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Bradley, S. (2018, July 1). Support process with local  agencies [Graphic]. Retrieved from https://www.canva.com/design/DAC8KMj9_Og/DY5zsY6q_kl44UB6Oztpqw/view?utm_content=DAC8KMj9_Og&utm_campaign=designshare&utm_medium=link&utm_source=sharebutton

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Mood Disorders & Support Process pg 2 and 3.pdf

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Parras Middle School, Redondo Beach, CA.(n.d.). Description of a counseling [Graphic Wordle]. Retrieved from

https://goo.gl/images/azVmNi

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Patton, D. (n.d.)  Description of a counselor [Graphic wordle]. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/images/VccHtt

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Manic Episode vs. Depressive Episode

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Worried about your child?

Welcome to the Child Mind Institute Symptom Checker

Here's how it works: You indicate the behaviors that are making you concerned about your child by answering a series of questions. The Symptom Checker analyzes your answers to give you a list of psychiatric or learning disorders that are associated with those symptoms.

Since individual symptoms can reflect more than one disorder, this tool will give you a range of possibilities and guide you toward next steps. This tool cannot diagnose your child, but it can help you inform yourself about possible diagnoses and will offer information and articles to help you learn about them, to facilitate a conversation with a professional.
Remember, this tool is not a substitute for a diagnostic evaluation by a medical or mental health professional. If you believe your child has a psychiatric or learning disorder, please consult a professional.
Note: We do not collect any personally identifiable information.

What issues have been concerning you?

Your Results

Based on your responses to the questions in the Symptom Checker, here are some conditions you may want to learn more about. This page is designed to help you be informed and guide you towards next steps.

It is important to understand that these results are not a diagnosis. If information on a particular disorder appears in your results, it does not necessarily mean that your child meets the criteria for that disorder. It does mean that you reported symptoms associated with that disorder.

Remember, these results are purely educational and are not intended to replace the advice, diagnosis, or treatment offered by a medical or mental health professional. If you believe your child has a psychiatric or learning disorder, please consult a professional.

Click the Save button to get a copy of these results in PDF format. We also encourage you to read our Parents Guide to Getting Good Care. If you want to use the Symptom Checker again you can start over here.

Notice

Note that the information provided by this tool is purely educational and is not intended to replace the advice, diagnosis, or treatment offered by a medical or mental health professional. If you believe your child may have a psychiatric or learning disorder, please see a professional.

By using this site, you agree to our Terms of Use and Online Privacy Statement, which describes our use of cookies. By using this site without adjusting your settings, you agree to our use of cookies. Read More

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The Child Mind Institute Symptom Checker

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Welcome to the Child Mind Institute Symptom Checker Here's how it works: You indicate the behaviors that are making you concerned about your child by answering a series of questions.

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Central Communications a Matter of School Safety

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Central Communications a Matter of School Safety

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Communications Concerning an Active Attack on a School Campus

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Characteristics and identification of Emotional Disturbances

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Characteristics and identification of Emotional Disturbances

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NICHCY: www.nichcy.org Emotional Disturbance Disability Fact Sheet #5 (FS5) NICHCY Disability Fact Sheet #5 June 2010
* This article defined emotional disturbances and the legal definition of each disorder

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Emotional Disturbance, Dec 6, 2017 This Link covers  & defines

anxiety disorders;

bipolar disorder (sometimes called manic-depression);

conduct disorders;

eating disorders;

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD); and

psychotic disorders.

http://www.parentcenterhub.org/emotionaldisturbance/

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From Dr. Tamar Chansky Creator of Worrywisekids.org

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All kids have their ups and downs, but if your child is unusually irritable, sad or withdrawn for a prolonged period of time she may be showing signs of depression. Depression is more than moodiness - it can affect all parts of a child's life, including behavior, appetite, energy level, sleep patterns, relationships and academic performance. In this section you'll find expert information on spotting and understanding different kinds of depression in children and adolescents, and how to get the most effective treatment for your child.

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Childhood and Teen Depression | Child Mind Institute

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All kids have their ups and downs, but if your child is unusually irritable, sad or withdrawn for a prolonged period of time she may be showing signs of depression. Depression is more than moodiness - it can affect all parts of a child's life, including behavior, appetite, energy level, sleep patterns, relationships and academic performance.

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Inside Higher Ed | Higher Education News, Events and Jobs

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More than half of the college students who visited their campus counseling centers during the 2015-16 academic year reported symptoms of anxiety, according to a survey by the Association for University and College Counseling Center Directors.

This marks the seventh year in a row that anxiety has been the top complaint among students seeking mental health services. This year, 51 percent of students who visited a counseling center reported having anxiety, followed by depression (41 percent), relationship concerns (34 percent) and suicidal ideation (20.5 percent). Many students reported experiencing multiple conditions at once.

Since 2009, when anxiety overtook depression as the No. 1 concern among college students, the number of students experiencing anxiety has steadily increased.

This survey was conducted between September 2015 and August 2016. In total, 529 counseling center directors representing that many institutions responded to the survey, with an even split between public and private institutions. The majority of respondents came from four-year colleges, but community colleges, professional schools and art schools were also included.

In an effort to reflect the makeup of their student bodies, counseling centers have diversified their clinical staff members. Of new hires, 62.2 percent are white, 15.3 percent black, 7.5 percent Latino and 10 percent Asian. This compares to current clinical staff, who are 70.9 percent white, 10.1 percent black, 7.3 percent Latino and 7.9 percent Asian.

"Student populations have become more diverse," said Micky Sharma, president of the AUCCCD and director of counseling and consultation services at Ohio State University. "Counseling services work to create a staff that represents their student bodies."

At Ohio State, for example, the counseling center now offers clinical services in nine different languages to meet the needs of their international students, who make up about 12 percent of the student body, Sharma said.

Regardless of race, ethnicity, gender or sexual orientation, "anyone could show up with anxiety or depression or a relationship issue," Sharma said. "A university counseling center is charged with providing help for everybody."

Another key finding in the survey is that 41.6 percent of counseling centers hired additional staff members in the last academic year, compared to about 26 percent in 2011 and 36 percent in 2016.

College counseling centers continue to grow to match the demands of their students, according to David Reetz, the lead researcher and coordinator for the 2016 survey and director of counseling and psychological services at the Rochester Institute of Technology.

"More students are seeking services because we continue to be more and more aware that a student's health and well-being have a lot to do with their success in their academic programs and the quality of their student life experience," Reetz said.

In fact, of the students surveyed, about 72 percent who used counseling services said it helped their academic performance in some way.

As more students continue to seek out mental health services and campus counseling centers try to keep up with new hires, the question of student wait times becomes key.

For the first time, this year's survey asked counseling center directors about average wait times for students based on the number of business days between when the appointment was scheduled and when it occurred.

The survey team found that, on average, students waited between six and eight business days for counseling services. However, as might be expected, institutions with a lower ratio of professional staff to students saw shorter wait times.

Reetz noted that the wait-time average is a "tricky number," given that some students opt to schedule their first appointment farther out to accommodate their own schedules.

"Students don't necessarily want to be seen right away," Reetz said, adding that, generally, "the more staff a center has, the shorter that wait time is between initial contact and first appointment."

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Anxiety and depression are the primary concerns for students seeking counseling services

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Survey of campus counseling centers finds increased demand for services, as well as additional positions and more diversity in hiring.

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Resource: The World of Abnormal Psychology

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Teacher resources and professional development across the curriculum

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Child Mind Institute | Transforming Children’s Lives.

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The Child Mind Institute is an independent nonprofit dedicated to transforming the lives of children struggling with mental health and learning disorders.

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The cry we hear from deep in our hearts, says Thich Nhat Hanh, comes from the wounded child within. Healing this inner child's pain will transform negative emotions.

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ptsd & trauma
When bad things happen, it can take a while to get over the pain and feel safe again. But with these self-help strategies and support, you can speed up your recovery.

What is emotional and psychological trauma?

Emotional and psychological trauma is the result of extraordinarily stressful events that shatter your sense of security, making you feel helpless in a dangerous world. Psychological trauma can leave you struggling with upsetting emotions, memories, and anxiety that won't go away. It can also leave you feeling numb, disconnected, and unable to trust other people.

Traumatic experiences often involve a threat to life or safety, but any situation that leaves you feeling overwhelmed and isolated can result in trauma, even if it doesn't involve physical harm. It's not the objective circumstances that determine whether an event is traumatic, but your subjective emotional experience of the event. The more frightened and helpless you feel, the more likely you are to be traumatized.

Emotional and psychological trauma can be caused by:

One-time events, such as an accident, injury, or a violent attack, especially if it was unexpected or happened in childhood.

Ongoing, relentless stress, such as living in a crime-ridden neighborhood, battling a life-threatening illness or experiencing traumatic events that occur repeatedly, such as bullying, domestic violence, or childhood neglect.

Commonly overlooked causes, such as surgery (especially in the first 3 years of life), the sudden death of someone close, the breakup of a significant relationship, or a humiliating or deeply disappointing experience, especially if someone was deliberately cruel.

Coping with the trauma of a natural or manmade disaster can present unique challenges-even if you weren't directly involved in the event. In fact, while it's highly unlikely any of us will ever be the direct victims of a terrorist attack, plane crash, or mass shooting, for example, we're all regularly bombarded by horrific images on social media and news sources of those people who have been. Viewing these images over and over can overwhelm your nervous system and create traumatic stress. Whatever the cause of your trauma, and whether it happened years ago or yesterday, you can make healing changes and move on with your life.

Childhood trauma and the risk of future trauma

While traumatic events can happen to anyone, you're more likely to be traumatized by an event if you're already under a heavy stress load, have recently suffered a series of losses, or have been traumatized before-especially if the earlier trauma occurred in childhood. Childhood trauma can result from anything that disrupts a child's sense of safety, including:

Experiencing trauma in childhood can result in a severe and long-lasting effect. When childhood trauma is not resolved, a sense of fear and helplessness carries over into adulthood, setting the stage for further trauma. However, even if your trauma happened many years ago, there are steps you can take to overcome the pain, learn to trust and connect to others again, and regain your sense of emotional balance.

Symptoms of psychological trauma

We all react to trauma in different ways, experiencing a wide range of physical and emotional reactions. There is no "right" or "wrong" way to think, feel, or respond, so don't judge your own reactions or those of other people. Your responses are NORMAL reactions to ABNORMAL events.

Emotional & psychological symptoms:

Physical symptoms:

Healing from trauma

Trauma symptoms typically last from a few days to a few months, gradually fading as you process the unsettling event. But even when you're feeling better, you may be troubled from time to time by painful memories or emotions-especially in response to triggers such as an anniversary of the event or something that reminds you of the trauma.

If your psychological trauma symptoms don't ease up-or if they become even worse-and you find that you're unable to move on from the event for a prolonged period of time, you may be experiencing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). While emotional trauma is a normal response to a disturbing event, it becomes PTSD when your nervous system gets "stuck" and you remain in psychological shock, unable to make sense of what happened or process your emotions.

Whether or not a traumatic event involves death, you as a survivor must cope with the loss, at least temporarily, of your sense of safety. The natural reaction to this loss is grief. Like people who have lost a loved one, you need to go through a grieving process. The following tips can help you cope with the sense of grief, heal from the trauma, and move on with your life.

Trauma recovery tip 1: Get moving

Trauma disrupts your body's natural equilibrium, freezing you in a state of hyperarousal and fear. As well as burning off adrenaline and releasing endorphins, exercise and movement can actually help repair your nervous system.

Try to exercise for 30 minutes or more on most days. Or if it's easier, three 10-minute spurts of exercise per day are just as good.

Exercise that is rhythmic and engages both your arms and legs-such as walking, running, swimming, basketball, or even dancing-works best.

Add a mindfulness element. Instead of focusing on your thoughts or distracting yourself while you exercise, really focus on your body and how it feels as you move. Notice the sensation of your feet hitting the ground, for example, or the rhythm of your breathing, or the feeling of wind on your skin. Rock climbing, boxing, weight training, or martial arts can make this easier-after all, you need to focus on your body movements during these activities in order to avoid injury.

Tip 2: Don't isolate

Following a trauma, you may want to withdraw from others, but isolation only makes things worse. Connecting to others face to face will help you heal, so make an effort to maintain your relationships and avoid spending too much time alone.

You don't have to talk about the trauma. Connecting with others doesn't have to involve talking about the trauma. In fact, for some people, that can just make things worse. Comfort comes from feeling engaged and accepted by others.

Ask for support. While you don't have to talk about the trauma itself, it is important that you have someone to share your feelings with face to face, someone who will listen attentively without judging you. Turn to a trusted family member, friend, counselor, or clergyman.

Participate in social activities, even if you don't feel like it. Do "normal" activities with other people, activities that have nothing to do with the traumatic experience.

Reconnect with old friends. If you've retreated from relationships that were once important to you, make the effort to reconnect.

Join a support group for trauma survivors. Connecting with others who are facing the same problems can help reduce your sense of isolation, and hearing how others cope can help inspire you in your own recovery.

Volunteer. As well as helping others, volunteering can be a great way to challenge the sense of helplessness that often accompanies trauma. Remind yourself of your strengths and reclaim your sense of power by helping others.

Make new friends. If you live alone or far from family and friends, it's important to reach out and make new friends. Take a class or join a club to meet people with similar interests, connect to an alumni association, or reach out to neighbors or work colleagues.

If connecting to others is difficult...

Many people who have experienced trauma feel disconnected, withdrawn and find it difficult to connect with other people. If that describes you, there are some actions you can take before you next meet with a friend:

Exercise or move. Jump up and down, swing your arms and legs, or just flail around. Your head will feel clearer and you'll find it easier to connect.

Vocal toning. As strange as it sounds, vocal toning is a great way to open up to social engagement. Sit up straight and simply make "mmmm" sounds. Change the pitch and volume until you experience a pleasant vibration in your face.

Tip 3: Self-regulate your nervous system

No matter how agitated, anxious, or out of control you feel, it's important to know that you can change your arousal system and calm yourself. Not only will it help relieve the anxiety associated with trauma, but it will also engender a greater sense of control.

Mindful breathing. If you are feeling disoriented, confused, or upset, practicing mindful breathing is a quick way to calm yourself. Simply take 60 breaths, focusing your attention on each 'out' breath.

Sensory input. Does a specific sight, smell or taste quickly make you feel calm? Or maybe petting an animal or listening to music works to quickly soothe you? Everyone responds to sensory input a little differently, so experiment with different quick stress relief techniques to find what works best for you.

Staying grounded. To feel in the present and more grounded, sit on a chair. Feel your feet on the ground and your back against the chair. Look around you and pick six objects that have red or blue in them. Notice how your breathing gets deeper and calmer.

Allow yourself to feel what you feel when you feel it. Acknowledge your feelings about the trauma as they arise and accept them. HelpGuide's Emotional Intelligence Toolkit can help.

Tip 4: Take care of your health

It's true: having a healthy body can increase your ability to cope with the stress of trauma.

Get plenty of sleep. After a traumatic experience, worry or fear may disturb your sleep patterns. But a lack of quality sleep can exacerbate your trauma symptoms and make it harder to maintain your emotional balance. Go to sleep and get up at the same time each day and aim for 7 to 9 hours of sleep each night.

Avoid alcohol and drugs. Their use can worsen your trauma symptoms and increase feelings of depression, anxiety, and isolation.

Eat a well-balanced diet. Eating small, well-balanced meals throughout the day will help you keep your energy up and minimize mood swings. Avoid sugary and fried foods and eat plenty of omega-3 fats-such as salmon, walnuts, soybeans, and flaxseeds-to give your mood a boost.

Reduce stress. Try relaxation techniques such as meditation, yoga, or deep breathing exercises. Schedule time for activities that bring you joy such as your favorite hobbies.

When to seek professional therapy for trauma

Recovering from trauma takes time, and everyone heals at their own pace. But if months have passed and your symptoms aren't letting up, you may need professional help from a trauma expert.

Seek help for trauma if you're:

Having trouble functioning at home or work

Suffering from severe fear, anxiety, or depression

Unable to form close, satisfying relationships

Experiencing terrifying memories, nightmares, or flashbacks

Avoiding more and more anything that reminds you of the trauma

Emotionally numb and disconnected from others

Using alcohol or drugs to feel better

Working through trauma can be scary, painful, and potentially re-traumatizing, so this healing work is best undertaken with the help of an experienced trauma specialist. Finding the right therapist may take some time. It's very important that the therapist you choose has experience treating trauma. But the quality of the relationship with your therapist is equally important. Choose a trauma specialist you feel comfortable with. If you don't feel safe, respected, or understood, find another therapist.

Ask yourself:

Did you feel comfortable discussing your problems with the therapist?

Did you feel like the therapist understood what you were talking about?

Were your concerns taken seriously or were they minimized or dismissed?

Were you treated with compassion and respect?

Do you believe that you could grow to trust the therapist?

Treatment for trauma

In order to heal from psychological and emotional trauma, you'll need to resolve the unpleasant feelings and memories you've long avoided, discharge pent-up "fight-or-flight" energy, learn to regulate strong emotions, and rebuild your ability to trust other people. A trauma specialist may use a variety of different therapy approaches in your treatment.

Somatic experiencing focuses on bodily sensations, rather than thoughts and memories about the traumatic event. By concentrating on what's happening in your body, you can release pent-up trauma-related energy through shaking, crying, and other forms of physical release.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy helps you process and evaluate your thoughts and feelings about a trauma.

EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing) incorporates elements of cognitive-behavioral therapy with eye movements or other forms of rhythmic, left-right stimulation that can "unfreeze" traumatic memories.

Helping a loved one deal with trauma

When a loved one has suffered trauma, your support can play a crucial role in their recovery.

Be patient and understanding. Healing from trauma takes time. Be patient with the pace of recovery and remember that everyone's response to trauma is different. Don't judge your loved one's reaction against your own response or anyone else's.

Offer practical support to help your loved one get back into a normal routine. That may mean helping with collecting groceries or doing housework, for example, or simply being available to talk or listen.

Don't pressure your loved one into talking but be available if they want to talk. Some trauma survivors find it difficult to talk about what happened. Don't force your loved one to open up but let them know you are there to listen if they want to talk, or available to just hang out if they don't.

Help your loved one to socialize and relax. Encourage them to participate in physical exercise, seek out friends, and pursue hobbies and other activities that bring them pleasure. Take a fitness class together or set a regular lunch date with friends.

Don't take the trauma symptoms personally. Your loved one may become angry, irritable, withdrawn, or emotionally distant. Remember that this is a result of the trauma and may not have anything to do with you or your relationship.

To help a child recover from trauma, it's important to communicate openly. Let them know that it's normal to feel scared or upset. Your child may also look to you for cues on how they should respond to trauma, so let them see you dealing with your symptoms in a positive way.

How children react to emotional and psychological trauma

Some common reactions to trauma and ways to help your child deal with them:

Regression. Many children need to return to an earlier stage where they felt safer. Younger children may wet the bed or want a bottle; older children may fear being alone. It's important to be understanding, patient and comforting if your child responds this way.

Thinking the event is their fault. Children younger than 8 tend to think that if something goes wrong, it must be their fault. Be sure your child understands that he or she did not cause the event.

Sleep disorders. Some children have difficulty falling asleep; others wake frequently or have troubling dreams. Give your child a stuffed animal, soft blanket, or flashlight to take to bed. Try spending extra time together in the evening, doing quiet activities or reading. Be patient. It may take a while before your child can sleep through the night again.

Feeling helpless. Being active in a campaign to prevent an event from happening again, writing thank you letters to people who have helped, and caring for others can bring a sense of hope and control to everyone in the family.

Source: Sidran Institute

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ptsd & trauma Emotional and psychological trauma is the result of extraordinarily stressful events that shatter your sense of security, making you feel helpless in a dangerous world. Psychological trauma can leave you struggling with upsetting emotions, memories, and anxiety that won't go away.

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How to help children and teens manage their stress

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Stress is at historic highs. Here are healthy ways for children and teens to cope

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New Jersey - Keeping our Kids Safe, Healthy and in School
Provided in this document are information and resources to aid schools in the establishment of HIB policies, the adoption of HIB program strategies, the implementation of proactive responses to HIB and the adoption of effective HIB reporting procedures.

Ohio Anti-Harassment, intimidation, and Bullying Resources
All Ohio public schools work to create safe and supportive learning environments for their students and staff. As part of these efforts, state law says they must have policies prohibiting harassment, intimidation and bullying. Such behaviors can have negative and often long-term consequences for youth. This page presents a few of the many resources available to help addresses these issues.

