots of kids have headaches from time to time.

Let's find out more about headaches and how you can feel better.

What Is a Headache?

Although it may feel like it, a headache is not a pain in your brain. Your brain tells you when other parts of your body hurt, but it can't actually feel pain. Most headaches happen in the nerves, blood vessels, and muscles that cover a person's head and neck. Sometimes the muscles or blood vessels swell, which means they get larger.

They also can tighten or go through other changes that stimulate or put pressure on the surrounding nerves. The nerves send a rush of pain messages to your brain, and you end up with a headache.

What Are the Kinds of Headaches?

The most common type of headache is a tension, or muscle-contraction, headache. This happens when stressed-out head or neck muscles keep squeezing too hard. When you get this kind of headache, the pain is usually dull and constant. It might feel as though something is pressing or squeezing on the front, back, or both sides of your head.

Pain that's especially sharp and throbbing can be a sign of a different kind of headache called a (say: MY-grayne). Migraine headaches aren't as common as tension headaches, especially in kids, but they can still happen. Sometimes, just before a migraine happens, the person sees wavy lines or bright spots of light. This is called an aura (say: AWR-uh). Also, kids who get migraines often feel sick to their stomachs and sometimes throw up.

What Causes Headaches?

Sometimes a headache is just a part of another illness, such as a cold or flu or strep throat. When you get better, the headache gets better, too.

If you're not sick, other triggers may cause a headache. For example, staying up too late, skipping a meal, or playing in the hot sun too long can set off a headache.

Excitement about a special event or worry about something (a school exam, for instance) can also cause headaches. Some kids get headaches from riding in a car or bus or from straining their eyes by spending too much time watching TV or using a computer.

Strong odors, such as perfume, smoke, fumes, or the smell of a new car or carpet, can start a headache.

Some foods can cause headaches in some kids, such as bacon, bologna, and hot dogs. The caffeine in sodas, chocolate, coffee, and tea may cause headaches, too. Kids don't need caffeine, so it's a good idea to limit it in your diet.

Sometimes no one knows why a kid gets headaches, but if you get them, chances are someone in your family gets them, too. The tendency to get headaches is often inherited. In other words, it runs in the family.

Headache Help

Most headaches will go away after you've rested or slept awhile. When you get one, the first thing you should do is tell an adult, so he or she can help. Lie down in a cool, dark, quiet room and close your eyes. Put a cool, moist cloth across your forehead or eyes. Relax. Breathe easily and deeply.

A grown-up can give you a pain relief medicine - either acetaminophen (say: uh-see-tuh-MIH-nuh-fun) or ibuprofen (say: i-byoo-PROfun). You want to avoid taking aspirin for a headache because it may cause a rare but dangerous disease called Reye syndrome (say: RYE SIN-drome).

When Should I Go to a Doctor?

Headaches are very rarely a sign of anything serious, such as a brain tumor or meningitis. This is especially true for kids. Headache triggers such as eating certain foods, being stressed out, or not getting enough sleep are much more likely causes of headaches in kids. Or sometimes, there's no obvious reason at all.

Still, there are times when your mom or dad should talk with the doctor about your headaches:

when a headache is particularly painful

when a headache doesn't go away easily

when a headache follows an injury, such as hitting your head

when your vision is affected

when you feel tingling sensations

when you just don't seem like your usual self

when headaches occur once a month or more

when headaches cause you to miss school

A doctor can help you and your parents figure out why you're getting headaches and might be able to help you keep them from happening so often. Sometimes relaxation exercises or changes in diet or sleeping habits are all that's needed. If necessary, a doctor also can prescribe medication to control headaches.

If you're bothered by headaches, you don't have to put up with the pain. Sometimes relief is just a nap away. Other times, seeing a doctor may be necessary. But there's almost always something that you, your parents, and your doctor can do to help.

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If you get headaches, you're not alone. Lots of kids have headaches from time to time. Let's find out more about headaches and how you can feel better. Although it may feel like it, a headache is not a pain in your brain.

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Text to read - easy explanation

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What Is Autism Spectrum Disorder?

Autism (say: AW-tiz-um) spectrum disorder is a difference in the way a kid's brain develops. Kids with autism may have trouble understanding the world around them.

