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Food

Agriculture

Each summer, starting in July, the Nile River rose, flooding the low-lying plains on either side. Swollen by the monsoon rains of Ethiopia, it deposited a layer of black soil over the land, rich in nutrients needed for growing crops. The river rose about 8 metres (27 feet) on average. If it rose 2.5 metres (8 feet) higher or lower, disaster struck. When it rose too high, villages were flooded, causing extensive damage and loss of life. When it did not rise high enough, the fields did not receive sufficient nutrients and moisture to support the crops, which resulted in famine.

Under normal conditions, the flood plains supported a rich variety of plants and animals that provided food for the ancient Egyptians. The vast majority of the people were involved in farming. When the flood waters began to recede in mid-September, farmers blocked canals to retain the water for irrigation. Still used today, theshaduf is a mechanical irrigation device used to conduct water from the canals to the fields. One person can operate it by swinging the bucket of water from the canal to the field.

Livestock was important to the Egyptian economy, supplying meat, milk, hides, and dung for cooking fuel. Draft animals such as oxen increased agricultural productivity. Herdsmen and shepherds lived a semi-nomadic life, pasturing their animals in the marshes of the Nile.

(left) Breaking the ground with plough and hoe.
(centre) Reaping. Scattering the seed.
(right) Separating the grain from the chaff.
Paintings: Winnifred Neeler, Royal Ontario Museum

Although the land was worked by the peasants, it was owned by the king, his officials and the temples. Farmers had to meet grain quotas, which were handed over to the owners as a form of taxation. They were allowed to keep a portion of the crops for their own benefit. If they did not produce the quantity expected, however, they were severely punished.

Food staples

The principal food crops, barley and emmer, were used to make beer and bread, the main staples of the Egyptian diet. Grains were harvested and stored in granaries until ready to be processed. The quantities harvested each season far exceeded the needs of the country, so much was exported to neighbouring countries, providing a rich source of income for the Egyptian treasury.

(left) A baker.
(centre) (top) Slab for grinding grain. (bottom) Bread.
(right) Fig gatherers.
Paintings: Winnifred Neeler, Royal Ontario Museum

A large variety of vegetables were grown, including onions, garlic, leeks, beans, lentils, peas, radishes, cabbage, cucumbers and lettuce. There were also fruits, such as dates, figs, pomegranates, melons and grapes, and honey was produced for sweetening desserts. The Egyptian diet was supplemented by fish, fowl and meat, although peasants probably enjoyed meat only on special occasions. Domesticated animals raised for food included pigs, sheep and goats. Grapes were processed into wine for the noble class, but beer was the favourite drink of the common people. Food was served in pottery bowls, but no utensils were used for eating.

Bread- and beer-making
Model from the tomb of Mentuhotep II
(Valley of the Kings)
Plaster and wood
Royal Ontario Museum 907.18 series

Hunting and fishing

Pharaohs and nobles participated in hunting, fishing and fowling expeditions, a means of recreation that had ritualistic and religious significance. Hunting scenes often depicted on temple walls and tombs reinforce the prowess of kings and nobles. Rabbits, deer, gazelles, bulls, oryx, antelopes, hippopotamuses, elephants and lions were among the wild animals hunted for their meat and skins.

Assisted by his wife, Tutankhamun hunts birds in the marshes along the Nile. In accordance with artistic convention, the end of the bow string and the butt of the arrow are concealed behind his head. His left arm is protected by an archer's leather brace, and he sits on a folding stool, accompanied by his tame lion. The vulture hovering above the king's head indicates that this is a ritual hunting scene, and the birds symbolize enemies in the land of the gods.

Fishing allowed the working class to add variety to its diet. The poor substituted fish for meat, which they could not afford. The Nile, the marshes of the delta and the Mediterranean Sea offered them a rich variety of species. Fishing methods included the use of a hook and line, harpoons, traps and nets. Birds, including geese and ducks, were also hunted in the marshes and papyrus thickets along the Nile. Small fishing boats (skiffs) were made from papyrus reeds, which are naturally filled with air pockets, making them particularly buoyant. Skiffs were also used for hunting game in the Nile marshes.

main menu | civilization | daily life

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Egyptian civilization - Daily life - Food

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Food Each summer, starting in July, the Nile River rose, flooding the low-lying plains on either side. Swollen by the monsoon rains of Ethiopia, it deposited a layer of black soil over the land, rich in nutrients needed for growing crops. The river rose about 8 metres (27 feet) on average.