Pennsylvania - Bullying Prevention
The Pennsylvania Department of Education, Office for Safe Schools bullying prevention webpage contains resources for parents, educators and professionals serving youth in school and out-of-school time settings

Texas - Coordinated School Health
This page provide the definitions and laws related to bullying and cyber-bullying. There are also many useful links to resources to assist in educating others about bullying and cyber-bullying

Utah - Bullying Prevention
The overall goal of bullying prevention and intervention is to provide every student with a safe and supportive school and social environment. For more information on how to prevent bullying, who is at risk, how to respond, and how to get help now, please visit stopbullying.gov

Virginia - Bullying Prevention
To help address and prevent bullying in public schools, a model policy was developed and adopted by the Board of Education. The Model Policy to Address Bullying in Virginia's Public Schools(PDF) provides information to assist local school boards in formulating policies to help prevent bullying and procedures to report, investigate and intervene when bullying behavior occurs.

Differences between US and Canadian Norms
P earson's rebuttal to an article purporting to show Canadian norms resulted in Canadians scoring lower than Americans on the WAIS IV. (8/7/2016)

Support for the Use of Canadian Norms for the WAIS IV (8/7/2016)
"The purpose of the current study is threefold: First, to summarize the consistent finding of Canada-U.S. differences on measures of ability and present new empirical analyses to demonstrate these results are not due to a smaller sample size for Canadian norms. Second, and most importantly, matched sample comparisons demonstrate that the proportion of low scoring individuals (FSIQ < 85) in mixed clinical samples is consistent with the rates published by recent studies, and not greater than expected. Third, we offer evidence-based advice to clinicians practicing in Canada on the appropriate use of Canadian norms for Canadian clients during an individual assessment of intellectual functioning."

Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards
"Serving member juridictions by promoting excellence in regulation and advancing public protection in psychology."

The Great Canadian Psychology Website
"The Great Canadian Psychology Website introduces students to great Canadian researchers, their research methods, and their contributions to Psychology. Text biographies and video biographies for Canadian researchers are featured on this website."

How to find a Psychologist in Canada
"Welcome to findapsychologist.ca, the searchable Directory of all Registrants of the Canadian Register of Health Service Psychologists (CRHSP). This Directory is updated every month and ensures that you have access to the most up-to-date list of qualified health psychologists"

Psychology Laws & Licensing Boards In Canada & the United States
"Where possible, links are provided for the licensing board's home page and for various documents such as legislation relevant to the practice of psychology in that province or state, application information for a psychology license or registration, and continuing education requirements."

Association of Chief Psychologists/Ontario School Boards
Association of Chief Psychologists with Ontario School Boards. "Our goal with this website is to provide reliable and research-based information to help students, parents, teachers and others better understand many of the psychological issues related to learning and development."

Canadian Test Centre
Canadian Test Centre. "CTC/Canadian Test Centre Inc. is a wholly Canadian-owned and operated educational assessment service and publisher. Since 1980, CTC has acquired broad experiences in publishing, project management and large-scale data management and reporting."

CEC/Canada
Council for Exceptional Children Provincial Units. "The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) is the largest international professional organization dedicated to improving the educational success of individuals with disabilities and/or gifts and talents."

Canadian Psychological Association Home Page
Canadian Psychological Association. "The Canadian Psychological Association, or the CPA, is the national professional association of psychologists and counts students, researchers and health care providers among its membership of almost 7,000."

Ontario Ministry/Special Education
Ontario Ministry of Education: Special Ed

Hincks Delicrest Centre
Free mental health resources. "The Hincks-Dellcrest Centre is a children's mental health centre located in Toronto, Canada, that provides prevention, early intervention, and treatment services to infants, children, and youth who live in local communities. For over thirty years, these services have included mental health consultation services to teachers and other school personnel"

LDAO Home Page
Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario. "The Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario is a registered charity dedicated to improving the lives of children, youth and adults with learning disabilities. Our mission is to provide leadership in learning disabilities advocacy, research, education and services and to advance the full participation of children, youth and adults with learning disabilities in today's society."

Implications for Classification using Canadian WAIS Norms
"The ramifications of utilizing the different norms were examined with regard to psychoeducational assessments and educational placement decisions particularly with respect to the diagnoses of Learning Disability and Intellectual Disability. "

Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory and Applications *

Cattell Horn Carrol Theory is the basis of an assessment process known as cross battery assessment (usually abbreviated as XBA). There are a number of books on the subject, but what follows are some online links to materials available for free. (Added October 5, 2017)

An Overview of the XBA Approach by Dawn Flanagan.
:Flanagan and colleagues transformed the practice of crossing batteries into a method that is both psychometrically and theoretically defensible. A slideshow presentation

The CHC Cross Battery Approach by Flanagan and Alfonso
" The XBA approach provides practitioners with the means to make systematic,
valid, and up-to-date interpretations of intelligence batteries and to augment them with other tests
in a way that is consistent with the empirically supported CHC theory of cognitive abilities."

CHC Theory, Cross Battery Assessment, SLD
A YouTube presentation on the topic by Dr. Vincent Alfonso

Also see: Dumont-Willis CHC

The Mind Hub
Mindhub replaces Kevin's IQ Corner and IAP home page. " MindHub™ is an internet portal that organizes cutting edge information and resources focused on measuring and improving the performance of the human mind and other domains of personal competence. MindHub™ represents a strategic partnership between the Institute for Applied Psychometrics (IAP) and Interactive Metronome ®"

The Cattell-Horn-Caroll Theory (Wiley On-line Library)
"The Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of cognitive abilities is the most comprehensive and empirically supported psychometric theory of the structure of cognitive abilities to date. "

Psychology of CHC - SlideShare Presentation
23 Slides

Neuropsychological Assessment and CHC
A dissertation by James Hoelzle (2008) with a literature review

Conduct and Oppositional Defiant Disorders *

Mental Health of America: Conduct Disorder
"Conduct disorder is a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in children and adolescents in which the rights of others or basic social rules are violated. The child or adolescent usually exhibits these behavior patterns in a variety of settings-at home, at school, and in social situations-and they cause significant impairment in his or her social, academic, and family functioning."

Mental Health: Conduct Disorder
"Conduct disorder is a severe condition characterized by hostile and sometimes physically violent behavior and a disregard for others. Children with CD exhibit cruelty, from early pushing, hitting and biting to, later, more than normal teasing and bullying, hurting animals, picking fights, theft, vandalism, and arson. Since childhood and adolescent conduct disorder often develops into the adult antisocial personality disorder, it should be addressed with treatment as early as possible; the earlier treatment starts, the better the outlook."

Medline Plus: Conduct Disorder
"Conduct disorder is a set of ongoing emotional and behavioral problems that occurs in children and teens. Problems may involve defiant or impulsive behavior, drug use, or criminal activity."

Kids Mental Health: Conduct Disorder Oppostional Defiant Disorder onduct disorder/ODD is an exhausting disorder affecting children, or the entire family, when a child with the disorder behaves in a manner resembling the terrible two's magnified by 50."

Conduct Disorder vs. Oppositional Defiant Disorder
Teens with Problems (Differences based on the DSM IV)

NIH article on Predictors of Social Maladjustment in Boys
Symptoms of Conduct Disorder, Oppositional Defiant Disorder, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and Callous-Unemotional Traits as Unique Predictors of Psychosocial Maladjustment in Boys: Advancing an Evidence Base for DSM-5.

Confidentiality *

Also see our page on FERPA

Home Page for FPCO
Family Policy Compliance Office (FPCO), United States Department of Education office responsible for enforcing FERPA and the PPRA. Includes links to regulations, model parent notifications, and relevant court cases

Joint Guidance on FERPA and HIPAA
Joint FERPA & HIPAA Guidance from the United States Department of Health and Department of Education; where FERPA rules, HIPAA does not. Explains when HIPAA does apply in a public school setting

Additional federal guidance on HIPAA
Department of Health and Human Services guidance on the medical privacy law

Wrightslaw on FERPA
An alternative source of FAQs. articles, caselaw, and other resources on FERPA

IDEA and FERPA Confidentiality Provisions
A side by side comparison by the United States Department of Education of the legal requirements imposed by Part B, Part C, and FERPA Regulations

OSEP Letter to Charlcie Flinn May 8, 2013
Provides requested clarification of how FERPA and HIPAA relate to Part C programs

ELCTA Webinar Summary on Confidentiality Questions
"This brief provides answers to commonly asked questions about the sharing of sensitive child-level data and summarizes seven key points to know about FERPA and HIPAA on sharing education and health data - with an emphasis on data obtained and used by early childhood education programs. It is based on a webinar sponsored by the Early Learning Challenge Technical Assistance (ELC TA) program on April 21, 2014."

Curriculum-Based Assessment (CBA), Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM), Response to Intervention (RTI), Problem-Solving Model (PSM) *

Also see Multi-Tiered System of Supports below

Mark Shinn's Resources and Downloads Page
One of the most comprehensive collections of downloadable materials on RTI on the Internet.

DIBELS Home Page
The official DIBELS homepage. "The UO DIBELS Data System was developed and is maintained by education experts at the University of Oregon's Center on Teaching and Learning."

DIBELS for younger children
DIBELS for younger children. "This web site is dedicated to assessing the results of early intervention and early childhood special education services provided young children birth through age 3. "

University of Minnesota Early Education
Progress monitoring tools Univ. of Minnesota. "Obtain informational materials and assessment tools (IGDIs) for measuring the growth of young children's language and literacy development."

AIMSweb probes and research on CBM

RIPM (Research on Progress Monitoring)
Research Institute on Progress Monitoring

Heartland AEA 11
Heartland Area Agency, Johnston, Iowa Special Education Page Heartland AEA 11 was the pioneer in problem solving models and response to intervention cited by OSERS in the 2006 Final Regulations for the IDEA.

FCRR DIBELS
Florida Center for Reading Research DIBELS

Intervention Central
Jim Wright's Intervention Central

National Association of State Directors of Special Education
RTI Policies & Procedures book order form. (Note: state plans take precedence over NASDSE recommendations.)

RTI Graphing Tools for School Psychologists
Graphing tools for use in academic and behavioral monitoring : McDougal, Clark, & Wilson

National Center on Response to Intervention
National Center on Response to Intervention. "The American Institutes for Research (AIR) ran the National Center on Response to Intervention (NCRTI) from 2007-2012 with a grant from the Office of Special Education Programs. When the Center's federal funding ended in 2012, AIR took over upkeep and maintenance of the Center's website and products. The website's updated look reflects this change, but products developed under the NCRTI name continue to be available and free to the public"

Also see our web page
State Links
for state specific links to regional resources on RTI

Deafness and Hearing Loss *

Accessible Travel Travel Tips for people with hearing impairments (and other disabilities) by Patti Jackson (Wakanow.com travel agency)

ASDC Home Page
The American Society for Deaf Children provides resources for families, educators, and providers, including information for parents about the IDEA.

BEGINNINGS for Parents.
"BEGINNINGS for Parents of Children who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing is a non-profit that helps parents and families understand hearing loss, and the diverse needs of children who are deaf or hard of hearing." (5/18)

CLAS Institute Tech Report 6
Guide for serving hearing children with deaf parents

Closed Captioning and Other Assistive Technologies Video Caption Corporation (OSEP approved vendor)

Deaf Interpreters Registry
"The Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, Inc. promotes excellence in the delivery of interpreting services among diverse users of signed and spoken languages through professional development, networking, advocacy, and standards."

DEAF Websites
A comprehensive list of websites for the deaf and hearing impaired Annotated listing. (5/18)

English to ASL Converter
ASL software. Provides a visual and written description of the ASL equivalent of any word in their dictionary. Quicktime is needed to see the pictures.

Galludet Home Page
Gallaudet University. Many links and resources.

Hearing Loss Association Home Page
"HLAA provides assistance and resources for people with hearing loss and their families to learn how to adjust to living with hearing loss. HLAA is working to eradicate the stigma associated with hearing loss and raise public awareness about the need for prevention, treatment, and regular hearing screenings throughout life."

Hearmore.com
Products for the deaf and hard of hearing from a commercial vendor

Listening and Spoken Language Center
Alexander Graham Bell Association - "On this page you will find a full listing of information and resources to help you learn about your child's hearing loss, and things you can do to ensure they have access to language as early as possible. "

NAD Home Paage
National Association of the Deaf describes itself as the premier civil rights organization for people who are deaf in the United States

National Consortium on Deaf Blindness
National Consortium on Deaf-Blindness provide resources and a transition toolkit for enhancing self determination for young adults who are deaf and blind.

OCR: Serving Deaf Students
"The Department provides additional guidance about part B of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (section 504) as they relate to the provision of appropriate education service to students who are deaf."

Resources for Teachers of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students.
A web page from a Wisconsin middle school with links to nine useful resources for teachers. Partially annotated. (5/18)

Unilateral Hearing Loss (UHL) *

ASHA on Unilateral Hearing Loss
"Children with UHL may have difficulties in school. Being aware of these difficulties may help you and/or your child's teacher to catch any problems early. Help is always available for your child."

Resources for Children with Hearing Loss
"Many people think that if you hear fine in one ear that the other ear will make up for the ear with the hearing loss. This is not true. Having typical hearing in only one ear can result in learning problems that parents need to know about."

Resources for Children One Page Handout
A handy dandy handout for teachers and parents from Resources for Children above.

National Workshop on Mild and Unilateral Hearing Loss (2005)
C DC Workshop Proceedings on UNL in 2005. 74 pages.

CDC Workshop Publication
Intended for professionals, this is a 74 page publication of the proceedings from a 2005 Workshop on Mild and Unilateral Hearing Loss

Indiana UHL Handout
Although specifically written for the Indiana Early Hearing detection, the content is universally applicable.

Discipline *

King Sends Letter to States Calling for an End to Corporal Punishment in the Schools. " U.S. Education Secretary John B. King Jr. sent a letter today [November 25, 2016] urging state leaders to end the use of corporal punishment in schools, a practice repeatedly linked to harmful short-term and long-term outcomes for students." Added January 5, 2017.

NEA: Why are 19 States Still Allowing Corporal Punishment. "Between 1974 and 1994, 25 states would ban the practice, recognizing that it was an ineffective and inappropriate school discipline measure.."

Eating Disorders *

NEDA Toolkit
The NEDA Parent Toolkit was created to provide some of these tools that can be used in critical moments in your search for help, hope and healing. As one parent told us, "this toolkit was exactly the resource we needed when we started the journey for our family, we needed real resources, reassurance that we were not the only family with the challenge and that there would be light at the end of that tunnel."

Kid Who Won't Eat: How to Help Children with Eating Disorders
Parents.com: "We're not talking about run-of-the-mill food issues; these are children as young as 9 who battle anorexia and bulimia. Learn the danger signs so that you can protect your child."

NIMH: Eating Disorders in Children
NIH: "While many people are concerned about what they eat and their body image, eating disorders are marked by extremes. They are present when a person experiences severe disturbances in their eating behavior, such as extreme reduction of food intake or extreme overeating, or feelings of extreme distress or concern about body weight or shape."

Mayo Clinic: Eating Disorders Symptoms
"Symptoms vary, depending on the type of eating disorder. Anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and binge-eating disorder are the most common eating disorders"

PWS is a complex genetic disorder affecting appetite, growth, metabolism, cognitive function and behavior. It is typically characterized by low muscle tone, short stature (when not treated with growth hormone), incomplete sexual development, cognitive disabilities, behavioral problems, and the hallmark characteristics - chronic feelings of insatiable hunger and a slowed metabolism that can lead to excessive eating and life-threatening obesity. Those who have PWS need intervention and strict external controls, sometimes including padlocking access to food, to maintain normal weight and to help save their lives.

International Prader-Willi Syndrome Organization
"IPWSO is the international non-profit support group for all countries where there is even just one person with Prader-Willi Syndrome! Our international umbrella supports all country PW Associations, and for all countries where there are no formal PW Associations, we support medical and parent delegates as part of our huge community. IPWSO has 102 country members, and is a world-wide parent-led support organsation."

NORD: Prader-Willi Syndrome
National Organization of Rare Diseases: "Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) is a genetic multisystem disorder characterized during infancy by lethargy, diminished muscle tone (hypotonia), feeding difficulties, and poor weight gain. In childhood, features of this disorder include short stature, small genitals and an excessive appetite because affected individuals do not feel satisfied after completing a meal."

Emotional Disabilities *

For Sped Resources on ED, click here on Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Issues

For a more extensive review of social maladjustment, OSEP letters, and caselaw, click here on Emotional Disabilities

English Language Learning (ESL, ELL, ESOL, LEP) *

Referring and Evaluating English Language Learners for Programs and Services for Children with Special Needs. A North Carolina School Psychology Association position paper. Included in this 23 page document are helpful forms for documenting relevant information regarding the student's BICS and CALP skills as well as a social history of particular helpfulness in helping teams rule out language as the determining factor in a student's math and/or reading problems. (Added January 18, 2018)

Non-Regulatory Guidance: English Learners and Title III of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), as amended by the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) September 23, 2016. (October 11, 2016)

"In too many places across the country, English learners get less access to quality teachers, less access to advanced coursework, and less access to the resources they need to succeed. Together, we can change that reality," said U.S. Secretary of Education John B. King Jr. "Under the Every Student Succeeds Act, we have an opportunity to give students the gift of bilingualism and of multilingualism so they are prepared for college and career with a better sense of themselves, their community, their future, and a better appreciation for our diversity as a country."

OCR: Race and National Origin Discrimination August 17, 2016
Policy guidance materials related to Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

California English Language Learners August 17, 2016
"There are many programs and services to help students who do not speak, read, write or understand English well as a result of English not being their home language. The overall goal of the various programs is to improve the English language skills of English Learner students, Immigrant students, Migrant students and provide information to their parents about services available."

OSEP Q and A on Assessing ELL Students (2015)
"The questions and answers included in this document are intended to help States and LEAs address these challenges, and more broadly, to understand how Part B of the IDEA and Titles I and III of the ESEA address the inclusion of ELs with disabilities in annual State ELP assessments. "

Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services
(C.L.A.S. up to 2003) Culturally & Linguistically Approp. Services

Note: Also see Assessment Ethics on this page.

APA Ethical Code
"The American Psychological Association's (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (hereinafter referred to as the Ethics Code) consists of an Introduction, a Preamble, five General Principles and specific Ethical Standards." (Amended 2010)

Record Keeping for Private Psychologists
APA guidelines on record keeping. While not in and of themselves rising to the level of an ethical imperative, in those states that have incorporated these guidelines into their statutes, they would carry the force of law.

Ethics and Malpractice
Links with brief summaries to a variety of resources and articles on ethics. Examples: "Record Keeping Controversies," "21 Cognitive Strategies to Justify any Unethical Behavior," "On Violating Ethical Standards: 20 Easy Steps"

NASP Professional Ethics
Principles for Professional Ethics 2010

APA: 10 Ways Practitioners Can Avoid Ethical Pitfalls
"Boost your ethical know-how with these practical tips on avoiding common ethical quandaries."

National Conference of State Legislatures: Duty to Warn
"Duty to Warn" statutes for mental health professionals vary from state to state. This article provides a summary of the requirements in all 50 states. A good beginning point for any practitioner in either the public or private sector.

Tarasoff: Duty to Warn Clarified
The National Psychologist (2009): " since the court issued its subsequent ruling in 1976, the ruling now reads that when a therapist determines "... that his patient presents a serious danger of violence to another, he incurs an obligation to use reasonable care to protect the intended victim"

APA Judicial Notebook: Tarasoff Reconsidered (2005)
"The Tarasoff rule has been extended to include threats disclosed by family members."

Multiple Relationships and APA's New Ethics Code (2004)
"Multiple relationships that would not reasonably be expected to cause impairment or risk exploitation or harm are not unethical."

Duel Relationships, Multiple Relationships, Boundary Decisions
The major categories of this section are

decision-making guides;

excerpts addressing dual relationships and multiple relationships from the standards and guidelines of professional associations;

quotes and Information about boundaries in therapy & counseling from articles, books, & studies;

articles on dual relationships, multiple relationships, and other boundary topics; and

related resources

APA Approved Online CEU Providers
Although professional licensing boards require documentation of continuing education units to maintain professional licensure, those hours can be obtained through on-line services providers, usually at considerably less expense than would be incurred through attendance at conferences or workshops . . . in fact, usually for less money than the cost of gasoline used to arrive and return. The link above is to a listing of APA approved service providers, all of whom provide courses in ethics. Check with your state licensing board to insure the acceptability of these units.

Ewing v. Goldstein, CA Court of Appeals, July 16, 2004
Decided for the Plaintiff. "We agree with the trial court that this information, considered alone, is insufficient to establish that Goldstein was aware that Colello intended to gravely injure Keith.vThis information, however, cannot be viewed in isolation.   The trial court also was required to consider the threat Colello shared with his father, which the father communicated to Goldstein.   If a fact finder, viewing this evidence and Goldstein's conduct, believed Colello's father told the therapist about his son's stated intentions to do physical violence, it could conclude Goldstein had sufficient information to trigger his duty to warn."