What's It Like to Have Autism Spectrum Disorder?

A kid with autism might have trouble:

talking and learning the meaning of words

making friends or fitting in

dealing with changes (like trying new foods, having a substitute teacher, or having toys moved from their normal places)

dealing with loud noises, bright lights, or crowds

Kids also might move in an unusual way (like flapping their hands) or do the same thing over and over (like saying the same word).

A kid with autism may have a little trouble with these things, or a lot. Some kids need only a little bit of help, and others might need a lot of help with learning and doing everyday stuff.

What Causes Autism?

Autism is something people are born with. No one knows exactly what causes it. It probably has something to do with a kid's genes and other things that change the way the brain develops.

How Is Autism Diagnosed?

Doctors check babies and little kids for signs of autism at every checkup. A parent may think that something is wrong and tell the doctor. Maybe the child is old enough to speak but doesn't. Or a kid doesn't seem interested in people or plays in unusual ways.

When a doctor thinks a kid might have autism, he or she will work with a team of experts to see if it is autism or something else.

How Is Autism Spectrum Disorder Treated?

There is no cure for autism, but treatment can make a big difference. The younger kids are when they start treatment, the better.

Doctors, therapists, and special education teachers can help kids learn to talk, play, and learn. Therapists also help kids learn about making friends, taking turns, and getting along.

What if My Friend Has Autism Spectrum Disorder?

Some people with ASD do not feel that they have a disorder and don't want to change. They're proud of who they are and they want to be accepted, even though they may have different strengths and weaknesses than most other people.

All people deserve respect. But kids with ASD may be teased, bullied, or left out because they're different. Bullying and teasing are never the right way to treat other people, but it may be hard to be a friend with someone who has ASD.

Kids with ASD often don't understand playful jokes. You may need to be very clear when you communicate with someone who has ASD.

Try to be patient and kind. Remember how hard it might be for the person with ASD to understand how to be a friend. Stand up for classmates who are bullied. Tell adults, so they can help protect kids who are bullied.

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Autism spectrum disorder makes it hard for kids to learn and communicate. Find out more in this article for kids.

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Which health problem do you want to find out about?  List of different problems linked to the system which is affected.

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Which health problem do you want to find out about?  List of different problems linked to the system which is affected.

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Even kids can have health problems. Some problems are serious - and some are not so serious. You can get all the info you need about health problems like cancer, asthma, muscular dystrophy, and more.

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A healthy heart  - video

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It's a muscle, about the size of your fist, in the middle of your chest tilted slightly to the left.

What is the function of the human heart?

Each day, your heart beats around 100,000 times. This continuously pumps about five litres (eight pints) of blood around your body through a network of blood vessels called your circulatory system. This blood delivers oxygen and nutrients to all parts of your body to help your organs and muscles work properly. Your blood also carries away unwanted carbon dioxide and waste products.

What is the structure of the human heart?

Your heart has a left side and a right side, they are separated by a thin muscular wall called the Septum. Both sides of your heart have an upper chamber and a lower chamber.

the upper chambers are called the left atrium and the right atrium (or the atria)

the lower chambers are called the left ventricle and the right ventricle.

The right side of your heart receives the de-oxygenated blood that has just travelled round your body. It pumps the blood to your lungs to collect a fresh supply of oxygen. The left side of your heart pumps the re-oxygenated blood round your body again.

Your heart muscle is made up of three layers of tissue:

Pericardium - a thin, outer lining that protects and surrounds your heart.

Myocardium - a thick, muscular middle layer that contracts and relaxes to pump blood around of your heart.

Endocardium - a thin, inner layer that makes up the lining of the four chambers and the valves in your heart.

What does the heart's electrical system do?

Your heart's electrical system tells your heart when to contract and when to relax to keep your blood pumping regularly. The instructions to contract and relax are carried by electrical signals.

The electrical signals are sent from the sinus node which is known as your heart's natural pacemaker. Usually, the sinus node will send the electrical signals at a steady pace, but the pace can change depending on your emotions and if you are active or resting - this is your heart rate.

How does blood flow around the heart and the body?