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In antiquity, ancient civilizations arose around rivers: the Nile River in Egypt, the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia, the Indus River in India and the Yellow River in China.

While later civilizations, such as the Greeks, could learn from them, these ancient civilizations had to invent everything for themselves.
RELATED: 35 INVENTIONS THAT CHANGED THE WORLD
The ancient Egyptians would come to invent mathematics, geometry, surveying, metallurgy, astronomy, accounting, writing, paper, medicine, the ramp, the lever, the plow, and mills for grinding grain.

Metal Making

Around 3000 BC, the Egyptians discovered that by mixing a small amount of tin ore in with copper ore, they could make bronze.

Bronze is harder and more durable than other metals of that time, and this archeological period became known as the Bronze Age. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, building materials, and decorative items have been found.

Writing

The ancient Egyptians were among the first groups of people to write and to keep records. The earliest form of Egyptian writing was hieroglyphics, which combined logographic, syllabic and alphabetic elements, and had a total of some 1,000 distinct characters.
RELATED: EXPLORE 33 INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PYRAMIDS
Later, hieratic and demotic Egyptian scripts were derived from hieroglyphics, as were the Greek and Aramaic scripts. This makes Egyptian hieroglyphics the ancestor of most scripts in use today.

Papyrus

The ancient Egyptians turned the pith of the Cyperus papyrus plant, which is found throughout the Mediterranean region, into sheets which could be rolled into scrolls.
RELATED: THE SCIENCE OF NAPOLEON - THE METRIC SYSTEM AND HIEROGLYPHICS
The earliest evidence of papyrus was unearthed in 2012 at Wadi al-Jarf, an ancient Egyptian harbor located on the Red Sea coast, and dates to 2560 - 2550 BC. The papyrus rolls found there describe the last years of the building of the Great Pyramid of Giza.

The only known ancient Egyptian library to survive to this day is the Tebtunis Temple Library, which is housed at the University of California, Berkeley, and contains the famous crocodile mummy texts.

These forty-five private documents date from the first half of the 1st century BC and were found in five crocodile mummies that had been buried next to each other.

Ink

Having papyrus to write on would have been of no use without the invention of ink. The ancient Egyptians mixed vegetable gum, soot and bee's wax to make a black ink. Eventually, they replaced the soot with other materials, such as red ochre, to create various colors of ink.

The Ox-drawn plow and the Sickle

The first ox-drawn plows appeared in Egypt as early as 2500 B.C. They were made of bronze, which easily scored the earth into furrows. Workers with hoes then broke up the clumps of soil and sowed the rows with seed. Along the fertile banks of the Nile River, the ancient Egyptians grew wheat and various vegetables.

The sickle with its curved blade was used for cutting and harvesting grains, such as wheat and barley.

Canals and Irrigation Channels

The Egyptians pioneered the use of canals and irrigation channels to direct water from the Nile River to farm fields that were distant from the river. They built gates into the canals so that they could control the flow of water, and they built reservoirs to hold water supplies in case of drought.

The ancient Egyptians used water wheels, which worked an invention of theirs called a shadoof. It was comprised of a long pole with a bucket on one end and a weight on the other.

The buckets were dropped into the Nile, filled with water, and raised using water wheels. Then, oxen swung the pole so that the water could be emptied into canals that were used to irrigate the crops.

The Calendar

The Egyptians devised their highly accurate solar calendar by recording the yearly reappearance of the star Sirius (the Dog Star) in the eastern sky. When Sirius rose, it coincided with the yearly flooding of the Nile River.

The Egyptian calendar contained 365 days, divided into 12 months. Each month had 30 days, and there were an additional five festival days at the end of each year.

However, earth's solar year is actually 365.25 days long, which today we account for with Leap Year. Gradually, the Egyptian calendar became incorrect, but this problem was solved by Ptolemy III whose Ptolemaic Calendar added one day to the 365 days every four years.