The Two Ewing Cases and Tarasoff (2005)
"Although the Ewing cases discussed herein refer to a "duty to warn," a psychotherapist's obligation when faced with a situation where his or her patient is likely to be violent towards others, pursuant to the original Tarasoff decision, is more properly regarded as a "duty to protect.""

Elliot v. North Carolina Psychology Board, NC Court of Appeals, 1997
Decision: for the Psychology Board. Not exactly a landmark case, but nevertheless illustrative of the factors a court might consider when a board decision based on the APA Ethical Code is challenged in an appeal to that court.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome *

National Organization on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
NOFAS: "Alcohol and Pregnancy. No safe amount. No safe time. No safe alcohol. Period."

KidsHealth: FAS
"When a woman drinks alcohol during pregnancy, she risks giving birth to a child who will pay the price - in mental and physical deficiencies - for his or her entire life."

CDC: Facts about FASDs
Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): "Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) are a group of conditions that can occur in a person whose mother drank alcohol during pregnancy. These effects can include physical problems and problems with behavior and learning. Often, a person with an FASD has a mix of these problems."

FAS: Guidelines for Referral and Diagnosis
CDC: "This document represents the deliberations of clinicians, researchers, parents, and representatives of governmental and non-governmental organizations, whose main goals were to increase the identification of individuals with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) using uniform criteria, and to improve the delivery of appropriate services to those individuals and their families. These new guidelines will help achieve those goals by educating medical and allied health professionals about FAS."

Free Listservs, Subscriptions, and Groups *

School Psychologists Listserv
Subscribe: Send blank email to School-Psychology-Listserv-subscribe@yahoogroups.com
home page: School Psychology Listserv Home Page

Justia Court Decisions
Free Summaries of Court Decisions in Education law (or any area of practice) from Justia. Clicking the boxes next to each circuit will bring daily summaries on ALL cases decided by that Circuit; clicking on the weekly Education Practice option will only bring summaries (and links) to cases involving Education law.

Institute for Applied Psychometrics
Subscribe: IAPCHC-subscribe@yahoogroups.com
home page: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/IAPCHC
Web site: Institute for Applied Psychometrics Home Page

johnzerowillis@yahoo.com
Subscribe to Report Comments newsletter for evaluators
archived here and at http://www.asaif.net/

National Council for Learning Disabilities free email for parents of children with learning and attentional issues. Sign up for Understood.org can be accessed at link below. (Opens 8/1/2014)
Understood.org Home Page

Functional Behavioral Assessments and Positive Behavior Supports *

Practical Functional Behavioral Assessment Training Manual for School-Based Personnel
PBIS.ORG: "This participant's guide presents specific procedures for school-based personnel to conduct practical functional behavioral assessments (FBA). "

Functional Behavioral Assessment
IDEAPartnership.Org: "A functional behavior assessment is a comprehensive and individualized strategy to: * Identify the purpose or function of a student's problem behavior(s). * Develop and implement a plan to modify variables that maintain the problem behavior. * Teach appropriate replacement behaviors using positive interventions."

Functional Behaavior Assessments and Positive Interventions: What Parents Need to Know
Wrightslaw article: "We can teach appropriate behavior skills to children! To do so, we need to understand problem behaviors, such as where they occur and what purpose they serve for a child."

Postive Behavior Supports (NASP)
"PBS can target an individual student or an entire school, as it does not focus exclusively on the student, but also includes changing environmental variables such as the physical setting, task demands, curriculum, instructional pace and individualized reinforcement"

VA GUIDELINES FOR CONDUCTING FBA AND DEVELOPING POSITIVE BEHAVIOR INTERVENTION AND SUPPORTS/STRATEGIES
Virginia DOE: "School divisions are required to conduct FBAs and implement BIPs for students who have been subject to disciplinary actions where the conduct was determined to be a manifestation of the student's disability. "

Scientifically Based Research
Lianro WagenerSmith's references and resources

ABC Resources
A B C Teach resources for teachers

AFT Home Page
American Federation of Teachers: many links for educators

AHEAD Home Page
Association. on Higher Ed.ucation and Disability. "Committed to full participation of persons with disabilities in postsecondary education."

Library for Kids
Awesome Library for Kids links

Beloit Mindset
Knowledge base of college freshmen

Common Core Standards
Link to Common Core reading & math standards

The Master Teacher Home Page
Behavior management from The Master Teacher

Teacher Resources
Foundation for Child Development (FCD)

Free Resources for Civic Learning
Civics games and activities

Interventioncentral.org
Intervention Central: instruction and behavior ideas. "Intervention Central provides teachers, schools and districts with free resources to help struggling learners and implement Response to Intervention and attain the Common Core Standards."

iowa AEA Procedures Manual
Iowa AEA sped procedures manual

Khan Academy
Learn almost anything, completely free, forever

The Learning Page Home Page
Commercial teaching materials, some free samples

NAEYC Home Page
National Association for the Education Of Young Children

NASDSE
National. Association of State Directors of Special Educucation

NEA Home Page .
National Education Association (NEA)

Northwest Regional Education Libraryl
Northwest Regional Education. Library

New Horizons (John Hopkins)
New Horizons for Learning Johns Hopkins Univ.

Project Read
Project Read

The Resource Room
The Resource Room information for teachers

Many More Links
Many links - University of Wisconsin Waisman Center

What Works Clearinghouse
U.S. Department of Education What Works Clearinghouse (WWC). "The What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) was established in 2002 as an initiative of the Institute for Education Sciences (IES) at the U.S. Department of Education. The WWC is administered by the National Center for Education Evaluation within IES. The goal of the WWC is to be a resource for informed education decision making."

Helpfriend.org
Ennis Cosby memorial with good Rx's for teachers in the areas of autism, ADHD and dyslexia

Institute for Research and Policy on Acceleration
Grade acceleration for gifted children

New Hampshire Gifted and Talented Regs
NH regulations for gifted children

Gifted Development Center Home Page
Gifted Development Center

Hoagies Gifted Home Page
Hoagie's Gifted Education Page

Indiana University Links to Tests for the Gifted
Links to tests

New Hampshire Association for Gifted Education
New Hampshire Association for Gifted Education

NAGC Home Page
National Association for Gifted Children

Wrightslaw: Twice Exceptional Children
Gifted Children with Special Educational Needs

A History of School Psychology
A brief history of school psychology from the NY Association of School Psychologists

A History of Psychology
A history of psychology provided by About.com

Smithsonian History of Disability
Smithsonian Artifact History of Disability in USA

VeryWellMind: The Origins of Psychology
"While the psychology of today reflects the discipline's rich and varied history, the origins of psychology differ significantly from contemporary conceptions of the field. " (6/9/2018)

History of the Stanford Binet
1904 Binet-Simon

Homework Help and Other Materials for Students (and evaluators) *

Dictionary and Thesaurus
Merriam-Webster Dictionary & Thesaurus

Inspiration App
Software for graphic organizers and visual tools (Paid Apps)

Washington Univ. College Survival Skills
Study tips

Dartmouth University Reading Tips
Reading myths, active reading strategies

Information on Specific Tests *

For more detailed information on specific tests, see the drop down menu for Test Info or click on Links to Other Test Tools Pages

Differential Ability Scales II
DAS-II information

Northwest Evaluation Association Home Page
Northwest Evaluation Association NWEA MAP

WISC IV Resources
WISC-IV Technical Reports, etc.

WAIS IV Information
WAIS-IV information

WPPSI IV Information
WPPSI-IV

APA FAQ
APA information on finding tests

ASHA Directory of Speech/Language Tests
Information on many speech and language tests

Stanford Binet Ordering Information, Bulletins
Stanford-Binet Assessment Service Bulletins

WJ III Order Information and Additional Resources
WJ III Assessment Service Bulletins

RIAS PowerPoint
RIAS PowerPoint

Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities *

How Can a Person's Reading Score be Higher than Their IQ
John Willis's super simple explanation of predicting achievement based on IQ. July 16, 2016.

Mental Retardation: Determining SSA Eligibility
A free download of a 2002 book that is still useful; but see Rosa's Law and the SSA Blue Book for updated information

Act of Congress officially changing the term "mental retardation" to "intellectual disability" in all federal legislation and regulations

Forest Gump and IQ Expectations
Why IQ scores are poor predictors of individual achievement

SSA Childhood Criteria for Mental Disorders
See Section 112.05 for SSA Eligibility Criteria for Intellectual Disability

AAIDD Home Page
American Association on Intellectual & Developmental Disabilities seeks to enhance the capacity of disability professionals and to participate in the development of a fully inclusive society.

AAID Definition of Intellectual Disability
Definition of Intellectual Disability; has served in part or whole as the basis for many federal and state definitions

New Hampshire Council on Developmental Disabilities
NH Council on Developmental Disabilities

Think College Home Page
College for students with intellectual disabilities

The ARC Home Page
The ARC. "We are the largest national community-based organization advocating for and serving people with intellectual and developmental disabilities and their families"

The Waisman Center Home Page
University of Wisconsin Waisman Center.

Several states, Pennsylvania being the latest, have passed laws requiring physicians to provide parents with information on Down's Syndrome when diagnostic testing identifies the genetic defect. The following links are intended to supplement whatever information may be provided by those states. Down Syndrome Law Stirs Debate

Mayo Clinic: Down Syndrome
"Better understanding of Down syndrome and early interventions can greatly increase the quality of life for children and adults with this disorder and help them live fulfilling lives"

DSEO: Mental health, behaviour and intellectual abilities of people with Down syndrome
"The mental health, adaptive behaviour and intellectual abilities of people with Down syndrome (n=129) were evaluated in a population-based survey of social and health care records."

CDC: Facts About Down Syndrome
"Down syndrome remains the most common chromosomal condition diagnosed in the United States. Each year, about 6,000 babies born in the United States have Down syndrome. This means that Down syndrome occurs in about 1 out of every 700 babies"

NADS Home Page
National Association for Down Syndrome. "Since its inception in 1961 NADS has always believed that parents helping parents is a very powerful concept and most parents find that some of their greatest resources are other parents." Primarily serves the Chicago Metropolitan Area

Scitable: Trisomy 21 Causes Down Syndrome "A century after Down syndrome was first described, scientists discovered that the root cause of this disorder is a condition called trisomy 21. What strides in research have been made since then?"

The National Advocate for People with Down Syndrome since 1979
"The mission of the National Down Syndrome Society is to be the national advocate for the value, acceptance and inclusion of people with Down syndrome."

EEOC
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (federal ADAAA resources)

Yahoo Web Group: IEP Guide
Two Web pages with extensive special education

Yahoo Listserv on Special Education
Information for parents and advocates

National Center for Education Statistics
National Center for Education Statistics

Final Regulations on Parent Consent (IDEA 2004)
Final Regulations related to parental consent for the use of public benefits or insurance

U nited States Access Board Home Page
Section 508 information (technology accessibility)

United States Census Bureau
Population data

Living with Disability
Federal Resource Center for Special Education

United States Department of Education Home Page
US Department of Education Home Page

U.S. Dept. of Education Office for Civil Rights Home Page
OCR

OCR FAQ on Section 504
FAQ about Section 504

OCR Rights Handout
OCR Know your Rights under 504

OCR Reading Room
Office of Civil Rights Reading Room guidance on Title VI, IX, the ADA, and Section 504

Preparing Students for Post Secondary Transition
Office of Civil Rights on post-secondary transition

NCLB federal guidance
U.S. Dept. of Ed.: No Child Left Behind (ESEA)

OCR report on High Stakes Testing (archived)
OCR on high stakes testing

OSEP Resources for Families
DOE Technical Assistance & Dissemination

FPCO Home Page
Family Policy Compliance Office (FPCO)

FERPA and HIPAA Guidance (Joint Memo)
Joint FERPA & HIPAA Guidance from the United States Department of Health and Human Services and the United States Department of Education

Recent Changes Affecting FERPA and the PPRA Recent changes in FERPA and the PPRA.

The PPRA
Protection of Pupil Rights Act information

504 Regulations (Dept. of Education)
Section 504 Regulations

FCC Telecom Fact Sheet
FCCTelecom Relay Services Fact Sheet

FCC Telecommunications Relay Service
FCC TRS and 711 phone no. guide

Findlaw
Legal references

Code of Federal Regulations
Code of Federal Regulations

HHS HIPAA
HIPAA information: federal medical privacy

LRP Home Page
Special ed. law, IDEA

National Center on Secondary Education and Transition
NCSET analyses of IDEIA w/ emphasis on transition

PAttan
Penn. Training and Technical Assistance Network

Section 508 Guidance
Section 508 technology accessibility rules

Southern Poverty Law Center
Southern Poverty Law Center - antidiscrimination
DOJ ADA Page
Americans with Disabilities Act page

What Works Clearinghouse
U.S.D.O.E. What Works Clearinghouse (WWC)

Wrightslaw
Excellent parent-oriented sped law web site

Justia
Free Summaries of Court Decisions in Education law (or any area of practice) from Justia

Learning Disabilities (Dyslexia, Dyscalculia, Dysgraphia) *

Also see: Reading, Math, Writing, and our pages on Dyslexia, and Specific Learning Disabilities

A Response to the Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA) White Paper on Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD) Identification (see next link below)
"Our consortium of experts is expressing concern that the LDA White Paper may, indeed, be
used to 'provide guidance' but, if heeded, would work against the interest of large numbers of
America's children. We contend that schools nationwide who are working diligently to advance
evidence-based early intervention efforts may be distracted, at best, by efforts to ensure specific
learning disabilities (SLD) eligibility based on a pattern of cognitive strengths and weaknesses
(PSW) without sufficient evidence of efficacy."
LDA White Paper on SLD
" ThisWhite Paper project was undertaken to address the Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA) concerns regarding the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004 statutory and regulatoryrequirements for the identification of Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD), and the subsequent U. S. Department of Education Final Regulations and Commentary regarding implementation of IDEIA (34 CFR Parts 300 and 301;Federal Register, 2006). "

The IDEA delegated the power to provide an operational definition of specific learning disabilities to each state. While the public agencies in each state are required to apply those procedures, each state's operational definition will in some ways be unique to that state. Contact the SEA in your state for those criteria (see State Regulations )

Academic Accommodations for Students with Learning Disabilities
As the number of individuals being diagnosed with learning disabilities has increased, so have the understanding and utilization of academic and technological strategies for accommodation. There are a number of things instructors can do while planning a course to make it more accessible to all students, including those with learning disabilities. Proactively consider these strategies is part of a process called universal design (UD). (July 15, 2016)

Rethinking Learning Disabilities for the 21st Century
Published by the Thomas B. Foundation and Progressive Policy Institute in 2001, this paper was influential in providing a foundation for change in how SLD is identified.

2004 Learning Disabilities Roundtable Report
A consensus state prepared by major stakeholders including the National Association of School Psychologists, the Association of Educational Therapists, the Association of Speech-Language Hearing Association, the Association for Higher Learning and Education and Disability, the Council for Exceptional Children, the Council for Learning Disabilties, the Learning Disabilities Association, the International Dyslexia Association, the International Reading Association, the National Association of State Directors for Special Education, the National Association for the Education of African Americans with Learning Dissabilities, and the National Center for Learning Disabilities

All Kinds of Minds
Mel Levine on learning differences

Children & Adults with ADD

International Dyslexia Association
International Dyslexia Association

LDA Home Page
Learning Disabilities Assoc. of America. "LDA Visualizes a World in Which: all individuals with learning disabilities are empowered to thrive and participate fully in society; the incidence of learning disabilities is reduced; and learning disabilities are universally understood and effectively addressed. LDA's mission is to create opportunities for success for all individuals affected by learning disabilities and to reduce the incidence of learning disabilities in future generations."

LD Online Home Page
LD Online, "The site features hundreds of helpful articles, multimedia, monthly columns by noted experts, first person essays, children's writing and artwork, a comprehensive resource guide, very active forums, and a Yellow Pages referral directory of professionals, schools, and products."

LDA Affiliates
Local Affiliates of the LDA

NCLD Home Page
National Center for Learning Disabilities

Neuropsychology Central
Neuropsychology

Nonverbal Learning Disorder on the Web Nonverbal learning disorder

Vanderbilt Children's Hospital Resources
Vanderbilt University resources

Word Finding Difficulties
Word Finding Web site

LDAResponsefinal
T here was a response to this paper in 2010 by a number of noted researchers. In their prefatory remarks to their "take" on this controversial issue, they wrote " We assert that these scholars are not representative of the field of special education, especially SLD, and, in fact, represent a narrow bias toward cognitive PSW. Furthermore, when specific practices are advocated as public policy by experts, we believe any such recommendations should be able to be evaluated by the reader based on transparency. In the LDA White Paper, potential conflicts of interest were not possible because there were no disclosure efforts."

Also see on this website Specific Learning Dissabilties for some additional references

MFaCTS Combo - Assessment for grades 1 - 12, 15 to 20 minutes administration time. (Added 4/14/2016)
Assesses math fluency and math calculation skills and is closely aligned to the national curriculum.

Dream Box Math "DreamBox Learning© Math offers a research-based on-line math intervention program for students identified as struggling with math or who require additional academic support. Use DreamBox Learning independently, in small groups, or with instructors to overcome math challenges at each of the three Tiers.

Dr. Math
FAQs about math; send in questions to Dr. Math

Illuminations: Resource for Teaching Math
NCTM Illuminations - standards, lessons, links

National Council of Math Teachers
Nat. Council of Teachers of Math (NCTM) Standards

AAA Math Home Page
Math instruction and practice

Math Stories
Math word problems

Math Worksheets Land
Julia Leonard's thousands of free math worksheets, etc. (Aligned with Common Core)

Dave's Math Tables
Dave's Math Tables

Drug Side Effects
The website above also provides a quick an easy way to identify common drug side effects, School psychologists may defensibly cut and paste those into an evaluation, with a caution to parents and teachers to report them if observed to their medical provider. "A side effect is usually regarded as an undesirable secondary effect which occurs in addition to the desired therapeutic effect of a drug or medication." Side effects can also adversely affect educational performance or, in and of themselves, cause a substantial limitation resulting from a disability.

RxList - The Internet Drug Index
Another reliable source for side effect information on common (and some uncommon) drugs

WebMD Drugs and Medical Information
One more excellent site for searching for and finding information on what drugs are used to treat and what their side effects might be

Family Doctor
American Academy of Family Physicians

Health Library
EBSCO Health Library

Best of the Web Health Information
"Best of the Web" health information

National Health and Nutrition Survey
Center for Disease Control

Center Watch: Cllinical Trials
Information on helping people connect with clinical trials

Children with Diabetes
Children with Diabetes

Drug Information
Drug information on over 23,000 prescription medications

Drug Interaction Checker
Drug interactions

Drug Watch
Warnings and alerts about drugs and devices

Epilepsy Foundation Home Page
Epilepsy.com

Food Allergy Research and Education
Food Allergy & Anaphylaxis Network

Healthfinder.gov
Links to many health-related sites

Health on Net Search Engine
Health On Net Foundation search engine

Mayo Clinic Home Page
Mayo Clinic

Pubmed
PubMed searchable medical databases

U.S. National Library of Medicine
National Library of Medicine

NIH Medline Plus
National Library of Medicine "easy-access site"

Guide to Health Fraud
Stephen Barrett, MD, Guide to Health Fraud

RX List
Internet Drug Index

Stanford Univ.: Childhood Sleep Apnea
Childhood Sleep Apnea

Carepages.com
Set up a Web page to post updates about a hospital patient's condition and a bulletin board to post messages to the patient and family. Great service.

Memory Assessments *

Test of Memory and Learning - Second Edition. (Added 4/14/2016)
"The TOMAL-2 includes 8 core subtests, 6 supplementary subtests, and 2 delayed recall tasks that evaluate general and specific memory functions; features composite memory scores for Verbal Memory, Nonverbal Memory, and a Composite Memory Index; has supplementary composite scores that include a Verbal Delayed Recall Index, Learning Index, Attention and Concentration Index, Sequential Memory Index, Free Recall Index, and an Associate Recall Index"

Mood Disorders *

Also see: Anxiety Disorders

Depression in Children
"This site is Internet's central clearinghouse for information on all types of depressive disorders and on the most effective treatments for individuals suffering from Major Depression, Manic-Depression (Bipolar Disorder), Cyclothymia, Dysthymia and other mood disorders."

MedlinePlus: Mood Disorders
"Mood disorders can increase a person's risk for heart disease, diabetes, and other diseases. Treatments include medication, psychotherapy, or a combination of both. With treatment, most people with mood disorders can lead productive lives."