Your heart is linked to the rest of the circulatory system with blood vessels called arteries and veins.

your arteries deliver oxygen-rich blood from the heart to other areas of your body

your veins return the de-oxygenated blood from your organs back to your heart

your arteries and veins are connected by even smaller blood vessels called capillaries.

Your blood flows around your heart and the rest of your body in one direction, like a one-way traffic system. Your heart valves control the direction of your blood flow, they act like doors that open and close with every heartbeat. There are four valves in your heart, they are:

the tricuspid valve and the pulmonary valve on the right side of the heart

the mitral valve and the aortic valve on the left side of your heart.

Like the rest of your body, your heart needs to be supplied with oxygen-rich blood to work properly too. The coronary arteries are the arteries responsible for supplying the heart with oxygenated blood. The coronary arteries are spread across the outside of the heart to deliver the blood.

How do your heart and lungs add oxygen to your blood?

Your blood flows through your heart and your lungs to become re-oxygenated before being pumped to the rest of your body. Oxygen is added to your blood in four main steps, they are:

The right atrium receives the low-oxygen blood that has just travelled round the body. The right atrium pumps the blood to the right ventricle.

The right ventricle pumps the low-oxygen blood to the lungs to pick up a fresh supply of oxygen.

The left atrium receives to high-oxygen blood from the lungs and pumps it to the left ventricle.

The left ventricle pumps the high-oxygen blood to the rest of the body.

What are heart and circulatory diseases?

Sometimes the heart and circulatory system don't work like they should, this can cause heart and circulatory diseases (also called cardiovascular diseases). We fund research into these conditions and their risk factors, including:

What causes your heart and circulatory system to go wrong?

Problems with your heart and circulatory system, including heart attack or a stroke, are usually caused by a gradual build-up of fatty material (called atheroma) in the arteries around the heart and in the arteries that supply blood to your brain.

The fatty material lines the walls of heart's coronary arteries making the space for blood to flow narrower. When the arteries become narrowed and the blood flow is restricted, the arteries can't deliver enough blood to the heart and the brain, which can cause heart and circulatory diseases.

What puts me at risk of heart and circulatory disease?

Many heart and circulatory diseases share the same risk factors including:

Heart and circulatory diseases can be worrying but the good news is that there are lots of things you can do to reduce your risk of developing heart and circulatory diseases now.

Check your heart age

You can trust our health information

We've followed an eight-step process to make sure this content is reliable, accurate and trustworthy. Learn how we make our health information reliable and easy to understand.
Page last reviewed: August 2021
Next review due: August 2024
Support our life saving research

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Find out how a healthy heart works and its role pumping blood around your body. Watch our short animated guide to your heart.

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You know how important your heart is, so it's no wonder people worry when they hear someone has heart problems.

Heart disease, also called cardiovascular (say: kar-dee-oh-VAS-kyoo-lur) disease, mainly affects older people and means that there are problems with the heart and blood vessels.

You might know someone who has cardiovascular disease because more than 60 million Americans have some form of it. This disease includes a variety of problems, including high blood pressure, hardening of the arteries, chest pain, heart attacks, and strokes.

What Is Heart Disease?

The heart is the center of the cardiovascular system. Through the body's blood vessels, the heart pumps blood to all of the body's cells. The blood carries oxygen, which the cells need. Cardiovascular disease is a group of problems that occur when the heart and blood vessels aren't working the way they should.

Here are some of the problems that go along with cardiovascular disease:

Arteriosclerosis (say: ar-teer-ee-oh-skluh-ROW-sus): also called hardening of the arteries, arteriosclerosis means the arteries become thickened and are no longer as flexible.

Atherosclerosis (say: ah-thuh-row-skluh-ROW-sus): a buildup of cholesterol and fat that makes the arteries narrower so less blood can flow through. Those buildups are called plaque.

Angina (say: an-JY-nuh): people with angina feel a pain in the chest that means the heart isn't getting enough blood.

Heart attack: when a blood clot or other blockage cuts blood flow to a part of the heart.

Stroke: when part of the brain doesn't get enough blood due to a clot or a burst blood vessel.

How Do You Get Heart Disease?

Heart disease isn't contagious - you can't catch it like you can the flu or a cold. Instead, certain things increase a person's chances of getting cardiovascular disease. Doctors call these things risk factors.