Clocks

The Egyptians used their famous obelisks as sundials, by observing how shadows cast by the obelisk moved around them during the course of the day. From this, the ancient Egyptians were able to determine the longest and shortest days of the year.

An inscription dating to the 16th century BC and found in the tomb of a court official named Amenemhet, shows a water clock. This clock was made from a stone vessel which had a tiny hole in its bottom.

Water dripped through this hole at a constant rate, and the passage of hours could be determined from marks placed on a vessel collecting the water. Priests at the Temple of Karnak used a water clock at night to determine the time to perform various religious rites.

The corbeled Arch

A corbeled arch is a construction method that uses corbeling to span a space or a void in a structure. Corbelling involves offsetting successive rows of stone or brick so that they project towards the archway's center, eventually meeting at the apex of the archway.

Corbeled arches weren't as efficient as "true" arches, which better support all of a structure's tensile stresses by compression.

Glass Making

By circa 1500 BC, Egyptian artisans were making multi-colored glass ingots and vessels. Glass makers shaped the body of a vessel around the core of a ceramic-like material by winding hot colored glass filaments around the core.

They then added handles and a rim, let the vessel cool, and removed the core. Most early core-formed vessels were small flasks for holding perfumed oil, so in essence, they were the world's first perfume bottles.

Furniture

When you look at pictures of the opening of King Tutankhamun's tomb by Howard Carter in 1923, you see the ancient king was buried with lots of furniture. The ancient Egyptians built beds, tables, and stools.

While early forms of tables were used to store items above the ground, later designs were used for eating off of and to play games. The game , one of the oldest known board games, was mentioned in an ancient Egyptian hieroglyph dating from 3100 BC.

Surgical Instruments

The Edwin Smith Papyrus, dating to 1600 BC, is the oldest known surgical treatise. It describes 48 surgical cases of injuries, fractures, wounds, dislocations, and tumors, and details the type of the injury, examination of the patient, diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment. Injuries were to the head, neck, shoulders, breast, and chest.

The papyrus includes a list of the instruments used during those surgeries, instructions for the suturing wounds, and descriptions of using swabs, bandages, adhesive plasters, and cauterizing.

Written in black ink, with explanations written in red ink, the papyrus even contains a section on gynecology and one on cosmetics, along with five prescriptions. The Cairo Museum contains a collection of surgical instruments, including scalpels, scissors, copper needles, forceps, spoons, lancets, hooks, probes, and pincers.

Toothpaste

The ancient Egyptians invented toothpaste, with one recipe containing powdered of ox hooves, ashes, burnt eggshells, and pumice. Another, probably better-tasting recipe, contained rock salt, mint, dried iris flower and grains of pepper.

This latter recipe came along with an "advertisement" that promised a "powder for white and perfect teeth." This could have come out of any 21st Century advertisement.

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Ancient Egyptian Technology and Inventions

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In antiquity, ancient civilizations arose around rivers: the Nile River in Egypt, the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia, the Indus River in India and the Yellow River in China. While later civilizations, such as the Greeks, could learn from them, these ancient civilizations had to invent everything for themselves.

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Built during a time when Egypt was one of the richest and most powerful civilizations in the world, the pyramids-especially the Great Pyramids of Giza-are some of the most magnificent man-made structures in history. Their massive scale reflects the unique role that the pharaoh, or king, played in ancient Egyptian society. Though pyramids were built from the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the close of the Ptolemaic period in the fourth century A.D., the peak of pyramid building began with the late third dynasty and continued until roughly the sixth (c. 2325 B.C.). More than 4,000 years later, the Egyptian pyramids still retain much of their majesty, providing a glimpse into the country's rich and glorious past.

The Pharaoh in Egyptian Society

During the third and fourth dynasties of the Old Kingdom, Egypt enjoyed tremendous economic prosperity and stability. Kings held a unique position in Egyptian society. Somewhere in between human and divine, they were believed to have been chosen by the gods themselves to serve as their mediators on earth. Because of this, it was in everyone's interest to keep the king's majesty intact even after his death, when he was believed to become Osiris, god of the dead. The new pharaoh, in turn, became Horus, the falcon-god who served as protector of the sun god, Ra.