Mood Disorders and ADHD
Healthychildren.org: "The mood disorders most likely to be experienced by children with ADHD include dysthymic disorder, major depressive disorder (MDD), and bipolar disorder."

Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) *

Also see Section on Curriculum Based Assessment above and under Spedlaw/State Regulations, Part B, see the RTI links for each state.

National Center on Intensive Intervention

MTSS, RTI, Special Education - Fuchs and Jenkins
"The essential components of MTSS are as follows: screening, progress monitoring, a multilevel prevention system, and data-based decision making (National Center on Response to Intervention, 2010)"

Intensiveintervention.org
" Intensive intervention helps students with severe and persistent learning or behavioral needs. The Center's approach to intensive intervention is data-based individualization (DBI)"

The Iris Center

Evidence Based Practice Summaries
"These summaries of research about the effectiveness of instructional strategies and interventions contain links to research reports and include information about an intervention's level of effectiveness and the age groups for which it is designed."

Sample Professional Development Activity Collection
"Our Sample Professional Development (PD) Activity Collection is designed to serve as a resource to PD providers creating training events both for practicing educators and beginning teachers engaged in induction experiences."
CEEDER CENTER
CEEDER Center Home
"CEEDAR stands for "Collaboration for Effective Educator Development, Accountability and Reform." We help states and institutes of higher education reform their teacher and leader preparation programs, revise licensure standards to align with reforms, refine personnel evaluation systems, and realign policy structures and professional learning systems."

MTSS Connected Educator Video
" Transforming Education Preparation Through CEEDAR efforts, leveraging MTSS as a Means to Prepare and Support Teachers in Meeting the Needs of ALL Students."

Center on Response to Intervention

Center on Response to Intervention
"Response to Intervention integrates assessment and intervention within a multi‐level prevention system to maximize student achievement and reduce behavior problems."

Self Paced Learning Modules
"The Center developed a series of self-paced learning modules for implementers of Response to Intervention (RTI). The learning modules are intended to provide foundational knowledge about the essential components of RTI and to build an understanding about the importance of RTI implementation. They were adapted from the RTI Implementer Series Training Modules upon which they are based.

Training Modules
"Training Modules can be used for self learning as well as shared in professional development settings to increase the understanding of RTI among all staff. Modules should be delivered by a trained, knowledgeable professional. These training modules are designed to be a component of comprehensive professional development that includes supplemental coaching and ongoing support."

RTI in Secondary Schools
"This collection of resources is specific to RTI implementation at the middle and high school levels. As a result of revisions to the website, links embedded within documents may no longer be correct. To ensure you are able to access supplemental or related materials search by the title of the document on the website."

National Center on Intensive Intervention

Training in Data Based Individualization
"This series of training modules developed by the National Center on Intensive Intervention (NCII) is aimed at district or school teams involved in initial planning or implementation of data-based individualization (DBI) as a framework for providing intensive intervention in academics and behavior. "

Making https://intensiveintervention.org/resource/cec-2015-strand-how-can-we-make-intensive-intervention-happen-considerations-knowledge Interventions Happen
"NCII presented a strand at Center for Exceptional Children (CEC) 2015 Convention and Expo. The strand, How Can We Make Intensive Intervention Happen? Considerations for Knowledge Development, Implementation, and Policy, address the range of issues schools and districts encounter as they attempt to implement intensive intervention-knowledge and skills, systems to support and evaluate implementation, and policy context. "

A Family Guide to MTSS
"This booklet reviews the basic components of any MTSS process and includes questions you might want to ask your child's school to learn more about their MTSS process. Also included are ways you can get involved in the process and what to do and where to go if you have questions or concerns. "

Muscular Dystrophy *

MDA K-12 Educational Resources k-12.
Explores the different educational accommodations that may be needed based on the particular diagnosis. Recommends assessing for the child's needs for accommodations.

MDA Accommodation Recommendations for Duchenne muscular dystropy.
Discusses physical therapy, occupational therapy, adaptive physical education

Diagnosis: Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD)
Same handout as above but in PDF format.

Parent Project Muscular Dystrophy
A 39 page publication with resources for both parents and teachers

Parent Project Muscular Dystrophy: Recommended Assessment
Every child with muscular dystroophy is going to be as unique as the other children in his or her classroom. This online resource recommends screenings that may suggest further evaluations necessary to complete a sufficiently comprehensive evaluation.

6 Educational Resources from the MDA.
In addition to providing a brief overview of resources for parents, this web page allows concerned parties to sign up for a free weekly newsletter.

Office for Civil Rights *
Office for Civil Rights Home Page
OCR's mission is to ensure equal access to education and to promote educational excellence through vigorous enforcement of civil rights in our nation's schools.
Find out More

Also see our web page Spedlaw/OSEP and OSERS Guidance

OSEP Memos, Dear Colleague Letters and Policy Letters
"OSEP provides information, guidance and clarification regarding implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act( IDEA) in a number of ways including OSEP Memos and Dear Colleague Letters, and OSEP Policy Letters"

Orthopedic Impairments *

Remodeling for Special Needs
"This guide will identify legal and financial resources available to citizens, seniors, and veterans, offer tips to hire the right home remodeler, and suggest modifications throughout the home to make the space as accommodating as possible." Some of the information therein would also be applicable to children with disabilities.

SATH Home Page
Society for Accessible Travel and Hospitality

Orthopedic Impairments for Teachers
"The purpose of this project is to design a comprehensive website for parents, teachers, and students on Orthopedic Impairments." Includes some links to additional resources

Online Guide to Becoming a Phyical Therapy Assistant
Physical Therapy Aide

Mobility International USA
Mobility International: exchange programs

Other Health Impairments *

Also see: Tourette Syndrome

Also see: Muscular Dystrophy

CPIR Resources on Lead Poisoning (11/26/2017)
"This short resource page provides a brief overview of lead poisoning and connections to sources of additional information. It accompanies a longer fact sheet onOther Health Impairment" A useful resource for both Part B and Part C service providers.
The following five links provide information on Angelman's Syndrome (July 28 2016)
NORD: Angelman's Syndrome. (7/28/16)
"Angelman syndrome is a rare genetic and neurological disorder characterized by severe developmental delays and learning disabilities; absence or near absence of speech; inability to coordinate voluntary movements (ataxia); tremulousness with jerky movements of the arms and legs and a distinct behavioral pattern characterized by a happy disposition and unprovoked episodes of laughter and smiling."

Angelman Syndrome Foundation.. 7/28/16
"The Angelman Syndrome Foundation's mission is to advance the awareness and treatment of Angelman syndrome through education and information, research, and support for individuals with Angelman syndrome, their families and other concerned parties. We exist to give all of them a reason to smile, with the ultimate goal of finding a cure."

Genetics Home Reference: Angelman's Syndrome. 7/28/16
"Children with Angelman syndrome typically have a happy, excitable demeanor with frequent smiling, laughter, and hand-flapping movements. Hyperactivity, a short attention span, and a fascination with water are common. Most affected children also have difficulty sleeping and need less sleep than usual."

Mayo Clinic: Diseases and Disorders: Angelman Syndrome 7/28/16
"Angelman syndrome is a genetic disorder that causes developmental disabilities and neurological problems, such as difficulty speaking, balancing and walking, and, in some cases, seizures."

Boston Children's Hospital. 7/28/2016
Angelman syndrome is a complex genetic disorder that causes developmental and neurological problems, such as severe speech impairment and trouble walking and balancing (ataxia). 7/28/16

The CHARGE Syndrome Foundation Home Page
CHARGE Syndrome Foundation. "CHARGE syndrome is a recognizable (genetic) pattern of birth defects which occurs in about one in every 9-10,000 births worldwide. It is an extremely complex syndrome, involving extensive medical and physical difficulties that differ from child to child. "

The Charcot Marie Tooth Association Home Page
Charcot-Marie-Tooth Syndrome. "Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, or CMT, is a group of inherited disorders that affect the peripheral nerves, which are the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. There are more than 70 kinds of CMT. "

National Organization for Rare Disorders Home Page
NORD listing of rare diseases home page

TASH
TASH association for persons with severe disabilities

Waisman Center Home Page
University of Wisconsin Waisman Center. "Dedicated to the advancement of knowledge about human development, developmental disabilities, and neurodegenerative diseases."

NASET Other Health Impariments
National Association of Special Education Teachers Topic List for OHI

American Diabetes Association
Safe at School: American Diabetes Association

Managing Asthma
Managing Asthma: A Guide for Schools

National Diabetes Education Program
Helping the student with diabetes succeed: Americans with Disabilities Association

EPA: Improving Health in Schools
Improving Health in Schools: Environmental Protection Agency

Accessible Travel Travel tips for people needing wheelchairs (and with other disabilities) by Patti Jackson (Wakanow.com Travel Agency)

Birth Injury Guide
A comprehensive resource for families coping with birth trauma. "At Birth Injury Guide we strive to answer all your questions with the hope that we can help guide you and make your life a little easier if your child or loved one has a b

Minnesota Prader Willi Association
"Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) is a rare disorder present at birth that results in a number of physical, mental and behavioral issues."

University of Illinois: Disability Resources
Links to Instructional Resources on both physical and psychiatric disabilities.

Also see the links above for Autoimmune diseases and attention deficit hyperactive disorder

Parent, Advocacy, Resource, and Support Groups *

Learn to Become (Added Friday 13, 2018,)
A resource for all parents, not just for the parents of children with disabilities. However more and more children with diagnosed disabilities receiving services under the IDEA or Section 504 are contemplating educational opportunities post high school. "Many people use "job" and "career" interchangeably. While it's true that each involves working and a wage, a career goes well beyond a paycheck".

Quit Alcohol (September 9, 2016)
The Dangers of Drinking and Driving. "Alcohol affects you in a way that changes your judgement, depth perception as well as vital motor skills required to drive safely. Its easy to think you are driving normally when truly you are not."

Support for Military Families with Children with Disabilities
Support for military families with special needs family members is provided through the Exceptional Family Member Program (EFMP).

NICHCY Legacy Resources
NICHCY resources, no longer updated, are maintained in a searchable legacy database by the Center for Parent Information and Resources.

CDC on Preterm Birth
Preterm-related causes of death together accounted for 35% of all infant deaths in 2010, more than any other single cause. Preterm birth is also a leading cause of long-term neurological disabilities in children. Preterm birth costs the U.S. health care system more than $26 billion in 2005.

Regional Parent Training Centers
Regional Parent Training Center (Provides support to the PTIs, link above.)

State by State Special Education Information
State education departments for children with special needs

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Information
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Comm. Resource Center

Yahoo Group IEP 504
Two Web pages with extensive special education

Al-Anon Family Groups
Al-Anon, Alateen

Council of Parent Attorneys and ADvocates
Council of Parent Attorneys and Advocates

DisabilitiesSecrets.com Home Page
Social Security Disability Secrets

Gifts from Within for Survivors of Trauma
Gift From Within - survivors of trauma & victimization

Wrightslaw Yellow Pages
Wrightslaw state-by-state listing of parent resources

Kids Together, Inc Home Page
Kids Together, Inc. - support for inclusion

LDonline state by state LD Resources
State-by-state resource listings

Nar Anon
The Nar-Anon Family Groupis primarily for those who know or have known a feeling of desperation concerning the addiction problem of someone very near

Netlingo.com Home Page
Internet acronyms every parent should know

Our-Kids.org Home Page
Our-Kids for parents of children with disabilities

PACER Center Home Page
Parent Advocacy Coalition for Educational Rights

NH Parent Information Center
Parent Information Center - New Hampshire

Proactive Parent Home Page
Susan L. Hall and Louisa C. Moats, Ed.D

Sibling Support Project
Sibling Support Project sponsored by ARC

Wrightslaw Home Page
Excellent parent-oriented sped law web site

Primary Service Provider Model *

Note: the PSP Model has been adopted as a service delivery system by a number of Part C Providers. For specifics on how this model is being implemented or if it is being implemented in your state, contact your state's Part C lead agency. Also see our Spedlaw/ Part C page.

Virginia's Part C Intervention Program August 14, 2016
A 17 page overview of Virginia's Primary Service Program Model

American Physical Therapy Association: PSP Q and A August 14, 2016
The PSP Model from a Physical Therapist's perspective

Crosswalk with NASP Position Statement 8/12/2016

"This document highlights how position statements, resources and literature of various professions working in early intervention supports the early intervention key principles and reflects how these professions' services align with high quality early intervention practices. It is intended to promote dialogue within the early childhood community about the key principles and provision of high quality early intervention services, which each profession provides within their profession's scope of practice." (Not very specific, however, with respect to the psychologist's specific role. Editor)

Exploring Evidence Based Practices 8/12/2016
A review of Wisconsin's Primary Coaching Model.

The Journey to a Primary Service Provider Model 8/13/2016
A 42 page introduction to the PSP model. Large print, easy reading.

ASHA: Frequently Asked Questions by Qualified Early Intervention Service Providers 8/12/2016
A detailed overview of the ethical issues regarding PSP models with guidance that may be relevant to psychologists involved with PSP Models as well.

Early Steps: Child Medical Services: The Early Steps Approach 8/12/2016
Includes a brief discussion of ethical considerations on page 1.

Using a Primary Service Provider Approach to Teaming (8/12/2016)
American Physical Therapy Association: "The primary service provider (PSP) can be anyone who is part of the early intervention team. When the referral is first made to the early intervention program, the team decides which team member is the best match for the child and family. As the IFSP process continues through evaluation, assessment, and multiple conversations with the family, the team learns more about the needs and priorities of the family, the child, and the team members (which also includes the family). They share ideas and suggestions, and discuss who will be the most likely PSP. "

Using Primary Service Providers and Coaching in Early Intervention Programs 8/12/2016
Kansas University Center on Developmental Disabilities. "A primary service provider model uses a transdisciplinary process but details the role of this primary service provider team member."

Primary Service Provider - What does That Mean (8/112/2016
Early Interventions for Success Blog. " The PSP is the team member who will be the family's primary contact for EI services. This means that, while there may be more than one service listed on the IFSP, the PSP is the person who will see the family most often."

Connecticut Birth to Three (8/12/2016)
Connecticut's PSP Model

Psychology and Psychiatry Organizations *

American Psychological Association
American Psychological Association (APA)

APA State, Provincial, and Territorial Associations
APA state, provincial, territorial associations

International School Psychology Association
International School Psychology Association

American Psychiatric Association
American Psychiatric Association (APA)

Publishers and Book Sellers *

Add-all.com
Comparison shopping for books. " Save your TIME and MONEY with AddALL.com in your book shopping."

Academic Press
Academic Press. "Academic Press has been a leading publisher of scientific books for 70 years. It is best known throughout the international scientific community for the superior quality content of its publications, and of its extensive list of renowned authors, all leading experts in the scientific world, including Nobel Prize winners and honored scientific researchers."

Academic Therapy
Academic Therapy. "ATP is a publisher and distributor of assessments and resources for speech, language, occupational therapists, rehabilitation specialists, school psychologists, special education personnel, remedial reading teachers and others. "

Amazon
Amazon: commercial book seller. Many professional books are available at below the publishers' list price.

Achenbach System
"The Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA) offers a comprehensive approach to assessing adaptive and maladaptive functioning. "

Paperbacks for Educators
Discount Paperbacks for Educators

Barnes and Noble
Barnes and Noble: commercial book seller

Best Web Buys
Comparison shopping for books on line

Bookfinder.com
Books, including out of print

Earobics
"A proven, research-based intervention solution, Earobics directly impacts reading achievement in pre-K through third grade. Based on more than 20 years of research and practice in schools across the country, Earobics' unique instructional design provides a diverse, differentiated approach to literacy suited to each student's individual needs." Sometimes cited as a less expensive alternative to more costly programs like Fast ForWord.

College Books Direct
Used textbooks

Elesevier
Elsevier: Journal of School Psych., etc.

EPS Literacy and Intervention/
Educators Publishing Service

Educational Testing Service Home Page
Educational Testing Service

Pearson Assessment
Pearson Assessmentr

Houhgton Mifflin Home Page
Houghton Mifflin

Jessica Kingsley, Publishers
Jessica Kingsley Publishers (social/behavioral sciences)

Lindamood Bell Home Page Lindamood-Bell. "Lindamood-Bell® research-validated instruction in reading, comprehension and math is the foundation of our successful school partnerships"

Learning Ally Home Page
Learning Ally (was Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic) "Learning Ally services are limited to individuals with documented learning disabilities, vision impairment, or physical disabilities that impede the ability to process standard print" (Not for free)

Linguisystems Home Page
LinguiSystems. Recently acquired by Pro-Ed, this website also provides free downloads for speech language pathologists as well as commericial ("not for free") instructional materials

MHS Home Page
Multi-Health Systems "Multi-Health Systems Inc. (MHS) serves clients in educational, clinical, corporate, public safety, government, military, pharmaceutical, and research settings."

My Simon
Comparison shopping for books on line

PAR, INC Home Page
PAR (Psychological Assessment Resources)."We offer products in an array of assessment formats, including print materials, software, apps, and online testing materials, developed to meet the needs of professionals in psychology, mental health, counseling, education, forensics, pharmaceutical product development, and career counseling.."

PRO-Ed, Inc Home Page
Pro-Ed

Research Publisher
Research Publisher, book publisher

Riverside
Houghtin Mifflin Harcourt

Jerome Sattler, Publisher
Jerome Sattler

Sopris West
Tests and materials for at-risk students; IEP program

Wiley Book Fair
Wiley list of new books by course topic

WPS Publishers Western Psychological Services

Also see the myschoolpsychology.com web page on Disabilities/Specific Learning
Disability/Dyslexia.

NCLD - The Dyslexia Toolkit
"Much of what happens in a classroom is based on reading and writing. So it's important to identify dyslexia as early as possible. Using alternate learning methods, people with dyslexia can achieve success."
OSERS Letter on Dyslexia 10 23 2015

"The purpose of this letter is to clarify that there is nothing in the IDEA that would prohibit the use of the terms dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia in IDEA evaluation, eligibility determinations, or IEP documents."

Mindplay
"MindPlay Virtual Reading Coach® (MVRC) is an effective online reading program. It utilizes innovative technology to improve reading skills quickly and efficiently." Claims interventions for Tiers II and III.

Wilson Reading System
"As a structured literacy program based on phonological-coding research and Orton-Gillingham principles, WRS directly and systematically teaches the structure of the English language."

DIBELS
The Official DIBELS Home Page

Mountain Shadows Phonemic Awareness Dowloads
Mountain Shadows Phonemic Awareness Scale

Oregon Reading First
Oregon Reading First

Teaching IS Rocket Science (AFT) Teaching Reading is Rocket Science Louisa C. Moats

Reading First
Reading First resources from the United States Department of Education

Florida Center for Reading Research
Florida Center for Reading Research

International Children's Library
U. Maryland International Children's Digital Library

The International Dyslexia Association
International Dyslexia Association

Learning Ally
Learning Ally (was Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic)

NH Learning Resources
Assessment, tutoring, consultation, art therapy

NH IDA
NH Branch of the International Dyslexia Association

Proactive Parent Home Page
Susan L. Hall and Louisa C. Moats, Ed.D

International Reading Association
International Reading Association

Read Naturally
Products and information, e.g., reading fluency tables

Reading is Fundamental
Reading is Fundamental

SEDL Resources (Home)
SEDL Southwest Educational Development Lab

Reading A to Z
Reading A-Z educational links

AMPLIFY.com
Commercial reading software for hand-held computers

Response to Intervention Resources *

Every state has its own resources and guidelines on how to implement what is popularly known as RTI. We have links to most of those resources on our Spedlaw/State Regulations (click here) page. Since the passage of the IDEA 2004, however, a number of independent websites have popped up providing educators with a wealth of information to draw upon . . . and all of it free. A selection of those websites follows in no particular order:

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New Jersey - Keeping our Kids Safe, Healthy and in School Provided in this document are information and resources to aid schools in the establishment of HIB policies, the adoption of HIB program strategies, the implementation of proactive responses to HIB and the adoption of effective HIB reporting procedures.

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"We initially chose IRIS because of the past experiences and their credible research-based, high-quality modules that align with specific areas of growth and need to support a state-directed corrective action plan in our region."

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"We initially chose IRIS because of the past experiences and their credible research-based, high-quality modules that align with specific areas of growth and need to support a state-directed corrective action plan in our region."