Some of these risk factors a person can't do anything about, like being older and having other people in the family who have had the same problems. But people do have control over some risk factors - smoking, having high blood pressure, being overweight, and not exercising can increase the risk of getting cardiovascular disease.

What Are the Signs of Heart Disease?

Many people do not realize they have cardiovascular disease until they have chest pain, a heart attack, or stroke. These kinds of problems often need immediate attention and the person may need to go to the emergency department of a hospital.

If it's not an emergency and a doctor suspects the person could have cardiovascular disease, the doctor can do some tests to find out more about how the heart and blood vessels are working. These tests include:

Electrocardiogram (say: eh-lek-tro-KAR-dee-uh-gram). This test records the heart's electrical activity. A doctor puts the patient on a monitor and watches the machine to see the heart beat and determine if it's normal.

Echocardiogram (say: eh-ko-KAR-dee-uh-gram). This test uses sound waves to diagnose heart problems. These waves are bounced off the parts of the heart, creating a picture of the heart that is displayed on a monitor.

Stress test. For this test, the person exercises while the doctor checks the electrocardiogram machine to see how the heart muscle reacts.

Catheterization (say: kah-thuh-tuh-ruh-ZAY-shun). In this test a long, thin tube is inserted into the patient's body to inject a special dye, which can show narrowed areas in arteries due to plaque buildup and find other problems.

Carotid (say: kuh-RAH-tid) artery scan. This test uses sound waves to check for blockages in the carotid artery, a large blood vessel in the neck that supplies blood to the brain.

Surgeries

If a patient has cardiovascular disease, the doctor will talk about how stopping smoking, losing weight, eating a healthy diet, and getting exercise can help. The person also may need to take medicine, have surgery, or both.

There are different surgeries for the heart and blood vessels. These include:

Angioplasty (say: AN-jee-uh-plas-tee). This opens a blocked vessel by using a balloon-like device at an artery's narrowest point. The doctor may also insert a stent, which is a tiny, stainless steel tube that props the vessel open and makes sure it stays clear.

Atherectomy (say: ath-uh-REK-tuh-mee). This involves cutting the plaque out of an artery, so blood can flow freely.

Bypass surgery. This involves taking part of an artery or vein from another part of the body (like the arm or leg) and using it to channel blood around a blocked area in an artery.

Pacemakers. A pacemaker is a small electronic device that's put inside the body to regulate the heartbeat.

Valve replacement. If a heart valve is damaged or isn't working, a surgeon can replace it.

Carotid endarterectomy (say: en-dar-tuh-REK-tuh-me). During this procedure, a surgeon removes plaque deposits from the carotid artery to prevent a stroke.

If someone you know is getting one of these operations, you might feel worried. The good news is that these surgeries can help prevent heart attacks, strokes, and other problems. The amount of time the person will need to spend in the hospital will vary, depending on the operation and the person's health. The person may be tired and worn out after the surgery, but you can help by making a "Get Well" card and paying a visit.

Can Kids Get Heart Disease?

Kids usually don't have any symptoms of heart and blood vessel problems. But by starting heart-healthy habits right now, kids can reduce the chance they will ever need to worry about cardiovascular disease.

So what should you do? Don't smoke, for one. And be sure to eat healthy, exercise, and maintain a healthy weight. Your heart and blood vessels will thank you later!

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You know how important your heart is, so it's no wonder people worry when they hear someone has heart problems. Heart disease, also called cardiovascular (say: kar-dee-oh-VAS-kyoo-lur) disease, mainly affects older people and means that there are problems with the heart and blood vessels.

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common types of heart diseases in the usa

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Diseases that occur with any mal-function of the heart and its blood vessels is called Heart Diseases. Find out more here

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What can go wrong with our skeletal system?

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What can go wrong with our skeletal system?

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The Musculoskeletal System

Every time you sprint through the halls because you're late for class, score against your opponents during a game, or shoot pool with friends, you're using your bones, muscles, and joints. Without these important body parts, you'd be seriously sidelined - you'd be unable to sit, stand, walk, or do any of the activities you do every day.