Did you know? The pyramid's smooth, angled sides symbolized the rays of the sun and were designed to help the king's soul ascend to heaven and join the gods, particularly the sun god Ra.

Ancient Egyptians believed that when the king died, part of his spirit (known as "ka") remained with his body. To properly care for his spirit, the corpse was mummified, and everything the king would need in the afterlife was buried with him, including gold vessels, food, furniture and other offerings. The pyramids became the focus of a cult of the dead king that was supposed to continue well after his death. Their riches would provide not only for him, but also for the relatives, officials and priests who were buried near him.

The Early Pyramids

From the beginning of the Dynastic Era (2950 B.C.), royal tombs were carved into rock and covered with flat-roofed rectangular structures known as "mastabas," which were precursors to the pyramids. The oldest known pyramid in Egypt was built around 2630 B.C. at Saqqara, for the third dynasty's King Djoser. Known as the Step Pyramid, it began as a traditional mastaba but grew into something much more ambitious. As the story goes, the pyramid's architect was Imhotep, a priest and healer who some 1,400 years later would be deified as the patron saint of scribes and physicians. Over the course of Djoser's nearly 20-year reign, pyramid builders assembled six stepped layers of stone (as opposed to mud-brick, like most earlier tombs) that eventually reached a height of 204 feet (62 meters); it was the tallest building of its time. The Step Pyramid was surrounded by a complex of courtyards, temples and shrines where Djoser could enjoy his afterlife.

After Djoser, the stepped pyramid became the norm for royal burials, although none of those planned by his dynastic successors were completed (probably due to their relatively short reigns). The earliest tomb constructed as a "true" (smooth-sided, not stepped) pyramid was the Red Pyramid at Dahshur, one of three burial structures built for the first king of the fourth dynasty, Sneferu (2613-2589 B.C.) It was named for the color of the limestone blocks used to construct the pyramid's core.

The Great Pyramids of Giza

No pyramids are more celebrated than the Great Pyramids of Giza, located on a plateau on the west bank of the Nile River, on the outskirts of modern-day Cairo. The oldest and largest of the three pyramids at Giza, known as the Great Pyramid, is the only surviving structure out of the famed Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It was built for Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops, in Greek), Sneferu's successor and the second of the eight kings of the fourth dynasty. Though Khufu reigned for 23 years (2589-2566 B.C.), relatively little is known of his reign beyond the grandeur of his pyramid. The sides of the pyramid's base average 755.75 feet (230 meters), and its original height was 481.4 feet (147 meters), making it the largest pyramid in the world. Three small pyramids built for Khufu's queens are lined up next to the Great Pyramid, and a tomb was found nearby containing the empty sarcophagus of his mother, Queen Hetepheres. Like other pyramids, Khufu's is surrounded by rows of mastabas, where relatives or officials of the king were buried to accompany and support him in the afterlife.

The middle pyramid at Giza was built for Khufu's son Pharaoh Khafre (2558-2532 B.C). The Pyramid of Khafre is the second tallest pyramid at Giza and contains Pharaoh Khafre's tomb. A unique feature built inside Khafre's pyramid complex was the Great Sphinx, a guardian statue carved in limestone with the head of a man and the body of a lion. It was the largest statue in the ancient world, measuring 240 feet long and 66 feet high. In the 18th dynasty (c. 1500 B.C.) the Great Sphinx would come to be worshiped itself, as the image of a local form of the god Horus. The southernmost pyramid at Giza was built for Khafre's son Menkaure (2532-2503 B.C.). It is the shortest of the three pyramids (218 feet) and is a precursor of the smaller pyramids that would be constructed during the fifth and sixth dynasties.

Who Built The Pyramids?

Though some popular versions of history held that the pyramids were built by slaves or foreigners forced into labor, skeletons excavated from the area show that the workers were probably native Egyptian agricultural laborers who worked on the pyramids during the time of year when the Nile River flooded much of the land nearby. Approximately 2.3 million blocks of stone (averaging about 2.5 tons each) had to be cut, transported and assembled to build Khufu's Great Pyramid. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that it took 20 years to build and required the labor of 100,000 men, but later archaeological evidence suggests that the workforce might actually have been around 20,000.