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Bonnie Perez | PEN Director

Perla Gonzalez | Activity Coordinator
915.259.8717
pgonzalezpen@gmail.com

PEN Regional Coordinators

Jamie Thomas | Regions 14 & 15
214.402.4273
jthomaspen@gmail.com

Hope Hastey, M. Ed. | Regions 16 & 17
806.292.5323
hhasteypen@gmail.com

Vacant | Region 18
915.259.8717
penprntx@gmail.com

PEN Project serves families living in ESC Regions 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 and 19. Need help finding your region? Call us toll free at 1.833.847.2686

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Bonnie Perez | PEN Director Perla Gonzalez | Activity Coordinator 915.259.8717 pgonzalezpen@gmail.com PEN Regional Coordinators Jamie Thomas | Regions 14 & 15 214.402.4273 jthomaspen@gmail.com Hope Hastey, M. Ed. | Regions 16 & 17 806.292.5323 hhasteypen@gmail.com Vacant | Region 18 915.259.8717 penprntx@gmail.com PEN Project serves families living in ESC Regions 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 and 19.

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Training modules available to people who support individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) and who have behavioral health needs.

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ucla center for mental health in schools

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UCLA School Mental Health Project Homepage. The UCLA Center for Mental Health in Schools is one of two national training and technical assistance centers focused on mental health in schools.* Our center approaches mental health and psychosocial concerns from the broad perspective of addressing barriers to learning and promoting healthy development.

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Both Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) and 504 plans can offer formal help for K-12 students who are struggling in school. They're similar in some ways but very different in others. This chart compares them side by side to help you understand the differences.

A blueprint or plan for a child's special education experience at school.

A blueprint or plan for how the school will provide support and remove barriers for a student with a disability.

To get an IEP, there are two requirements: A child has one or more of the 13 disabilities listed in IDEA. The law lists specific challenges, like learning disabilities, ADHD, autism, and others. And the disability must affect the child's educational performance and/or ability to learn and benefit from the general education curriculum. The child must need specialized instruction to make progress in school.

To get a 504 plan, there are two requirements: A child has any disability. Section 504 covers a wide range of different struggles in school. And the disability must interfere with the child's ability to learn in a general education classroom. Section 504 has a broader definition of a disability than IDEA. (It says a disability must substantially limit one or more basic life activities. This can include learning, reading, communicating, and thinking.) That's why a child who doesn't qualify for an IEP might still be able to get a 504 plan.

There are strict legal requirements about who participates. With a few exceptions, the entire IEP team must be present for IEP meetings. The team must include:

The rules about who's on the 504 team are less specific than they are for an IEP. A 504 plan is created by a team of people who are familiar with the child and who understand the evaluation data and special services options. This might include:

* The child's parent or caregiver

* General and special education teachers

* The school principal

* The child's parent or caregiver

* At least one of the child's general education teachers

* At least one special education teacher

* A school psychologist or other specialist who can interpret evaluation results

* A district representative with authority over special education services

The IEP sets learning goals and describes the services the school will provide. It's a written document. Here are some of the most important things the IEP must include:

There is no standard 504 plan. Unlike an IEP, a 504 plan doesn't have to be a written document. A 504 plan generally includes the following:

* Specific accommodations, supports, or services for the child

* Names of who will provide each service

* Name of the person responsible for ensuring the plan is implemented

* The child's present levels of academic and functional performance - how the child is currently doing in school

* Annual education goals for the child and how the school will track progress

* The services the child will get - this may include special education, related, supplementary, and extended school year services

* The timing of services - when they start, how often they occur, and how long they last

* Any accommodations - changes to the child's learning environment

* Any modifications - changes to what the child is expected to learn or know

* How the child will participate in standardized tests

* How the child will be included in general education classes and school activities

When the school wants to change a child's services or placement, it has to tell families in writing before the change. This is called prior written notice. Notice is also required for any IEP meetings and evaluations. Families also have "stay put" rights to keep services in place while there's a disagreement about the IEP.

The school must notify families about an evaluation or a "significant change" in placement. Notice doesn't have to be in writing, but most schools do so anyway.

How to resolve disputes

IDEA gives families several ways to resolve disputes (usually in this order):

Section 504 gives families several options for resolving disagreements with the school:

* Mediation

* Alternative dispute resolution

* Impartial hearing

* Complaint to the Office for Civil Rights (OCR)

* Lawsuit

* Mediation

* Due process complaint

* Resolution session

* Civil lawsuit

* State complaint

* Lawsuit

And if you need help navigating special education law in your state, consider reaching out to your local Parent Training and Information Center. The people there can answer questions and give practical advice on issues specific to your area.

Do you want to learn more about how IEPs and 504 plans compare? Watch as an expert explains the differences between them.

About the author

About the author

The Understood Team is made up of passionate writers and editors. Many of them have kids who learn and think differently.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Andrew M.I. Lee, JD is an editor and attorney who strives to help people understand complex legal, education, and parenting issues.

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IEP vs. 504 Plan: What's the Difference?

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Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) and 504 plans are similar but different. See how they compare in what they provide and the processes and laws involved.

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MentalHealth.org - Your one-stop access to Mental Health

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Learn about the basics of mental health, treatment options, disorders, symptoms, myths and facts, and how to get help.

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Positive Behavioral Intervention support for Schools

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Positive Behavioral Intervention support for Schools

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The home of Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS). FInd more information on PBIS, how to implement PBIS, get resources and materials, and how to get support. Funded by the U.S.

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It's important for schools to help ensure students are safe and healthy, both physically and mentally, so that learning can occur. In addition to implementing security measures on school campuses, there has been a growing focus on whether schools provide mental health services. In school year 2015-16, some 71 percent of public schools reported having diagnostic assessments for mental health disorders available to students, and 64 percent of schools reported having treatment available. [i]

These data come from the School Survey on Crime and Safety (SSOCS). The 2015-16 SSOCS questionnaire added new questions asking principals to report whether diagnostic assessment and treatment services for mental health were available to students under the official responsibilities of a licensed mental health professional.[ii] Diagnostic assessments are used to identify whether a student has one or more medical and/or mental health diagnoses. Treatment is a clinical service, such as psychotherapy, medication, or counseling, which is intended to lessen or eliminate the symptoms of a disorder.

The prevalence of mental health services varied by school characteristics. In both middle and high schools, diagnostic assessment services were more common than treatment services: 74 percent of middle schools and 79 percent of high schools reported diagnostic assessments were available, compared with 66 percent of middle schools and 69 percent of high schools reporting treatment services were available. Compared to primary schools, a higher percentage of high schools reported that both types of mental health services were available.

Figure 1. Percentage of public schools reporting the availability of mental health services under the official responsibilities of a licensed mental health professional, by type of mental health service and school enrollment size: School year 2015-16

¹Mental health disorders were defined for respondents as, collectively, all diagnosable mental disorders or health conditions that are characterized by alterations in thinking, mood, or behavior (or some combination thereof) associated with distress and/or impaired functioning.
NOTE: Mental health services are provided by several different types of mental health professionals, each of which have their own training and areas of expertise. The types of professionals who may provide mental health services include psychiatrists, psychologists, psychiatric/mental health nurse practitioners, psychiatric/mental health nurses, clinical social workers, and professional counselors. Responses were provided by the principal or the person most knowledgeable about school crime and policies to provide a safe environment.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2015-16 School Survey on Crime and Safety (SSOCS), 2016. See table 40.

The percentage of schools with 1,000 or more students that reported having diagnostic assessment services available (80 percent) was higher than the percentages of schools with fewer than 300 students (69 percent), 300-499 students (68 percent), and 500-999 students (71 percent).

The questionnaire also asked principals to report to what extent certain factors limited the school's efforts to provide mental health services to students. The most common limiting factors reported by schools were inadequate funding (75 percent) and lack of parental support (71 percent).

Figure 2. Percentage of public schools reporting that their efforts to provide mental health services to students were limited in a major or minor way due to specified non-school-level factors: School year 2015-16

¹Mental health disorders were defined for respondents as, collectively, all diagnosable mental disorders or health conditions that are characterized by alterations in thinking, mood, or behavior (or some combination thereof) associated with distress and/or impaired functioning.
²Mental health services are provided by several different types of mental health professionals, each of which have their own training and areas of expertise. The types of professionals who may provide mental health services include psychiatrists, psychologists, psychiatric/mental health nurse practitioners, psychiatric/mental health nurses, clinical social workers, and professional counselors.
³Examples of legal issues provided to respondents were malpractice and insufficient supervision.
NOTE: Respondents were asked to rate the level of limitation in their school's efforts to provide mental health services to students for each factor. Survey response options included "limits in major way," "limits in minor way," or "does not limit." Responses were provided by the principal or the person most knowledgeable about school crime and policies to provide a safe environment.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2015-16 School Survey on Crime and Safety (SSOCS), 2016. See table 39.

You can find more information on school crime and safety in NCES publications, including Crime, Violence, Discipline, and Safety in U.S. Public Schools: Findings From the School Survey on Crime and Safety: 2015-16 and the 2017 Indicators of School Crime and Safety.
By Rachel Hansen, NCES and Melissa Diliberti, AIR

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Explore Data on Mental Health Services in K-12 Public Schools for Mental Health Awareness Month

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It's important for schools to help ensure students are safe and healthy, both physically and mentally, so that learning can occur. In addition to implementing security measures on school campuses, there has been a growing focus on whether schools provide mental health services.

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The School Counseling and School Social Work Treatment Planner

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The School Counseling and School Social Work Treatment Planner

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Angelo State University - Library Online Resources

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Unauthorized use is prohibited; Usage may be subject to security testing and monitoring; Misuse is subject to criminal prosecution; No expectation of privacy except as otherwise provided by applicable privacy laws.

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Most children and parents will have some distress or upset - so how do I know when a child or family needs additional help?

Ask your patients (and their parents) about reactions and coping.

Listen for ongoing or severe traumatic stress symptoms.

Consider a referral for a more thorough evaluation with a mental health professional if:

Traumatic stress reactions are severe or prolonged (more than a month).

Traumatic stress reactions interfere with recovery or with returning to normal activities.

Consider: Is the child participating in daily activities to the extent possible given their medical condition? Are stress reactions interfering with treatment adherence? Are new fears or worries troubling the child or parent?

Steps for making a referral Effective mental health treatment for traumatic stress Online resources - help in finding a mental health professional Distinguishing between types of mental health professionals
Therapist Resource Guide: There are many ongoing stressors that children and families endure after diagnosis of an illness or an injury. This guide focuses specifically on medical traumatic stress and responses that children and families may have.

Steps for making a referral

Mention concerns you have identified.
Say something like: "I'm concerned that (you are / your child is) having these upsetting thoughts and feelings. It might be useful to talk with a specialist who can help your family more."

Involve child and family in making a plan.
Ask for their ideas about what is needed now
Say something like: "What issues or difficulties are impacting you / your family the most right now? What would help make things better?"

Ask for permission to offer advice. Present advice as range of possibilities; be sure to incorporate patient/family ideas

Say something like: "I have some suggestions that have helped other patients in the past in situations similar to yours. May I share them with you?"

Range of possibilities might include: patient education materials / websites; speaking with social worker, local clergy, school counselor; seeking out support group, referral to therapist / community mental health center.

Ask about their readiness to act on this now or in the future.
Say something like: "Is this (suggested plan) something you would be willing to do when you leave today, or if you need it next week...month?"

Ask about barriers to potential plans / referrals, and strategies to overcome barriers.
Say something like: "What kinds of things would interfere with following-up on this plan we just discussed? How can we work through this so you end up getting the help you need.?"

Involve the child and parent in setting the agenda*:*Adapted from Wissow et al. (2008)

Keep the door open.

If your patient or their parents are not quite ready to act on a suggested referral now, arrange to follow up to see how your patient is doing.

You might say: "I'd like to talk with you again in a few weeks to see how things are going."

Promote continuity of care.
If your care for this patient is ending, ask permission to communicate your concerns about traumatic stress reactions or risk factors to the child's primary care provider, or to other providers who will continue to take care of this patient.

Facilitating collaboration between pediatric health care and mental health providers: The American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Mental Health has developed tools to facilitate collaboration between pediatric health care providers and mental health professionals, including a Physician Referral and Feedback Form template

Effective mental health treatment for traumatic stress

There are very good and helpful treatments for children who continue to have traumatic stress symptoms.
What treatment approaches are effective?
Evidence-based treatments include cognitive-behavioral treatment approaches, and in particular Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavior Therapy (TF-CBT).

Click here for a fact sheet about effective treatments for youth trauma from the National Child Traumatic Stress Network.

A recent article includes informative summaries of effective mental health treatments for child traumatic stress symptoms, and guidance for health care professionals:
Cohen, J, Kelleher, K, Mannarino, A.. Identifying, treating, and referring traumatized children: The role of pediatric providers. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 2008;162(5):447-452 How can I help parents find effective treatment for their child?
When helping parents find a counselor or therapist to help their child with traumatic stress symptoms, you might suggest that they ask prospective therapists questions such as:

Do you have experience working with children after trauma?

What is your approach to working with this type of problem?

What is your success rate?

How do you work with parents?

The National Child Traumatic Stress Network offers useful tips and information about finding a mental health professional to help children and their families after trauma.

Online resources - help in finding a mental health professional

The National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN) has trauma-trained, child mental health professionals and community-based treatment centers in 35 states in the US. For information about or referral to a NCTSN center near you, please go to the NCTSN Organizational Members site.
American Psychological Association - Psychologist Locator National Association of Social Workers - Find a Licensed Social Worker American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatrists - Psychiatrist Finder Anxiety Disorders Association of America - Find a Therapist Sidran Institute Help Desk - Locate Trauma Resources ISTSS Clinician Directory - Find a Clinician, Counselor or Mental Health Professional
Distinguishing between types of mental health professionals

Psychologists are professionals who have earned a doctoral degree (Ph.D. or Psy.D.) after 4-6 years of graduate-level training in human behavior and development, psychological testing and evaluation, and psychotherapy. Psychologists are licensed by the state in which they practice.

Psychiatrists are physicians (M.D. or D.O.) who have completed medical school, plus additional advanced training in the evaluation and treatment of psychiatric disorders and emotional and behavioral problems. Psychiatrists are licensed by the state in which they practice. As medical doctors, psychiatrists can prescribe and monitor medications.

Clinical Social Workers are professionals who have earned a master's degree (M.S.W.) after 2-3 years of graduate training. Clinical Social Workers are licensed by the state in which they practice (LCSW or similar credential - varies by state).

Marriage and Family Therapists are professionals who have completed a master's degree (M.A. or M.S.) after 2-3 years of graduate training. Some Marriage and Family Therapists have completed a required amount of clinical hours and passed a state-administered examination to become licensed marriage and family therapist (LMFT).

Licensed Professional Counselors (LPC) & Licensed Mental Health Counselors (LMHC) are mental health professionals who have earned a master's degree (M.A. or M.S.) after 2-3 years of graduate training and have obtained a required amount of clinical experience and passed a state-administered licensing examination.

For more information on the training and credentialing of mental health professionals, see Mayo Clinic: Mental health providers.

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When and How to Refer for Mental Health Care

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Pediatric providers can follow specific steps to determine if and how to refer a child and familiy for further mental health services after a medically traumatic event. Providers can also become familiar with current evidence-based treatments and online resources for mental health services for traumatic stress.

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Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is often viewed as a minor annoyance, or worse, something useful. The fact is OCD is a serious mental health issue that traps millions of kids, teens and adults in a vicious cycle of worries and rituals. While families and loved ones are desperate to help them, fighting OCD takes time and specialized therapy.

To uncover what OCD is, and what it isn't, filmmakers Kelly Anderson and Chris Baier focus on an unlikely group of experts: kids. UNSTUCK documents OCD through kids' eyes only. It avoids sensationalizing compulsions and obsessions, and instead reveals the complexity of a disorder that affects both the brain and behavior. As these six resilient kids and teens roadmap their process of recovery, the film inspires viewers to believe it is possible to fight their worst fears and beat back OCD.
Subject Areas: Psychology, Psychiatry, Education, Special Education, Social Work, Occupational Therapy, Disability Studies, Narrative Medicine.
Receive free access to UNSTUCK: Extra Help, a short 5-part video series, when you buy a Corporate or Educational DVD or the 3-year or 5-year streaming service. UNSTUCK: Extra Help helps young patients get comfortable talking about OCD and ease into treatment. Email unstuckfilm@gmail.com for password if you have purchased the film.

Our DVD package lets your organization, school or business use a single copy of UNSTUCK.

Individual therapists not part of a clinic or larger institution can purchase at DVD at the "Community Group" price. If you are an individual therapist (not in a group) who wants to purchase a streaming license please contact us for a discount.

Our institutional streaming options allow anyone in your organization, school or business to access UNSTUCK online. You will not be able to log in off-site.

Copies of UNSTUCK: an OCD kids movie may not be rented or sub-leased to others, or copied. You may not upload the film to any website or streaming service such as YouTube, Vimeo or Amazon Prime. You may show the film publicly if you are not charging admission, otherwise please contact us at unstuckfilm@gmail.com to make arrangements.

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Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is often viewed as a minor annoyance, or worse, something useful. The fact is OCD is a serious mental health issue that traps millions of kids, teens and adults in a vicious cycle of worries and rituals.

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Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders

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Center for Parent Information and Resources
c/o Statewide Parent Advocacy Network (SPAN)
35 Halsey St., 4th Floor
Newark, NJ 07102
(973) 642-8100

The people who work on the CPIR are not just advocates by profession-everyone on our team has a personal stake in the disability community as a parent, sibling, spouse, or otherwise.

The CPIR strives to be ever conscious of accessibility in technology. In compliance with Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act, we have endeavored to make our website as accessible as possible, less any undue burden that would be imposed on us.

Compliance is an ongoing process on an active site such as the Hub. If anyone has difficulty accessing our website information and resources, we encourage you to reach out to us directly so that we can improve our efforts to accommodate our audience.

This website was produced under U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs No. H328R180005. The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent the positions or policies of the Department of Education. No official endorsement by the U.S. Department of Education of any product, commodity, service or enterprise mentioned on this website is intended or should be inferred. This product is public domain. Authorization to reproduce it in whole or in part is granted. While permission to reprint material from this website is not necessary, the citation should be: Center for Parent Information and Resources (retrieval date). Title of the document, Newark, NJ, Author.

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Center for Parent Information and Resources c/o Statewide Parent Advocacy Network (SPAN) 35 Halsey St., 4th Floor Newark, NJ 07102 (973) 642-8100 The people who work on the CPIR are not just advocates by profession-everyone on our team has a personal stake in the disability community as a parent, sibling, spouse, or otherwise.

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Educational Leadership Theories and Models by 

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Educational Leadership Theories and Models by 

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I am a visual learner and this video made the theories and models clear.

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Educational Leadership Theories and Models

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This is a quick overview of multiple leadership styles, theories, and applications.

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The Many Roles of an Instructional Coach.  Educational Leadership, 73(9), 56.

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The Many Roles of an Instructional Coach.  Educational Leadership, 73(9), 56.

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This article guides the reader to the purpose of a Instructional Coach.  Using the assistance of a coach enriches the servant leader skills.

http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/jun16/vol73/num09/The-Many-Roles-of-an-Instructional-Coach.aspx

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Online June 2016 | Volume 73
How to Be a Change Agent Pages 56-60

Heather Wolpert-Gawron

Many of the teachers who decide to leave education possess vast stores of knowledge regarding the science of teaching. Whether they're veterans or newer teachers, when they leave, some of their knowledge inevitably leaves with them.

But some teachers, instead of leaving, are finding new and professionally satisfying pathways within the education system, a move that's helping to redefine the teaching profession. As teachers put their extensive knowledge to use in these positions, they can become effective change agents for their schools and districts.

One pathway of interest is that of instructional coach. This position is defined differently from location to location-and that's its biggest challenge and greatest asset. Attempts to standardize the position can undermine its effectiveness. After all, a teacher leader who is granted contracted time to think beyond the position of teacher or to consider an issue in a different light than an administrator can customize solutions for a school, a district, and its students.

The Functions of an Instructional Coach

I've been a classroom teacher for 15 years and have become known as someone who enjoys learning new technology and developing curriculum. As a result, I've found myself as an unofficial point person for other educators who are curious about implementing alternative strategies. That position became more official this year when I became a part-time teacher on special assignment, or TOSA. I spend part of my day in the classroom and the other part brainstorming with teachers, modeling lessons, curating resources to share with departments, and developing customized curriculum for individual students or special units. In other words, I've become an instructional coach.

Now, although I've been permitted to mold this position to the needs of my school site, it's frankly difficult to pinpoint one particular definition of an instructional coach. As the following examples show, coaches' functions are as varied as the students and teachers they serve.

Mentoring

Typically, instructional coaches are there to help teachers who have been asked to seek advice on their practice or who are looking to challenge themselves by learning new strategies. Teachers generally ask me to model a lesson using new educational technology techniques, such as Kahoot! or Google Forms, or they might ask for help in developing a project-based learning (PBL) unit that folds in their upcoming topic of study.