From our head to our toes, our bones provide support for our bodies and help form our shape. The skull protects the brain and forms the shape of our face. The spinal cord, a pathway for messages between the brain and the body, is protected by the backbone, or spinal column. The ribs form a cage that shelters the heart, lungs, liver, and spleen, and the pelvis helps protect the bladder, intestines, and in girls, the reproductive organs.

Although they're very light, bones are strong enough to support our entire weight.

Joints are where two bones meet. They make the skeleton flexible - without them, movement would be impossible. Muscles are also necessary for movement: They're the masses of tough, elastic tissue that pull our bones when we move.

Together, our bones, muscles, and joints - along with tendons, ligaments, and cartilage - form our musculoskeletal system and enable us to do everyday physical activities.

What Are the Bones and What Do They Do?

The human skeleton has 206 bones. Our bones begin to develop before birth. When the skeleton first forms, it is made of flexible cartilage, but within a few weeks it begins the process of ossification (pronounced: ah-suh-fuh-KAY-shun). Ossification is when the cartilage is replaced by hard deposits of calcium phosphate and stretchy collagen, the two main components of bone. It takes about 20 years for this process to be completed.

The bones of kids and young teens are smaller than those of adults and contain "growing zones" called growth plates. These plates consist of columns of multiplying cartilage cells that grow in length, and then change into hard, mineralized bone. These growth plates are easy to spot on an X-ray. Because girls mature at an earlier age than boys, their growth plates change into hard bone at an earlier age.

Bone building continues throughout your life, as your body constantly renews and reshapes the bones' living tissue. Bone contains three types of cells: osteoblasts (pronounced: AHS-tee-uh-blastz), which make new bone and help repair damage; osteocytes (pronounced: AHS-tee-o-sites), which are mature bone cells that help form the new bone; and osteoclasts (pronounced: AHS-tee-o-klasts), which break down bone and help to sculpt and shape it. Osteoclasts are very active in kids and teens, working on bone as it is remodeled during growth. They also play an important role in the repair of fractures.

Bones are made up of calcium, phosphorus, sodium, and other minerals, as well as the protein collagen. Calcium is needed to make bones hard, which allows them to support your weight. Bones also store calcium and release some into the bloodstream when it's needed by other parts of the body. The amounts of certain vitamins and minerals that you eat, especially vitamin D and calcium, directly affect how much calcium is stored in the bones.

The soft bone marrow inside many of our bones is where most of the blood cells flowing through our bodies are made. The bone marrow contains stem cells, which produce the body's red blood cells and platelets, and some types of white blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen to the body's tissues, and platelets help with blood clotting when someone has a cut or wound. White blood cells help the body fight infection.

Bones are made up of two types of material - compact bone and cancellous bone. Compact bone is the solid, hard outside part of the bone. This type of bone makes up most of the human skeleton. It looks like ivory and is extremely strong. Holes and channels run through it, carrying blood vessels and nerves from the periosteum, the bone's outer membrane. Cancellous (pronounced: KAN-suh-lus) bone, which looks like a sponge, is inside the compact bone. It is made up of a mesh-like network of tiny pieces of bone called trabeculae (pronounced: truh-BEH-kyoo-lee). This is where red and white blood cells are formed in the marrow.

Bones are fastened to other bones by long, fibrous straps called ligaments (pronounced: LIG-uh-mentz). Cartilage (pronounced: KAR-tul-ij), a flexible, rubbery substance in our joints, supports bones and protects them where they rub against each other.

What Are the Muscles and What Do They Do?

Bones don't work alone - they need help from the muscles and joints. Muscles pull on the joints, allowing us to move. They also help the body perform other functions so we can grow and remain strong, such as chewing food and then moving it through the digestive system.

The human body has more than 600 muscles. Muscles make up half of a person's body weight. They are connected to bones by tough, cord-like tissues called tendons, which allow the muscles to pull on bones. If you wiggle your fingers, you can see the tendons on the back of your hand move as they do their work.

Humans have three different kinds of muscle:

1. Skeletal muscle is attached to bone, mostly in the legs, arms, abdomen, chest, neck, and face. Skeletal muscles are called striated (pronounced: STRY-ay-ted) because they are made up of fibers that have horizontal stripes when viewed under a microscope. These muscles hold the skeleton together, give the body shape, and help it with everyday movements (they are known as voluntary muscles because you can control their movement). They can contract (shorten or tighten) quickly and powerfully, but they tire easily and have to rest between workouts.