The End of the Pyramid Era

Pyramids continued to be built throughout the fifth and sixth dynasties, but the general quality and scale of their construction declined over this period, along with the power and wealth of the kings themselves. In the later Old Kingdom pyramids, beginning with that of King Unas (2375-2345 B.C), pyramid builders began to inscribe written accounts of events in the king's reign on the walls of the burial chamber and the rest of the pyramid's interior. Known as pyramid texts, these are the earliest significant religious compositions known from ancient Egypt.

The last of the great pyramid builders was Pepy II (2278-2184 B.C.), the second king of the sixth dynasty, who came to power as a young boy and ruled for 94 years. By the time of his rule, Old Kingdom prosperity was dwindling, and the pharaoh had lost some of his quasi-divine status as the power of non-royal administrative officials grew. Pepy II's pyramid, built at Saqqara and completed some 30 years into his reign, was much shorter (172 feet) than others of the Old Kingdom. With Pepy's death, the kingdom and strong central government virtually collapsed, and Egypt entered a turbulent phase known as the First Intermediate Period. Later kings, of the 12th dynasty, would return to pyramid building during the so-called Middle Kingdom phase, but it was never on the same scale as the Great Pyramids.

The Pyramids Today

Tomb robbers and other vandals in both ancient and modern times removed most of the bodies and funeral goods from Egypt's pyramids and plundered their exteriors as well. Stripped of most of their smooth white limestone coverings, the Great Pyramids no longer reach their original heights; Khufu's, for example, measures only 451 feet high. Nonetheless, millions of people continue to visit the pyramids each year, drawn by their towering grandeur and the enduring allure of Egypt's rich and glorious past.

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Egyptian Pyramids - Facts, Use & Construction

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Built during a time when Egypt was one of the richest and most powerful civilizations in the world, the pyramids-especially the Great Pyramids of Giza-are some of the most magnificent man-made structures in history.

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This Encyclopedia Britannica Philosophy and Religion list explores 11 Egyptian gods and goddesses.

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Ancient Egypt: Crash Course World History #4

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Next to the pyramids, the Sphinx and mummies, one of the most intriguing discoveries from ancient Egyptian civilization is a form of writing that appears like stylized pictures of people, animals and objects. Hieroglyphic writing, whose name comes from hieroglyphikos,the Greek word for "sacred carving," has been found carved into stone walls more than 5,000 years ago, and was used up until the 4th century A.D.

The Egyptians adorned the insides of their temples, monuments and tombs with hieroglyphic writing and wrote it on papyrus, an ancient paper made from reeds.

Below are eight key facts about hieroglyphic writing.

1. Hieroglyphics uses pictures, but it isn't picture writing.

Because the symbols used in hieroglyphic writing look like little pictures of people, animals and objects, it's easy to assume that the hieroglyphs represent those things. Instead, some hieroglyphs signify sounds in the ancient Egyptian language, just as the characters in the Roman alphabet do. Others are ideographic signs, which represent concepts but don't have a sound attached.

"The earliest hieroglyphic writing is commonly found on grave goods found in royal tombs at Abydos that precede the historical period," explains Peter F. Dorman, a professor emeritus at the University of Chicago's Oriental Institute. "Since hieroglyphs are pictorial, the link with early formal art is indelible, especially the representation of the king with his royal titulary, which can be seen on commemorative monuments placed in the earliest temples."

Though the system was eventually used for other types of writing, hieroglyphs never lost their initial connection with elite contexts in commemorative settings like temples and tombs, Dorman explains.

People who weren't royals also sometimes used hieroglyphics in their private tombs and monuments, provided they were wealthy enough to afford the services of stone carvers.

3. Ancient Egyptians used other forms of writing.

Because hieroglyphic writing was so complicated, the ancient Egyptians developed other types of writing that were more convenient. Hieratic writing, a cursive script that was written on papyrus with a pen or brush, or upon a piece of limestone called an ostraconwas invented for use primarily on papyrus, a more fragile material. But, Dornan says, it rarely made the jump to formal monuments. Demotic, another form of writing that was developed in the 800s B.C., was used for everyday documents, as well as for literary works.