For instance, when a language arts teacher asked for help in developing a PBL unit, I guided her as her students sponsored a 5K run to benefit a charity. Over the course of the unit, students completed tasks such as writing business letters to sponsors, making a registration website, and creating a budget. I helped the teacher develop the curriculum, pacing guides, and informal assessments. I also worked with small groups of students while she worked with other groups. I was a sounding board and an accessible peer. I never could have given her that level of support if I didn't have the hours embedded in my schedule.

In addition, my classroom is set up differently than other learning environments so that teachers can try a more 360-degree model of teaching before adjusting their own classroom layout. In particular, I use all of the walls in my classroom and don't have a front of the room, per se. My students and I can move furniture with ease, and there's no assigned seating chart. Teachers bring their classes into my room so they can co-teach with me or watch me implement a tool that they're hesitant about using. This kind of modeling goes a long way in creating enthusiasm for less traditional methods of teaching.

Running Professional Development

Many instructional coaches organize or conduct the professional development in their school or district, whether through faculty meetings, lunchtime learning sessions, or smaller department presentations. Coaches can help teams analyze data. They can hear firsthand about specific students' needs and then tailor activities or suggest resources to meet those needs. When a colleague feels clean out of options (and let's face it, we all feel that way sometimes), a coach can help customize solutions. This avoids having to bring in outside advisors who may not fully understand the school's needs.

Researching and Curating

My day as an instructional coach is often spent learning innovative instructional practices like gamification or familiarizing myself with such newly adopted technologies as 3D printers so I can advise other teachers interested in bringing these strategies or tools into their classrooms.

Some instructional coaches serve as lead curators. Curating has become a vital skill for educators, and coaches can serve an important purpose in weeding through the jungle of resources and suggesting supplemental material for every subject matter.

For example, I use MailChimp to send out newsletters with useful information and resources to departments-in one case I used a newsletter to recommend ways to integrate art into the curriculum. Also, through Weebly, I've created a simple website of resources for both teachers and parents. It contains everything from videos and articles about raising middle schoolers to enrichment and remediation activities. The website has been slowly growing throughout the school year, and both teachers and parents have been sending me more resources to add.

Publicizing

Other coaches spend some of their time helping create their school's or district's positive online footprint. This takes thinking like a publicist; it's a proactive action that helps both student enrollment and school morale. By setting up or maintaining the school Twitter feed or Instagram account, instructional coaches can play a vital role in ensuring that the public knows the great things happening on the campus and in the classrooms.

By virtue of the fact that instructional coaches work with many teachers, they have a lot of insight into the daily victories that occur in all classrooms. An administrator might not know that an amazing culminating project in Room 2 is coming up, but an instructional coach may have been privy to the planning of the unit. He or she would know that photos need to be taken and tweeted for all to see.

Being a Change Agent

Another way instructional coaches are changing the landscape of learning is by collaborating with other instructional coaches. Consider the San Gabriel Valley Instructional Coaches Consortium in California's Arcadia Unified School District. This group of coaches formed a coalition to better support one another as they define and implement this vital position.

Lorie Felippa, an Arcadia teacher on special assignment, shared some insights into how this position can strengthen schools and districts.

Lorie is a Los Angeles County Teacher of the Year and now a district instructional coach. Lorie believes that instructional coaches serve teachers in a way that administrators cannot. She explains,

TOSAs don't evaluate teachers. We're teachers just like them. Through a partnership based on trust and respect, my role is to offer support and encouragement to help teachers reach their fullest potential, thus having an impact on student achievement. Teachers can be more vulnerable with TOSAs about challenges they face with curriculum, instructional strategies, classroom management, and so on. TOSAs can model best practices in a way that teachers can relate to, rather than in a more formal way by an administrator.

Some Advice for Administrators

Having someone on your side-someone in the trenches-helps create a tighter community of instructors, and this inevitably trickles down to the learners themselves.

Administrators play an important role in helping this relationship develop. Lorie encourages administrators to invite teachers on special assignment to present at site faculty meetings or conduct after-school mini-professional development sessions based on site needs and interests. This way, administrators can honor the "teachers teaching teachers" model of lifelong learning.

Lorie points out that administrators can have a huge impact on student learning by providing release time during the day, along with a substitute to lead their classes, for teachers looking to collaborate with a TOSA. A simple half-day of grade-level collaboration with a moderating TOSA can go a long way toward improving instruction. Lorie encourages administrators to give the team time to work on special projects or curriculum planning to develop an engaging and rigorous unit of study that can have a long-term effect on student learning.

Instructional coaches can only be change agents when they have the support of their administration.

Some Advice for Instructional Coaches

For those of you who are already serving your school or district as an instructional coach, here are 10 pointers to make the most of your position:

1. Reach out to teachers equitably, but don't be surprised if some don't respond. Keep reaching out to all, but feed the hungry. Don't take offense if not everyone is receptive.

2. Help identify the strengths that all individuals bring to a staff. Help administrators recognize that every teacher brings something unique. This is vital to the morale of the school and district and might also help teachers of all styles become more receptive to your support.

3. Encourage teachers to leverage their strengths into leadership roles, providing multiple opportunities for many different kinds of teachers. Think about how to bring in a wide variety of teachers' voices to the professional development you design. Encourage teachers to seek help from another educator at their own site who is strong in a particular strategy or tool.

4. Be consistent in how and when to share information. An audience is built through consistency. If you're publishing a newsletter of resources, do it on a reliable timeline, be it monthly or weekly. If you're offering a rotation of lunchtime learning sessions from school site to school site, make sure there's consistency in the dates you're set to be at a given site-the first Wednesday of the month at this site, the second Tuesday of the month at that site, and so on.

5. Think outside the box to research and implement more innovative, yet research-based, practices. Help district innovation "trickle up."

6. Take some items off teachers' plates to help them make room for others. If you're asking teachers to try a new tool that might take time to learn, offer to teach their toughest period for a day and give them extra preparation time. This will encourage teachers' willingness to learn.

7. Structure your role. Keep accountable for time spent. In an Edutopia article, José Vilson writes,

If your administrator assigns you the role of teacher leader, you can only hope that you got a list of responsibilities from the outset. If not, this step makes sense: define your role. ... Teacher leaders often burn out (sometimes in flames!) when they're unclear about their roles or didn't start with an understanding of what their role entailed. In the worst scenarios, teacher leaders get asked to take on the roles of other administrators. ... Know your role. Identify your strengths. Work within those, and people will respond accordingly.

8. Learn how to approach others. Check out resources that help you improve your ability to support others. Look at books like The Coaching Habit: Say Less, Ask More, and Change the Way You Lead Forever, which advises coaches to ask questions about people's struggles, such as, What's the real challenge here for you? How can I help? If you're saying "yes" to this, what are you saying "no" to? What was most useful to you?

9. Keep learning. Model learning. Enjoy learning.

10. Share everything.

A Vital Resource

Instructional coaches are unique stakeholders in today's schools. They don't abandon their role of teacher. On the contrary, they celebrate teachers by embracing all the elements of the profession and sharing their learning with others. Instructional coaches are a vital but underused resource in increasing student success. By supporting and empowering them, schools can jumpstart real improvement.

Endnotes

Vilson, J. (2013, August 7). What teacher leadership looks like for the new school year. Edutopia.

Stanier, M. B. (2016). The coaching habit: Say less, ask more, and change the way you lead forever. Toronto, ON: Box of Crayons Press.

Heather Wolpert-Gawron is an 8th grade English language arts teacher, a speech and debate coach, and a teacher on special assignment at San Gabriel Unified School District in Los Angeles, California. Her most recent books are DIY for Project Based Learning for ELA and History (Routledge, 2015) and DIY for Project Based Learning for Math and Science (Routledge, 2016). She blogs at Tweenteacher.com, as well as for Edutopia and the Huffington Post. Follow her on Twitter.

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The Many Roles of an Instructional Coach

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Online June 2016 | Volume 73 How to Be a Change Agent Pages 56-60 Heather Wolpert-Gawron Many of the teachers who decide to leave education possess vast stores of knowledge regarding the science of teaching. Whether they're veterans or newer teachers, when they leave, some of their knowledge inevitably leaves with them.

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The Manifestations of Positive Leader Roles in Classical Theories of Leadership.

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The Manifestations of Positive Leader Roles in Classical Theories of Leadership.

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This article not only gives the reader skills for positive leadership but also provides the elements to cultivate a positive climate. https://doaj.org/article/832cfce42b6048de94e828f7c948514b

http://jcrl.umk.pl/files/7314/8839/5750/3wegn.pdf

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Information about the open-access article 'The Manifestations of Positive Leader Roles in Classical Theories of Leadership' in DOAJ. DOAJ is an online directory that indexes and provides access to quality open access, peer-reviewed journals.

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One never thinks about listing everything one does on a daily basis; one just does it because of personal motivations. The ten roles of a teacher leader spells out the duties.

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September 2007 | Volume 65 | Number 1
Teachers as Leaders Pages 74-77

Cindy Harrison and Joellen Killion

Teacher leaders assume a wide range of roles to support school and student success. Whether these roles are assigned formally or shared informally, they build the entire school's capacity to improve. Because teachers can lead in a variety of ways, many teachers can serve as leaders among their peers.

So what are some of the leadership options available to teachers? The following 10 roles are a sampling of the many ways teachers can contribute to their schools' success.

1. Resource Provider

Teachers help their colleagues by sharing instructional resources. These might include Web sites, instructional materials, readings, or other resources to use with students. They might also share such professional resources as articles, books, lesson or unit plans, and assessment tools.

Tinisha becomes a resource provider when she offers to help Carissa, a new staff member in her second career, set up her classroom. Tinisha gives Carissa extra copies of a number line for her students to use, signs to post on the wall that explain to students how to get help when the teacher is busy, and the grade-level language arts pacing guide.

2. Instructional Specialist

An instructional specialist helps colleagues implement effective teaching strategies. This help might include ideas for differentiating instruction or planning lessons in partnership with fellow teachers. Instructional specialists might study research-based classroom strategies (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001); explore which instructional methodologies are appropriate for the school; and share findings with colleagues.

When his fellow science teachers share their frustration with students' poorly written lab reports, Jamal suggests that they invite several English teachers to recommend strategies for writing instruction. With two English teachers serving as instructional specialists, the science teachers examine a number of lab reports together and identify strengths and weaknesses. The English teachers share strategies they use in their classes to improve students' writing.

3. Curriculum Specialist

Understanding content standards, how various components of the curriculum link together, and how to use the curriculum in planning instruction and assessment is essential to ensuring consistent curriculum implementation throughout a school. Curriculum specialists lead teachers to agree on standards, follow the adopted curriculum, use common pacing charts, and develop shared assessments.

Tracy, the world studies team leader, works with the five language arts and five social studies teachers in her school. Using standards in English and social studies as their guides, the team members agree to increase the consistency in their classroom curriculums and administer common assessments. Tracy suggests that the team develop a common understanding of the standards and agrees to facilitate the development and analysis of common quarterly assessments.

4. Classroom Supporter

Classroom supporters work inside classrooms to help teachers implement new ideas, often by demonstrating a lesson, coteaching, or observing and giving feedback. Blase and Blase (2006) found that consultation with peers

enhanced teachers' self-efficacy (teachers' belief in their own abilities and capacity to successfully solve teaching and learning problems) as they reflected on practice and grew together, and it also encouraged a bias for action (improvement through collaboration) on the part of teachers. (p. 22)

Marcia asks Yolanda for classroom support in implementing nonlinguistic representation strategies, such as graphic organizers, manipulatives, and kinesthetic activities (Marzano et al., 2001). Yolanda agrees to plan and teach a lesson with Marcia that integrates several relevant strategies. They ask the principal for two half-days of professional release time, one for learning more about the strategy and planning a lesson together, and the other for coteaching the lesson to Marcia's students and discussing it afterward.

5. Learning Facilitator

Facilitating professional learning opportunities among staff members is another role for teacher leaders. When teachers learn with and from one another, they can focus on what most directly improves student learning. Their professional learning becomes more relevant, focused on teachers' classroom work, and aligned to fill gaps in student learning. Such communities of learning can break the norms of isolation present in many schools.

Frank facilitates the school's professional development committee and serves as the committee's language arts representative. Together, teachers plan the year's professional development program using a backmapping model (Killion, 2001). This model begins with identifying student learning needs, teachers' current level of knowledge and skills in the target areas, and types of learning opportunities that different groups of teachers need. The committee can then develop and implement a professional development plan on the basis of their findings.

6. Mentor

Serving as a mentor for novice teachers is a common role for teacher leaders. Mentors serve as role models; acclimate new teachers to a new school; and advise new teachers about instruction, curriculum, procedure, practices, and politics. Being a mentor takes a great deal of time and expertise and makes a significant contribution to the development of a new professional.

Ming is a successful teacher in her own 1st grade classroom, but she has not assumed a leadership role in the school. The principal asks her to mentor her new teammate, a brand-new teacher and a recent immigrant from the Philippines. Ming prepares by participating in the district's three-day training on mentoring. Her role as a mentor will not only include helping her teammate negotiate the district, school, and classroom, but will also include acclimating her colleague to the community. Ming feels proud as she watches her teammate develop into an accomplished teacher.

7. School Leader

Being a school leader means serving on a committee, such as a school improvement team; acting as a grade-level or department chair; supporting school initiatives; or representing the school on community or district task forces or committees. A school leader shares the vision of the school, aligns his or her professional goals with those of the school and district, and shares responsibility for the success of the school as a whole.

Joshua, staff sponsor of the student council, offers to help the principal engage students in the school improvement planning process. The school improvement team plans to revise its nearly 10-year-old vision and wants to ensure that students' voices are included in the process. Joshua arranges a daylong meeting for 10 staff members and 10 students who represent various views of the school experience, from nonattenders to grade-level presidents. Joshua works with the school improvement team facilitator to ensure that the activities planned for the meeting are appropriate for students so that students will actively participate.

8. Data Coach

Although teachers have access to a great deal of data, they do not often use that data to drive classroom instruction. Teacher leaders can lead conversations that engage their peers in analyzing and using this information to strengthen instruction.

Carol, the 10th grade language arts team leader, facilitates a team of her colleagues as they look at the results of the most recent writing sample, a teacher-designed assessment given to all incoming 10th grade students. Carol guides teachers as they discuss strengths and weaknesses of students' writing performance as a group, as individuals, by classrooms, and in disaggregated clusters by race, gender, and previous school. They then plan instruction on the basis of this data.

9. Catalyst for Change

Teacher leaders can also be catalysts for change, visionaries who are "never content with the status quo but rather always looking for a better way" (Larner, 2004, p. 32). Teachers who take on the catalyst role feel secure in their own work and have a strong commitment to continual improvement. They pose questions to generate analysis of student learning.

In a faculty meeting, Larry expresses a concern that teachers may be treating some students differently from others. Students who come to him for extra assistance have shared their perspectives, and Larry wants teachers to know what students are saying. As his colleagues discuss reasons for low student achievement, Larry challenges them to explore data about the relationship between race and discipline referrals in the school. When teachers begin to point fingers at students, he encourages them to examine how they can change their instructional practices to improve student engagement and achievement.

10. Learner

Among the most important roles teacher leaders assume is that of learner. Learners model continual improvement, demonstrate lifelong learning, and use what they learn to help all students achieve.

Manuela, the school's new bilingual teacher, is a voracious learner. At every team or faculty meeting, she identifies something new that she is trying in her classroom. Her willingness to explore new strategies is infectious. Other teachers, encouraged by her willingness to discuss what works and what doesn't, begin to talk about their teaching and how it influences student learning. Faculty and team meetings become a forum in which teachers learn from one another. Manuela's commitment to and willingness to talk about learning break down barriers of isolation that existed among teachers.

Roles for All

Teachers exhibit leadership in multiple, sometimes overlapping, ways. Some leadership roles are formal with designated responsibilities. Other more informal roles emerge as teachers interact with their peers. The variety of roles ensures that teachers can find ways to lead that fit their talents and interests. Regardless of the roles they assume, teacher leaders shape the culture of their schools, improve student learning, and influence practice among their peers.

References

Blase, J., & Blase, J. (2006). Teachers bringing out the best in teachers: A guide to peer consultation for administrators and teachers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Killion, J. (2001). What works in elementary schools: Results-based staff development. Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council.

Larner, M. (2004). Pathways: Charting a course for professional learning. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Marzano, R., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. (2001). Classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Authors' note: The 10 roles are described in more detail in Taking the Lead: New Roles for Teachers and School-Based Coaches by J. Killion and C. Harrison, 2006, Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Although the names have been changed, all examples are based on actual teachers we encountered in our research.

Cindy Harrison ( crh@instructimprove.org) is an independent consultant, Instructional Improvement Group, 305 West 6th Ave., Broomfield, CO 80020. Joellen Killion ( Joellen.Killion@nsdc.org) is Deputy Executive Director, National Staff Development Council, 10931 West 71st Place, Arvada, CO 80004.

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September 2007 | Volume 65 | Number 1 Teachers as Leaders Pages 74-77 Cindy Harrison and Joellen Killion Teacher leaders assume a wide range of roles to support school and student success. Whether these roles are assigned formally or shared informally, they build the entire school's capacity to improve.

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The article suggest what to take with you on an island to teach children which is an interesting concept

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What are the qualities needed to be a successful school leader? This is the question I set out to answer in a new book for which I interviewed some of the UK's best headteachers.

It started with a challenge: imagine you are cast adrift on a desert island with a school full of children in desperate need of a great headteacher. What eight qualities would you take with you to run your desert island school?

The challenge, based on the long-running BBC radio programme Desert Island Discs, produced a treasure trove of contributions from school leaders. Their insights, stories and experiences confirmed my belief that, while there might well be a common set of qualities that are crucial for successful leadership, there is also scope for different leadership styles.

Far from being clones enslaved by government diktat or professional orthodoxy, the best headteachers run their schools through conviction and often sheer personality. Even so, they do share some vital leadership qualities. So here are eight to take with you to your own desert island.

1. Vision

It's easy to dismiss the concept of "vision" as vague and woolly, but the best school leaders are visionaries with a clear sense of moral purpose. Successful leaders have "great vision - the ability to formulate and shape the future, rather than be shaped by events", says Richard Harman, headmaster of Uppingham School, Rutland.

2. Courage

Successful school leaders show great determination, with the willpower and patience to see things through. They are willing to take risks and are steadfast in challenging under-performance or poor behaviour. "There's a mental courage that you don't waver from," says Madeleine Vigar, principal of the Castle Partnership Academy Trust in Haverhill, Suffolk.

3. Passion

"We are there for the children and we mustn't ever forget that," says Llyn Codling, executive headteacher of Portswood, St Mary's and Weston Park primary schools, Southampton. Like Codling, successful school leaders are passionate about teaching and learning and show great commitment to children. They take an active interest in their pupils' work - and that of their staff.

4. Emotional intelligence

Successful school leaders are team-builders. They understand the importance of relationships, empower their staff and pupils and show great empathy. "Get the relationships right - open, trusting, humorous - and much else follows naturally," says Kingsbridge Community College principal, Roger Pope. "They feel motivated. They want to follow you."

5. Judgment

The best headteachers show great judgment, make the right calls and are wise leaders. Crucially, however, it isn't simply a matter of acting alone. It's about involving the whole school community and taking people forward together.

6. Resilience

The business of headship is full-on and, at times, gruelling. Successful school leaders are optimistic and resilient, remain calm in a crisis and are energetic and positive at all times. "It about really knowing yourself and having personal strategies so you are able to steady yourself in stormy waters," says Catherine Paine, primary head and assistant CEO of REAch2 Academy Trust, Waltham Forest.

7. Persuasion

The best school leaders are confident communicators and storytellers. They are great persuaders and listeners, adept at describing 'the story of their school' to any audience. They are also great motivators. "Getting people to do things and go that extra mile lies at the heart of good leadership," says Kenny Frederick, former headteacher at George Green's School, Tower Hamlets.

8. Curiosity

Successful school leaders are outward-looking and curious. As Teresa Tunnadine, headteacher at the Compton School in Barnet, states: "Headship is about having at least one foot outside of the school looking at what's going on elsewhere and picking up good ideas." They are excellent networkers and great opportunists, always in touch with events.
Jeremy Sutcliffe is author of This content is brought to you by Guardian Professional. Looking for your next role? Take a look at Guardian jobs for schools for thousands of the latest teaching, leadership and support jobs 8 Qualities of Successful School Leaders: the desert island challenge, published by Bloomsbury Topics

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The eight qualities of successful school leaders

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What are the qualities needed to be a successful school leader? This is the question I set out to answer in a new book for which I interviewed some of the UK's best headteachers. It started with a challenge: imagine you are cast adrift on a desert island with a school full of children in desperate need of a great headteacher.