2. Smooth, or involuntary, muscle is also made of fibers, but this type of muscle looks smooth, not striated. Generally, we can't consciously control our smooth muscles; rather, they're controlled by the nervous system automatically (which is why they are also called involuntary). Examples of smooth muscles are the walls of the stomach and intestines, which help break up food and move it through the digestive system.

Smooth muscle is also found in the walls of blood vessels, where it squeezes the stream of blood flowing through the vessels to help maintain blood pressure. Smooth muscles take longer to contract than skeletal muscles do, but they can stay contracted for a long time because they don't tire easily.

3. Cardiac (pronounced: KAR-dee-ak) muscle is found in the heart. The walls of the heart's chambers are composed almost entirely of muscle fibers. Cardiac muscle is also an involuntary type of muscle. Its rhythmic, powerful contractions force blood out of the heart as it beats.

Muscles and Movement

Even when you sit perfectly still, there are muscles throughout your body that are constantly moving. Muscles enable your heart to beat, your chest to rise and fall as you breathe, and your blood vessels to help regulate the pressure and flow of blood through your body. When we smile and talk, muscles are helping us communicate, and when we exercise, they help us stay physically fit and healthy.

The movements your muscles make are coordinated and controlled by the brain and nervous system. The involuntary muscles are controlled by structures deep within the brain and the upper part of the spinal cord called the brain stem. The voluntary muscles are regulated by the parts of the brain known as the cerebral motor cortex and the cerebellum.

When you decide to move, the motor cortex sends an electrical signal through the spinal cord and peripheral nerves to the muscles, causing them to contract. The motor cortex on the right side of the brain controls the muscles on the left side of the body and vice versa.

The cerebellum (pronounced: ser-uh-BEL-um) coordinates the muscle movements ordered by the motor cortex. Sensors in the muscles and joints send messages back through peripheral nerves to tell the cerebellum and other parts of the brain where and how the arm or leg is moving and what position it's in. This feedback results in smooth, coordinated motion. If you want to lift your arm, your brain sends a message to the muscles in your arm and you move it. When you run, the messages to the brain are more involved, because many muscles have to work in rhythm.

Muscles move body parts by contracting and then relaxing. Your muscles can pull bones, but they can't push them back to their original position. So they work in pairs of flexors and extensors. The flexor contracts to bend a limb at a joint. Then, when you've completed the movement, the flexor relaxes and the extensor contracts to extend or straighten the limb at the same joint:

For example, the biceps muscle, in the front of the upper arm, is a flexor, and the triceps, at the back of the upper arm, is an extensor. When you bend at your elbow, the biceps contracts. Then the biceps relaxes and the triceps contracts to straighten the elbow.

What Are the Joints and What Do They Do?

Joints allow our bodies to move in many ways. Some joints open and close like a hinge (such as knees and elbows), whereas others allow for more complicated movement - a shoulder or hip joint, for example, allows for backward, forward, sideways, and rotating movement.

Joints are classified by their range of movement. Immovable, or fibrous, joints don't move. The dome of the skull, for example, is made of bony plates, which must be immovable to protect the brain. Between the edges of these plates are links, or joints, of fibrous tissue. Fibrous joints also hold the teeth in the jawbone.

Partially movable, or cartilaginous (pronounced: kar-tuh-LAH-juh-nus), joints move a little. They are linked by cartilage, as in the spine. Each of the vertebrae in the spine moves in relation to the one above and below it, and together these movements give the spine its flexibility.

Freely movable, or synovial (pronounced: sih-NO-vee-ul), joints move in many directions. The main joints of the body - found at the hip, shoulders, elbows, knees, wrists, and ankles - are freely movable. They are filled with synovial fluid, which acts as a lubricant to help the joints move easily. There are three kinds of freely movable joints that play a big part in voluntary movement:

Hinge joints allow movement in one direction, as seen in the knees and elbows.

Pivot joints allow a rotating or twisting motion, like that of the head moving from side to side.

Ball-and-socket joints allow the greatest freedom of movement. The hips and shoulders have this type of joint, in which the round end of a long bone fits into the hollow of another bone.