4. Hieroglyphic writing has odd quirks.

Hieroglyphic writing doesn't have any spaces between the words, and there's no punctuation. That means that readers have to have a good grasp of ancient Egyptian grammar and know something about the context of a message in order to be able to tell individual words, clauses, sentences, paragraphs and chapters apart. Additionally, unlike modern English, hieroglyphics aren't necessarily read horizontally from left to right. Hieroglyphics could be written either from left to right, or right to left, and vertically as well as horizontally.

5. Few Egyptians could read hieroglyphic writing.

In the later stages of ancient Egyptian civilization, only priests were able to read hieroglyphic writing, according to James P. Allen in his book Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. "Inscriptions that were meant to have a larger audience were carved in Demotic instead," he writes.

6. Hieroglyphic writing gradually died out.

After the Ptolemies, who were of Macedonian descent, began to rule Egypt in the 300s B.C., Greek replaced Egyptian as the official court language. About 600 years later, in 384 A.D., the Christian Roman Emperor Theodosius approved a decree that banned pagan religion from being practiced in Egypt, which was the beginning of the end for the use of hieroglyphics, according to author Stephane Rossini.

By the time the last known hieroglyphic writing was carved into the Philae Temple in 394 A.D. there probably were few Egyptian sculptors left who even could understand what they were being asked to carve into the walls, as Hilary Wilson writes in Understanding Hieroglyphs: A Compete Introductory Guide.

7. The Rosetta Stone led to a breakthrough.

In 1799, French soldiers serving under Napoleon in Egypt, who were repairing a fort in the town of Rashid (also known as Rosetta), discovered a stone slab that became known as the Rosetta Stone. It was covered with writing in three different scripts-hieroglyphic writing, demotic and ancient Greek. The three languages engraved upon a single stone enabled researchers to decipher the hieroglyphic writing.

British scientist Thomas Young, who began studying the stone in 1814, first deduced that some of the symbols were phonetic spellings of royal names. Then, between 1822 and 1824, French linguist Jean-Francois Champollion was able to show that hieroglyphics were a combination of phonetic and ideographic symbols. He was able to decipher the text, which was a message from Egyptian priests to Ptolemy V written in 196 B.C.

"Ultimately Champollion had the upper hand, thanks to his deep study of Coptic, which is the latest phase of the Egyptian language," Dorman explains. That knowledge "allowed him to recognize grammatical features that had escaped Young."

8. Deciphering hieroglyphic writing remains a challenge.

Figuring out the meaning of texts written in hieroglyphic writing remains a big challenge for scholars, and requires a certain amount of subjective interpretation. Even reading them aloud isn't easy.

"It's not so much the usage of phonetic signs that makes translations challenging, but rather the fact that the full vocalization of ancient Egyptian is not written out," Dorman says. "So the pronunciation of words and especially the intricacies of the Egyptian verbal system remain topics of conjecture."

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8 Facts About Ancient Egypt's Hieroglyphic Writing | HISTORY

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The script found on the insides of ancient Egyptian temples, monuments and tombs represents a complex remnant of history.

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Comparing Two Ancient Civilisations: Ancient Egypt vs. Mesopotamia

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Illustration

by Jeff Dahl
published on 26 April 2012

Map of Ancient Egypt, showing the Nile up to the fifth cataract, and major cities and sites of the Dynastic period (c. 3150 BC to 30 BC). Cairo and Jerusalem are shown as reference cities.

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Original image by Jeff Dahl. Uploaded by Thamis, published on 26 April 2012 under the following license: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.

Cite This Work

APA Style

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Chicago Style

Dahl, Jeff. " Ancient Egypt." World History Encyclopedia. Last modified April 26, 2012. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/70/ancient-egypt/.

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Running a website with millions of readers every month is expensive. Not only do we pay for our servers, but also for related services such as our content delivery network, Google Workspace, email, and much more. We would much rather spend this money on producing more free history content for the world.

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A timeline showing the dates, periods, dynasties and significant events in the history and art of ancient Egypt from the Predynastic Period (before 3100 BCE) to the end of the Roman Period (395 CE).

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Detailed Breakdown of Ancient Egypt Civilization

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Detailed Breakdown of Ancient Egypt Civilization

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