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This is a goldmine of information to assist in choosing a leadership style.

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Types of Leadership Styles

There are as many approaches to leadership as there are leaders, from Lewin's Leadership Styles framework of the 1930s to the more recent ideas about transformational leadership. There are also many general styles, including servant and transactional leadership. Building awareness of frameworks and styles can help you to develop your approach and to be a more effective leader.

From Winston Churchill and Angela Merkel, to Queen Elizabeth I and Martin Luther King, there can be as many ways to lead people as there are leaders.

Fortunately, businesspeople and psychologists have developed useful frameworks that describe the main ways that people lead. When you understand these frameworks, you can develop your own approach to leadership, and become a more effective leader as a result.

In this article and video, we'll highlight some of the common approaches to leadership that you can use. We'll also look at some specific styles of leadership, and we'll explore the advantages and disadvantages of each.

Click here to view a transcript of this video.

Note:

These frameworks and styles of leadership are based on several different approaches to leadership. You can read more about these approaches in our article on Core Leadership Theories.

Useful Leadership Style Frameworks

So, let's look at some useful approaches - shown mainly in the order they appeared - that you can use to become a more effective leader. Your own, personal approach is likely to be a blend of these, depending on your own preferences, your people's needs, and the situation you're in.

Lewin's Leadership Styles

Psychologist Kurt Lewin developed his framework in the 1930s, and it provided the foundation of many of the approaches that followed afterwards. He argued that there are three major styles of leadership:

1. Autocratic leaders make decisions without consulting their team members, even if their input would be useful. This can be appropriate when you need to make decisions quickly, when there's no need for team input, and when team agreement isn't necessary for a successful outcome. However, this style can be demoralizing, and it can lead to high levels of absenteeism and staff turnover.

2. Democratic leaders make the final decisions, but they include team members in the decision-making process. They encourage creativity, and people are often highly engaged in projects and decisions. As a result, team members tend to have high job satisfaction and high productivity. This is not always an effective style to use, though, when you need to make a quick decision.

3. Laissez-faire leaders give their team members a lot of freedom in how they do their work, and how they set their deadlines. They provide support with resources and advice if needed, but otherwise they don't get involved. This autonomy can lead to high job satisfaction, but it can be damaging if team members don't manage their time well, or if they don't have the knowledge, skills, or self motivation to do their work effectively. (Laissez-faire leadership can also occur when managers don't have control over their work and their people.)

Lewin's framework is popular and useful, because it encourages managers to be less autocratic than they might instinctively be.

The Blake-Mouton Managerial Grid

With a people-oriented style, you focus on organizing, supporting, and developing your team members. This participatory style encourages good teamwork and creative collaboration.

With task-oriented leadership, you focus on getting the job done. You define the work and the roles required, put structures in place, and plan, organize, and monitor work.

According to this model, the best style to use is one that has both a high concern for people and a high concern for the task - it argues that you should aim for both, rather than trying to offset one against the other. Clearly, this is an important idea!

Path-Goal Theory

For example, highly-capable people, who are assigned to a complex task, will need a different leadership approach from people with low ability, who are assigned to an ambiguous task. (The former will want a participative approach, while the latter need to be told what to do.)

With Path-Goal Theory, you can identify the best leadership approach to use, based on your people's needs, the task that they're doing, and the environment that they're working in.

Six Emotional Leadership Styles

Daniel Goleman, Richard Boyatzis, and Annie McKee detailed their Six Emotional Leadership Styles theory in their 2002 book, " Primal Leadership."

The theory highlights the strengths and weaknesses of six common styles - Visionary, Coaching, Affiliative, Democratic, Pacesetting, and Commanding. It also shows how each style can affect the emotions of your team members.

Flamholtz and Randle's Leadership Style Matrix

The matrix is divided into four quadrants - each quadrant identifies two possible styles that will be effective for a given situation, ranging from "autocratic/benevolent autocratic" to "consensus/laissez-faire."

Transformational Leadership

Transformational leaders have integrity and high emotional intelligence. They motivate people with a shared vision of the future, and they communicate well. They're also typically self-aware, authentic, empathetic, and humble.

Transformational leaders inspire their team members because they expect the best from everyone, and they hold themselves accountable for their actions. They set clear goals, and they have good conflict-resolution skills. This leads to high productivity and engagement.

However, leadership is not a "one size fits all" thing; often, you must adapt your approach to fit the situation. This is why it's useful to develop a thorough understanding of other leadership frameworks and styles; after all, the more approaches you're familiar with, the more flexible you can be.

Specific Leadership Styles

As well as understanding the frameworks that you can use to be a more effective leader, and knowing what it takes to be a transformational leader, it's also useful to learn about more general styles, and the advantages and disadvantages of each one.

Let's take a look at some other styles of leadership that are interesting, but don't fit with any of the frameworks above.

Note:

Remember, not all of these styles of leadership will have a positive effect on your team members, either in the short or long term. (See our article on Dunham and Pierce's Leadership Model for more on how your actions as a leader will affect your team.)

Bureaucratic Leadership

Bureaucratic leaders follow rules rigorously, and ensure that their people follow procedures precisely.

This is appropriate for work involving serious safety risks (such as working with machinery, with toxic substances, or at dangerous heights), or with large sums of money. Bureaucratic leadership is also useful for managing employees who perform routine tasks.

This style is much less effective in teams and organizations that rely on flexibility, creativity, or innovation.

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Charismatic Leadership

Charismatic leadership resembles transformational leadership: both types of leaders inspire and motivate their team members.

The difference lies in their intent. Transformational leaders want to transform their teams and organizations, while leaders who rely on charisma often focus on themselves and their own ambitions, and they may not want to change anything.

Charismatic leaders might believe that they can do no wrong, even when others warn them about the path that they're on. This feeling of invincibility can severely damage a team or an organization, as was shown in the 2008 financial crisis.

Servant Leadership

These people often lead by example. They have high integrity and lead with generosity. Their approach can create a positive corporate culture, and it can lead to high morale among team members.

However, others believe that people who practice servant leadership can find themselves "left behind" by other leaders, particularly in competitive situations.

This style also takes time to apply correctly: it's ill-suited to situations where you have to make quick decisions or meet tight deadlines.

Transactional Leadership

This style starts with the idea that team members agree to obey their leader when they accept a job. The "transaction" usually involves the organization paying team members in return for their effort and compliance on a short-term task. The leader has a right to "punish" team members if their work doesn't meet an appropriate standard.

Transactional leadership is present in many business leadership situations, and it does offer some benefits. For example, it clarifies everyone's roles and responsibilities. And, because transactional leadership judges team members on performance, people who are ambitious or who are motivated by external rewards - including compensation - often thrive.

The downside of this style is that, on its own, it can be chilling and amoral, and it can lead to high staff turnover. It also has serious limitations for knowledge-based or creative work.

As a result, team members can often do little to improve their job satisfaction.

Key Points

In business, transformational leadership is often the best leadership style to use.

However, no one style of leadership fits all situations, so it's useful to understand different leadership frameworks and styles. You can then adapt your approach to fit your situation.

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Leadership Styles: Choosing the Right Approach for the Situation

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There are as many approaches to leadership as there are leaders, from Lewin's Leadership Styles framework of the 1930s to the more recent ideas about transformational leadership. There are also many general styles, including servant and transactional leadership. Building awareness of frameworks and styles can help you to develop your approach and to be a more effective leader.

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Website that reports on African Americans in History

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Website that reports on African Americans in History

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Education has been a major part of The HistoryMakers since its inception. The HistoryMakers has conducted institutes, held public programs, created curriculums and produced documentaries all in the name of education. Please read below to learn more about The HistoryMakers education initiatives.

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This article ties student diversity in with Educating leaders on how to successfully teach the new demographic of students.

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Educational Leadership - Summer 2018 - 32

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Educational Leadership is a magazine for educators by educators and includes among its readers principals, teachers, and administrators of every grade level and subject area. With a circulation of 175,000, EL is acknowledged throughout the world as an authoritative and readable forum of discussion about practices, policies, research, and trends affecting prekindergarten through higher education.

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Educational leadership is usually the responsibility of school administrators and principals, who strive to create positive change in educational policy and processes. Read on to learn more about this position and the opportunities available in this field. Schools offering Education - Organizational Leadership degrees can also be found in these popular choices .

Educational Leadership Defined

Educational leadership involves working with and guiding teachers toward improving educational processes in elementary, secondary and postsecondary institutions. Those in educational leadership roles tend to go above and beyond just management and administrative tasks, however. They are trained to advance and improve educational systems and create and enact policies. Educational leaders usually are employed as school principals or administrators but can take on additional roles, such as department chair or academic dean.

Important Facts About These Occupations

Principals

Postsecondary Administrators

Licensure

Required in most states

Typically not required

Key Skills

Communication, decision-making and leadership skills

Computer, interpersonal and organizational skills

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

Function of Educational Leadership

Professionals working in educational leadership focus on improving educational programming. They hire and manage teachers and staff, prepare budgets, set curriculum standards and set school-wide policies. They might work on team building efforts or restructure the organization to affect necessary change. Many educational leaders are involved with policy development or reform issues dealing with education on the local, state or national level.

Careers in Educational Leadership

Careers in educational leadership can be found at all levels of education, from pre-school program directors to academic deans at universities. At the college or university level, educational leaders are employed as department chairs, athletic directors or curriculum directors. In elementary and secondary schools, educational leaders work as principals, assistant principals, athletic directors, headmasters, lead teachers or deans. Other educational leaders work with advocacy groups, lobby groups or other non-profit organizations to create or reform policy and educational systems.

Educational Leadership Education Programs

Educational leadership programs are usually offered at the graduate level. These programs award Master of Educational Leadership or Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Leadership degrees. Aspiring principals will typically need a master's degree, while superintendents and university provosts will generally need a doctoral degree. Online programs are also offered by several institutions so these professionals can maintain their current roles while also advancing their education. Programs cover the theory and practice of education, the role of education in society, teaching methods, psychology, school law and technology used in educational settings.

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Educational leadership is usually the responsibility of school administrators and principals, who strive to create positive change in educational policy and processes. Read on to learn more about this position and the opportunities available in this field. Schools offering Education - Organizational Leadership degrees can also be found in these popular choices .

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Definition of Instructional Supervision - A Principal's Principles

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Effective Instructional Supervision involves raising student achievement and creating valuable educational opportunities for students. This can be achieved by the supervisor clearly defining goals for the teachers and facilitating opportunities for the teachers to learn about local, state, and federal requirements.

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Carl A. Grant is Hoefs-Bascom Professor of Teacher Education in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at the University Wisconsin-Madison, and Professor in the Department of Afro American Studies. He served as President of the National Association for Multicultural Education (1993-1999), editor of Review of Educational Research (1996-1999), and member of the National Research Councils Committee on Assessment and Teacher Quality (1999-2001), has been a Fulbright Scholar in England researching and studying multicultural education, and is currently the chair of AERA Publication Committee. In 1991 Dr. Grant received the Angela Davis Race, Gender & Class Award from the Race, Gender & Class Project and the Multicultural Education Award from National Association For Mutlicultural Education; in 1997 he received the University of Wisconsin School of Education Distinguished Achievement Award. He has written or edited twenty-five books or monographs in multicultural education and/or teacher education and more than 135 articles, chapters in books, and reviews. Professor Grant In addition, he has researched and studied student achievement and multicultural education in numerous schools in the United States.

Thandeka K. Chapman is Assistant Professor of Urban Education in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. Her research focuses primarily on the implementation and documentation of multicultural education practices, the effects of school desegregation policy on urban students and teachers, and tracking student success factors in urban high schools. Dr. Chapman's other scholarly interests include ethical issues concerning the roles of the researcher in field research and the applications of critical race theory in education. Dr. Chapman was a recipient of the University of Wisconsin, Madison Graduate School Academic Opportunity Fellowship and the Carrie Barton Scholarship from the Department of Curriculum and Instruction. She is also a founder of the FRONT program (Fearless Recruitment Of New Teachers) at University of Wisconsin, Madison.

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History of Multicultural Education: Teachers and teacher education

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This benchmark 6-volume set documents, analyzes, and critiques a comprehensive body of research on the history of multicultural education in the U.S. The volumes reflect the tenets of multicultural education, its history, its present, and individuals whose work has contributed significantly to equity and social justice for all citizens.

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Ladson-Billings, the Kellner Family Chair in Urban Education at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, is widely recognized as the founding expert in the field of culturally relevant pedagogy. Her work serves as a touchstone in numerous ACE courses, as well as research featured in the ACE Teaching Fellows Conference.

Speaking to a joint class of ACE Teaching Fellows and members of the Mary Ann Remick Leadership Program in DeBartolo Hall, Ladson-Billings said she wanted to explain culturally responsive pedagogy.

A native of Philadelphia, she first learned the importance of pedagogy when teaching at the tail end of the renaissance in scientific education that came after the Russians launched Sputnik. Several years later, some of those resources for science education were not being used by teachers, Ladson-Billings said. "No matter how good a certain innovation may be, without a skilled teacher, it has little or no chance for success."

Ladson-Billings said she was inspired to work in the field of culturally relevant pedagogy in the late 1980s when people began paying more attention to racial achievement gaps, even as they featured a shortage of qualified teachers, particularly black teachers. Instead of asking what was wrong with black students, she decided to ask what was right with them.

In her lecture, Ladson-Billings concentrated on three aspects of culturally relevant pedagogy: student learning, cultural competence, and socio-political consciousness.

"(Good teachers) create a net designed to catch all students, not a sieve."

Ladson-Billings described student learning as demonstrable growth in required subjects, and she emphasized that teachers should focus on academic mastery. She told a story of being asked why her classes had higher grades than those in other subjects, such as math. She countered that some teachers associate the number of failing students with increased rigor, when they should focus on mastery. "(Good teachers) create a net designed to catch all students, not a sieve."

Cultural competence, Ladson-Billings said, is a firm grounding in one's culture of learning while acquiring fluency in at least one more culture. She said a guidance counselor once came to her worried about Ladson-Billings' son, saying he was too social. Ladson-Billings pointed out that her son didn't fit into any specific clique because he was friends with all of them, and as an adult he has a successful career managing relationships and knowing how to talk to different groups in ways they can understand. "He learned to be culturally competent even though the school didn't encourage it," she said.

Ladson-Billings explained that socio-political consciousness is the ability to use school knowledge to solve relevant social, cultural, civic, environmental and political problems-or as she said, the "so what factor." By showing students more than just the what, or curriculum, they can understand the who, when, how, and why. "(Students) should believe education can and should alleviate those problems."

She closed by reminding ACE's future teachers and leaders that no matter how much they had accomplished so far, "When you begin, you will be a beginner. That's not a step you can skip. ... Allow yourself to make mistakes and learn from them."

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Dr. Gloria Ladson-Billings, Originator of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy, Addresses ACE Teachers and Leaders // Alliance for Catholic Education

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Ladson-Billings, the Kellner Family Chair in Urban Education at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, is widely recognized as the founding expert in the field of culturally relevant pedagogy. Her work serves as a touchstone in numerous ACE courses, as well as research featured in the ACE Teaching Fellows Conference.

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Racism in the classroom

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Multicultural Ed.
https://www.pearson.com/us/higher-education/program/Gollnick-Multicultural-Education-in-a-Pluralistic-Society-Enhanced-Pearson-e-Text-with-Loose-Leaf-Version-Access-Card-Package-10th-Edition/PGM152747.html

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Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society, 9th Edition

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New to the ninth edition, readers will find a new chapter on sexual orientation, new coverage of topics such as Response to Intervention (RTI), dual language immersion programs, bullying, sexting, immigration, the changing landscape of U.S. religion, regional differences, and much more.

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challenge teacher bias
http://educationalrenaissance.org/index.php/edren/article/view/74

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Culturally diverse teaching

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Multicultural ed direction
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/2005615X.2010.11102867

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ944889.pdf

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Multicultural Ed, teacher, students & language

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"Although for over a century our nation has advanced the ideal that a high-quality and excellent public education is the birth right of all children, our schools cannot fulfill this ambitious and noble purpose unless all of us-parents, policymakers, and the general public-commit ourselves to sustaining education as a public trust and a promise to future generations."

From "Why We Teach." New York: Teachers College Press, 2005

"[There] is a long road until true equity for students of all backgrounds is a taken-for-granted reality. Nevertheless, I hope that my work has helped push the field of education in a more socially just direction."

From Brooklyn Dreams: My Life in Public Education (Harvard Education Press, 2015).

Language, Literacy & Culture
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
College of Education
Department of Teacher Education and Curriculum Studies

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"Although for over a century our nation has advanced the ideal that a high-quality and excellent public education is the birth right of all children, our schools cannot fulfill this ambitious and noble purpose unless all of us-parents, policymakers, and the general public-commit ourselves to sustaining education as a public trust and a promise to future generations."

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Value students strength minority education

http://newlearningonline.com/new-learning/chapter-8/lisa-delpit-on-power-and-pedagogy

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Angelo State University - Library Online Resources

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Unauthorized use is prohibited; Usage may be subject to security testing and monitoring; Misuse is subject to criminal prosecution; No expectation of privacy except as otherwise provided by applicable privacy laws.

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multicultural sensitivities

https://scholar.google.it/citations?user=hj8DU0UAAAAJ&hl=en

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Multiculture instruction
https://www.google.com/search?ei=p0ghW4X5GMGgsQX8tI_IAg&q=carl+grant+theories+of+education&oq=carl+grant+theories+of+education&gs_l=psy-ab.3...26932.31795.0.32211.22.22.0.0.0.0.120.1864.19j3.22.0....0...1.1.64.psy-ab..0.19.1634...0j0i67k1j0i22i30k1j33i21k1j33i160k1j33i22i29i30k1.0.wNBAHZ8T4GY

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teaching teachers cultural diversity

https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1012571

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Everything I wanted to know about Communicating in School setting.

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Everything I wanted to know about Communicating in School setting.

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This article is very long but it allows for skipping to areas which support any lacking area in communicating in school. The interesting part is the site comes from New Zealand's Ministry of Education (Board of Education).

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This article gives helpful tips on how to communicate with parents concerning their child.

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Conversations about a child who is struggling in school are stressful for parents and teachers. Both parties may experience feelings of anger, fear, frustration, and confusion, along with a sense of inadequacy, as they try to talk about challenges a child is facing. I recently experienced this myself when my six-year-old son came home from school pleading to be moved to another class or home-schooled because a group of children were being mean to him. I felt responsible, and guilty, and when I spoke with his teacher about the situation, I could tell that she shared those feelings as well.

A few weeks ago when I had the opportunity to speak with Katie Couric about " What Teachers Wish Parents Knew," one of the questions she asked me was about what parents should do when a child is having a problem in school. I shared a few strategies parents can use to improve communication when bringing a concern about their child to a teacher, including:

Take a deep breath and make sure you are calm before sharing the concern

Set up a time to talk rather than talking on the fly at drop off or dismissal time

Always presume positive intentions and begin the discussion by asking questions and gathering more information

These same suggestions hold true for teachers when bringing a concern to a parent. Here are some additional ideas that are specifically for teachers:

Build a foundation of trust and understanding in the early part of the school year, so that if you have to have a difficult conversation with a parent, you'll recognize each other as partners rather than adversaries. It's not too late to start this if you haven't already.

Consider opening difficult conversations on a positive note. While it's important to be upfront with parents if the purpose of the meeting is to discuss a problem, it can be reassuring for anxious parents-and provide some healthy perspective-if you begin by describing a few positive things you've noticed about their child in the classroom. Something brief but specific will do: "Alicia really seems to be enjoying math this year" or "Jason has a lot of empathy and often reaches out to children in need of help."

Use language that conveys curiosity. Meeting with parents to discuss a problem provides an opportunity to gather information that might help you to solve the problem. Consider it a chance to gather missing pieces of the puzzle and use language that conveys that spirit, such as "Tell me more about . . ." or "Why do you think he might . . . ?"

Use language that invites parents to suggest solutions. Often teachers feel pressured to come up with all the answers, when in fact parents may have an idea that would work particularly well for their child. Open-ended questions such as "Have you seen anything work in the past when this has happened?" or "Do you have ideas about ways we could work together to solve this problem?" can be helpful in inviting parents in as true partners in the problem-solving process.