Things That Can Go Wrong With the Bones, Muscles, and Joints

As strong as bones are, they can break. Muscles can weaken, and joints (as well as tendons, ligaments, and cartilage) can be damaged by injury or disease. The following are problems that can affect the bones, muscles, and joints in teens:

Arthritis. Arthritis is the inflammation of a joint, and people who have it experience swelling, warmth, pain, and often have trouble moving. Although we often think of arthritis as a condition that affects only older people, arthritis also can affect children and teens. Health problems that involve arthritis in kids and teens include juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA, also know as juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, or JRA), lupus, Lyme disease, and septic arthritis (a bacterial infection of a joint).

Fracture. A fracture is when a bone breaks; it may crack, snap, or shatter. After a bone fracture, new bone cells fill the gap and repair the break. Applying a strong plaster cast, which keeps the bone in the correct position until it heals, is the usual treatment. If the fracture is complicated, metal pins and plates can be placed to better stabilize the fracture while the bone heals.

Muscular dystrophy. Muscular dystrophy (pronounced: DIS-truh-fee) is an inherited group of diseases that affect the muscles, causing them to weaken and break down over time. The most common form in childhood is called Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and it most often affects boys.

Osgood-Schlatter disease (OSD). Osgood-Schlatter disease is an inflammation (pain and swelling) of the bone, cartilage, and/or tendon at the top of the shinbone, where the tendon from the kneecap attaches. OSD usually strikes active teens around the beginning of their growth spurts, the approximately 2-year period during which they grow most rapidly.

Osteomyelitis. Osteomyelitis (pronounced: os-tee-oh-my-uh-LIE-tus) is a bone infection that is often caused by Staphylococcus aureus (pronounced: sta-fuh-low-KAH-kus ARE-ee-us) bacteria, though other types of bacteria can cause it, too. In kids and teens, osteomyelitis usually affects the long bones of the arms and legs. Osteomyelitis often develops after an injury or trauma.

Osteoporosis. In osteoporosis (pronounced: ahs-tee-o-puh-ROW-sus), bone tissue becomes brittle, thin, and spongy. Bones break easily, and the spine sometimes begins to crumble and collapse. Although the condition usually affects older people, girls with female athlete triad syndrome and teens with eating disorders can get the condition. Exercising regularly and getting plenty of calcium when you're a kid and teen can prevent or delay you from getting osteoporosis later in life.

Repetitive stress injuries (RSIs). RSIs are a group of injuries that happen when too much stress is placed on a part of the body, resulting in inflammation (pain and swelling), muscle strain, or tissue damage. This stress generally is from repeating the same movements over and over again. Playing sports like tennis that involve repetitive motions can also lead to RSIs. Kids and teens who spend a lot of time playing musical instruments or video games are also at risk for RSIs. RSIs are becoming more common in kids and teens because they spend more time than ever using computers.

Scoliosis. Every person's spine curves a little bit; a certain amount of curvature is necessary for people to move and walk properly. But three to five people out of 1,000 have a condition called scoliosis (pronounced: sko-lee-OH-sus), which causes the spine to curve too much. The condition can be hereditary, so a person who has scoliosis often has family members who have it.

Strains and sprains. Strains happen when a muscle or tendon is overstretched. Sprains are an overstretching or a partial tear of the ligaments. Strains usually happen when a person takes part in a strenuous activity when the muscles haven't properly warmed up or the muscle is not used to the activity (such as a new sport or playing a familiar sport after a long break). Sprains, on the other hand, are usually the result of an injury, such as twisting an ankle or knee. Both strains and sprains are common in teens because they're active and still growing.

Tendonitis. Tendonitis (pronounced: ten-duh-NY-tus) is a common sports injury that usually happens after overusing a muscle. The tendon and tendon sheath become inflamed, which can be painful. Resting the muscles and taking anti-inflammatory medication can help to relieve this condition.

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Every time you sprint through the halls because you're late for class, score against your opponents during a game, or shoot pool with friends, you're using your bones, muscles, and joints. Without these important body parts, you'd be seriously sidelined - you'd be unable to sit, stand, walk, or do any of the activities you do every day.