When teachers actively communicate with students' parents, children do better, both socially and academically. This is especially important for a child who is struggling in school, as seeing his parents and teachers working together to solve the problem can be tremendously reassuring. Certainly for my son, knowing that his teacher and parents were working as a team to solve the problem helped him quickly move from not wanting to come to school to feeling safe and nurtured there.
Carol Davis is a professional development designer at Center for Responsive Schools.
Tags: Back to School w/ Families, Difficulties with Families, Family Connections, Working with Families

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Talking with Parents about Problems | Responsive Classroom

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Conversations about a child who is struggling in school are stressful for parents and teachers. Both parties may experience feelings of anger, fear, frustration, and confusion, along with a sense of inadequacy, as they try to talk about challenges a child is facing.

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The 4 things every Instructional Supervisor needs to know.

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The 4 things every Instructional Supervisor needs to know.

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I know the article talks about leadership but all four items stem from communicating. Wow, number 3 is a new concept which made me think about frustrations that occur for the teachers.

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There's no doubt that instructional leadership requires the school principal to wear many hats. At various times, principals must be administrators, managers, diplomats, teachers and curriculum leaders, sometimes all within one school day. It is definitely a balancing act, and principals must be proficient in all of these areas, as well as able to fluidly move from one role to another.

Principals and school leaders continue to strive for balance and proficiency in their roles as instructional leaders. Among the reasons cited for a lack of proficiency and emphasis on instructional leadership in schools is a lack of comprehensive training. A deficit of time for executing instructional activities, unrealistic community expectations and a glut of paperwork were also cited as reasons for the shortfall.

Instructional leadership defined

Instructional leadership involves setting clear goals, managing curriculum, monitoring lesson plans, allocating resources and evaluating teachers regularly to promote student learning and growth. Quality of instruction is the top priority for the instructional principal. Instructional leadership is committed to the core business of teaching, learning and knowledge. Staff members should meet on a regular basis to discuss how to do their jobs better and ultimately help students learn more effectively.

4 instructional leadership skills principals must have

Four skills have been identified as essential for effective instructional leadership in principals.

1. Effective use of resources

It isn't sufficient for principals to just know their faculty's strengths and weaknesses. If specific resources can benefit the staff, the principal should be ready and prepared to provide them. They should also clearly recognize that teachers thrive on being appreciated and acknowledged for good performance.

2. Communication skills

Of course, instructional principals should be excellent communicators. Interpersonal or people skills are crucial to the success of a principal. They must be able to communicate their beliefs pertaining to education, including the conviction that every student is capable of learning. These skills inspire trust, spark motivation and empower teachers and students.

3. Serving as an instructional resource

Teachers rely on principals and other administrative officials to be sources of information related to effective instructional practices and current trends in education. Instructional leaders should be tuned in to all of the pertinent issues and current events related to curriculum, effective assessment and pedagogical strategies.

4. Being visible and accessible

Lastly, good principals should be a positive, vibrant and visible presence in the school. Modeling behaviors of learning, focusing on learning objectives, and leading by example are crucial to the success of an instructional principal.

In addition to these four qualities, a successful instructional principal should also have excellent planning and observation skills as well as proficiency in research and evaluation of both staff and student performance.

Instructional leadership roles: always evolving

The role of the instructional leader should also be expanded to incorporate a shift away from just "management," or working in terms of administrative tasks, and move toward an emphasis on leadership. In order to achieve this objective, a strong principal with solid ideas is not enough; success will require a redefinition of the role of the principal. Barriers to leadership must be removed by reducing emphasis on bureaucratic structures and procedures. Relationships must be reinvented.

The dramatically different role of the school principal as instructional leader has been described as one that must focus on building a vital community of learners. It also requires shared decision-making and, in a sense, getting back to basics. It will require the leveraging of time, the support of ongoing professional development for staff members, creating a climate of integrity, using resources to support a diverse educational game plan and, lastly, plenty of room for inquiry and improvement.

For principals to truly thrive in the role of instructional leader, they will have to work to liberate themselves from being mired in the bureaucratic aspects of teaching. They'll have to redouble their efforts in improving learning and teaching methods. Needless to say, improvement in instructional methods is a goal worth seeking. When successfully implemented, instructional teaching and learning allows students as well as teachers to create a more meaningful learning environment. Ultimately, it enables them to better control their destiny.

Tags: Educational Leadership, Leadership and Administration

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Four Instructional Leadership Skills Principals Need

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There's no doubt that instructional leadership requires the school principal to wear many hats. At various times, principals must be administrators, managers, diplomats, teachers and curriculum leaders, sometimes all within one school day. It is definitely a balancing act, and principals must be proficient in all of these areas, as well as able to fluidly move from one role to another.

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Important school communication tips from a principal to parents

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Important school communication tips from a principal to parents

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This article brings awareness to simple things that helps Principals communicate with parents.

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For teachers, parents can be your worst enemy or your best friend. Over the course of the last decade, I have worked with a handful of the most difficult parents, as well as many of the best parents. I believe that the majority of parents do a terrific job and genuinely try their best. The truth is that being a parent is not easy. We make mistakes, and there is no way we can be good at everything. Sometimes as a parent it is critical to rely on and seek advice from experts in certain areas. As a principal, I would like to offer a few school tips for parents that I believe every educator would want them to know, and that will also benefit their children.

Any teacher will tell you that if a child's parent is supportive that they will gladly work through any issues that might arise over the course of the school year. Teachers are human, and there is a chance they will make a mistake. However, despite perception most teachers are dedicated professionals who do a terrific job day in and day out. It is unrealistic to think that there are not bad teachers out there, but most are exceptionally skilled at what they do. If your child does have a lousy teacher, please don't judge the next teacher based on the previous, and voice your concerns about that teacher to the principal. If your child has an excellent teacher, then make sure that the teacher knows how you feel about them and also let the principal know. Voice your support not only of the teacher but of the school as a whole.

One of the most frustrating trends in schools is how the level of parental involvement decreases as a child's age increases. It is an extremely discouraging fact because children of all ages would benefit if their parents would stay involved. While it is certain that the first few years of school are arguably the most important, the other years are important as well.

Children are smart and intuitive. When they see their parents taking a step back in their involvement, it sends the wrong message. Most children will start to slack off too. It is a sad reality that many middle school and high school parent/teacher conferences have an exceedingly small turnout. The ones who do show up are the ones that teachers often say don't need to, but the correlation to their child's success and their continued involvement in their child's education is no mistake.

Every parent should know what is going on in their child's daily school life. A parent should do the following things every day:

Ask your child how their school day went. Engage in conversation about what they learned, whom their friends are, what they had for lunch, etc.

Make sure your child has time set aside to complete homework. Be there to answer any questions or assist when needed.

Read all notes/memos sent home from the school and/or teacher. Notes are the primary form of communications between a teacher and parents. Look for them and read them to stay up-to-date on events.

Contact your child's teacher immediately if you have any concerns.

Value your child's education and express the importance of it every single day. This is arguably the single most valuable thing a parent can do when it comes to their child's education. Those that value education often thrives and those that don't often fail.

Nothing undermines the authority of a teacher any faster than when a parent continuously bashes them or talks bad about them in front of their child. There are times when you are going to be upset with a teacher, but your child should never know exactly how you feel. It will interfere with their education. If you vocally and adamantly disrespect the teacher, then your child will likely mirror you. Keep your personal feelings about the teacher between yourself, the school administration, and the teacher.

As an administrator, I cannot tell you how many times I have dealt with a student discipline issue where the parent will come in tremendously supportive and apologetic about their child's behavior. They often tell you that they are going to ground their child and discipline them at home on top of the school's punishment. However, when you inquire with the student the next day, they tell you that nothing was done.

Children need structure and discipline and most crave it on some level. If your child makes a mistake, then there should be consequences at school and home. This will show the child that both the parent and school are on the same page and that they are not going to be allowed to get away with that behavior. However, if you do not have any intent on following through on your end, then do not promise to take care of it at home. When you practice this behavior, it sends an underlying message that the child can make a mistake, but in the end, there is not going to be a punishment. Follow through with your threats.

If your child came home from school and told you that their teacher threw a box of Kleenexes at them, how would you handle it?

1. Would you instantly assume that they are telling the truth?

2. Would you call or meet the principal and demand that the teacher be removed?

3. Would you aggressively approach the teacher and make accusations?

4. Would you call and request a meeting with the teacher to ask them calmly if they could explain what happened?

If you are a parent who chooses anything other than 4, then your choice is the worst kind of slap in the face to an educator. Parents who take their child's word over an adult before consulting with the adult challenge their authority. While it is entirely possible that the child is telling the truth, the teacher should be given the right to explain their side without being viciously attacked first.

Too many times, children leave out crucial facts, when explaining situations like this to their parent. Children are often devious by nature, and if there is a chance they can get their teacher in trouble, then they will go for it. Parents and teachers who stay on the same page and work together alleviate this opportunity for assumptions and misconceptions because the child knows they won't get away with it.

Help us hold your child accountable. If your child makes a mistake, don't bail them out by constantly making excuses for them. From time to time, there are legitimate excuses, but if you are constantly making excuses for your child, then you are not doing them any favors. You won't be able to make excuses for them their whole life, so don't let them get into that habit.

If they didn't do their homework, don't call the teacher and say it was your fault because you took them to a ball game. If they get in trouble for hitting another student, don't make the excuse that they learned that behavior from an older sibling. Stand firm with the school and teach them a life lesson that could prevent them from making bigger mistakes later on.

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6 Superb Tips for Parents Who Have Children in School

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For teachers, parents can be your worst enemy or your best friend. Over the course of the last decade, I have worked with a handful of the most difficult parents, as well as many of the best parents. I believe that the majority of parents do a terrific job and genuinely try their best.

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When I read this article I had to laugh. Items 1-8, I experienced, while attending ASU earning my 1st Master's Degree. Items 9-10 is new information to me, so the learning continues.  Yes, I am that old.

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I'm not that old, but I went to high school in a time before Facebook, before Google became a verb. But it still wasn't that long ago.

When I was in school, I used a search engine, I had instant messages, I even had a social network. But just in the short amount of time between when I got my diploma and now, the landscape has changed.

We have a generation of digital natives who aren't keen on a learning model that was made for the 20th century.

Here we have 10 of the latest technology trends that are at the forefront of the education ecosystem.

1. Gamification

Gamification is a slightly overused term to describe turning a certain series of tasks into a game. This doesn't mean using a giant wheel of prizes when you take a quiz. Games, particularly roleplaying games, have a system of challenging the player, rewarding the player, then giving the player harder challenges with bigger rewards. It's been shown in studies that dopamine is released when you win at a game.

Bringing these tools to education is easier than you might think: Challenge the students, let them feel good about overcoming the challenge, then challenge them more. For example, Duolingo, a language tool, promises to give you 11 weeks of college-level courses in under 40 hours. It works by learning a few words at a time, then building up to longer sentences as you gain more points. Or consider Classdojo, an app that alerts classmates and parents when a student does well on a course, and adds social media tools like texting and sharing photos. With these and similar tools, the better a student does, the more rewards he/she gets.

2. Flipped learning

Flipped learning is most often described as "homework at school, schoolwork at home." While this accurately describes a flipped classroom, the whole idea of flipped learning is to change from a model where the teacher bestows information to the students to a Socratic model where students use critical thinking skills to learn from each other. A number of studies have confirmed the success of a flipped-learning environment.

The four pillars of flipped learning, according to the Flipped Learning Network, are:

Flexible environment: accommodating when, where, how and how long it takes to learn

Learning culture: switching from the teacher being the expert to the students engaging in active discussion

Intentional content: teachers determine that they want the students to learn themselves and what material the teachers should lead themselves

Professional educator: teachers continually assess their students and provide important feedback

3. Distance education

Distance education is not a new idea. Forty years ago, David Vetter, the "boy in the bubble," tried using a speakerphone in his second-grade classroom because he'd get sick if he left his house. We've come a very long way since the days of speakerphones. Consider Kubi. It could be considered an education robot, but really it's a stand that holds a tablet. It can be moved from one classroom to another, and it can move the tablet up and down to get the best view of the teacher. But the actual video is nothing more elaborate than Apple's FaceTime. Kubi is being used to great success in a town in Texas by letting students who can't make it to school come in virtually.

Just as you can bring in students remotely, you can also bring in teachers remotely. By using today's communication technologies like video conferencing, class forums, pre-recorded videos, social media, and even the humble email, students are able to tailor their education to their needs and their schedule. No matter how remote a school is, or where in the world a guest lecturer is, they are no farther than their nearest Wi-Fi network.

4. Mind mapping

Mind mapping is a way to brainstorm and take notes. It's graphic and visual, rather than linear and text-based. It is a type of spider diagram, so ideas are circled or otherwise demarcated and linked to each other with lines. Software that makes mind maps, like Mindmeister, BigMind Pro, Brainstormer, and many others, make it possible for educators to make presentations that are fun and easy to understand.

Mind maps work more closely like the human brain, with ideas linked to other ideas. It makes it a great tool to more easily recall information. It also can be used to generate both individual notes and collaborate on ideas. Using mind-mapping software, you can share maps as easily as you would send an email. Mind maps are another example of how learning can be interactive and multi-dimensional rather than unidirectional and passive.

5. Social media

Social media is a polarizing subject in the field of education. Some feel that it is a distraction from real work. but there are ways that social media can benefit the classroom.

For example, social media can bring students together in a small online group to work on an assignment together. You can create a hashtag for Twitter, make a Pinterest board, start a Facebook group and more. There are also social media platforms, like Kidblog, that is strictly monitored by teachers to make sure every post is safe for students.

6. Digital textbooks

When I was in elementary school, the last few pages of my social studies textbook had pictures of all the presidents, but it was one president behind, even though the president at the time was in his second term. I didn't know it, but most textbooks are used for seven years before a new edition comes out. Textbooks are twice as expensive now as the one I had, and books are getting so heavy that they are giving students back problems.

That's changing. Schools like Archbishop Stepinac High School in White Plains, New York, are eschewing dead tree books for digital textbooks. For the one-time cost of a tablet (which the student may already own) plus $150 for membership in the digital library, students are able to access every book they'll need for the year on a specially designed app. Like every BYOD model, students will be able to take the material anywhere, so they'll never forget a book at home again.

7. Just Google it

Albert Einstein didn't know his own phone number. He said, "Why memorize something you can just look up?" That was back when we used phone books. Today, we have a dozen ways to get in touch with someone we already know, and we don't need to remember anything more complicated than a first name. If Einstein wasn't afraid to use the phone book, why should we be afraid of using the Internet to look up things we can't memorize?

The printing press brought the written word to the masses. The pocket calculator sped up tedious calculations to mere seconds so engineers could focus on problem solving. Doctors today are turning to Google to help them diagnose rare diseases with uncommon symptoms. Every major change in the way we memorize facts or organize our thoughts has brought with it a dramatic change in the way we live. So don't be afraid to use Google. Just don't use it to cheat on a test.

8. Augmented reality

Virtual reality is something we associate more with oversized headsets and a slight sense of dizziness. Augmented reality is a little more like Google Glass. Using eyewear or holding your device in front of you, you can see the world around you, but you can also see important information overlaid on it. This can be anything from a translation of a foreign sign, the constellations in the night sky or information from every social media and search engine at once.

The only limit to something like this is the teacher's imagination. You shouldn't judge a book by its cover, but what if every book you pulled from the school library had a review written by the last person who read it, and just by looking at the cover, you could pull it up? What if you looked up at the clouds and it could show you just why there's a good chance of rain in the next few hours? What if you sat down at a piano and it showed you which notes to hit to play the Spar Spangled Banner? Teachers can use this to make any lesson more interactive and fun.

9. User-generated content

User-generated content, also known as crowd-sourced content, is media generated by one or more often many lay-persons rather than a single expert or group of experts. The best known example of this is Wikipedia. Content generated by Wikipedia is not created or curated by one group of elites. Instead, the content is generated by users and then edited by other users. The system isn't perfect, but it has an overall error rate that is only slightly higher than the venerable Encyclopedia Britannica.

Right now, all you have to do is jump on YouTube and you can learn how to bake a cake, or make fancy balloon animals, or juggle or pretty much any skill known to man. While there's no substitute for hands-on learning, if you want to pick up the basics, all you need is a screen. Students can learn from these videos or even create their own. YouTube, remember, has private videos, so students can create videos tracking their progress on a project and showing other students how they're doing it. The teacher, of course, can do the same thing. And the video itself can be an assignment as well, especially when it comes to creating video, music, and other media.

10. Big Data

Big Data will be a major game changer. It'll let us see what works and what doesn't with astounding clarity. How well did a school trip go? Did it make a difference if two teachers both gave pop quizzes on the same day? Does homework get forgotten more easily when the season finale of Singing Zombie Dragon Detectives is on? Did any of the techniques I mentioned above help any students get better jobs and compete in a global economy? There's only one way to know, and that's to look at the data.

Services like Edutrends and Knewton are able to anonymously mine data about students and turn that data into usable information for the parents, teachers, the school board, and other stakeholders in the schools. And it isn't just large trends either. For example, the data may reveal that a student having trouble with word problems in math has decent math skills but is having trouble with reading. In the old system, the student would have to practice more math problems, but with the help of Big Data, the teacher would know the students needs a reading tutor. Big Data gives us the ability to dynamically adjust a course along the school year.

A new type of education, and a new type of educator, is emerging. We are going forward to a learning system of the latest gadgets and apps, while returning to an older teaching model where the teacher knows the student, not just the subject. We are finding out that anyone with the right platform can be an expert at something, and anyone with the will to learn can become a student. We have new tools. We have new toys. They are one and the same.

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10 communication technology trends shaping education - The Business Journals

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I'm not that old, but I went to high school in a time before Facebook, before Google became a verb. But it still wasn't that long ago. When I was in school, I used a search engine, I had instant messages, I even had a social network.

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This article addresses Kotter's desires to help an organization grow. Kotter provides 8 guided steps that produce results.

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This article explains Kotter's 8 step change model, developed by John Kotter in a practical way. After reading you will understand the basics of this powerful organisational management tool.

What is Kotter's 8 Step Change Model?

Research carried out by the American change and leadership guru John Kotter has proved that major change efforts unfortunately do not always have the desired outcome. He found out that there is only a 30% chance of organisational change success. This is why organizations implement changes unsuccessfully and fail to achieve the intended result.

John Kotter introduced the "Kotter's 8 Step Change Model" to improve an organization's ability to change and to increase its chances of success. By following this step plan organizations can avoid failure and become adept at implementing change. As a result, organizations no longer need to adjust the changes and they will increase their chances of success.

Change success factors

Employees do not always experience change as something positive. However, they are important when it comes to the implementation of change. Following the Kotter's 8 Step Change Model plan will help organizations succeed at implementing change. The first three steps of Kotter's 8 Step Change Model are about creating the right climate for change, steps 4 up to 6 and link the change to the organization. Steps 7 and 8 are aimed at the implementation and consolidation of the change:

1. Create a sense of urgency

This first step of Kotter's 8 Step Change Model is the most important step according to John Kotter. By making employees aware of the need and urgency for change, support will be created. This requires and open, honest and convincing dialogue. This convinces employees of the importance of taking action. This could be accomplished by talking with them about potential threats or by discussing possible solutions.

2. Create a guiding coalition

It is a good idea to establish a project team that can occupy itself with the changes the organization wants to implement. This group manages all efforts and encourages the employees to cooperate and take a constructive approach. Preferably, this coalition is made up from employees working in different jobs and positions so that all employees can rely on the group and identify themselves with the team members. Because of the open character, the groups can also function as a sounding board, which enables an open communication.

3. Create a vision for change

Formulating a clear vision can help everyone understand what the organization is trying to achieve within the agreed time frame. It makes changes more concrete and creates support to implement them. The ideas of employees can be incorporated in the vision, so that they will accept the vision faster. Linking the adopted vision to strategies will help employees to achieve their goals.

4. Communicate the vision

The most important objective of step 4 of Kotter's 8 Step Change Model is to create support and acceptance among the employees. This can only be achieved by talking about the new vision with the employees at every chance you get and by taking their opinions, concerns and anxieties seriously. The new vision must be fully adopted across the entire organization.

5. Remove obstacles

Before change is accepted at all levels, it is crucial to change or, if necessary, remove obstacles that could undermine the vision. By entering into dialogue with all employees, it will become clear who are resisting the change. To encourage acceptance of the vision by the employees, it helps when their ideas are incorporated and implemented in the change process.

6. Create short-term wins

Nothing motivates more than success. Create short-term goals so that the employees have a clear idea of what is going on. When the goals have been met, the employees will be motivated to fine tune and expand the change. By acknowledging and rewarding employees who are closely involved in the change process, it will be clear across the board that the company is changing course.

7. Consolidate improvements

According to John Kotter many change trajectories fail because victory is declared too early. However, change is a slow-going process and it must be driven into the overall corporate culture. Quick wins are only the beginning of long-term change. An organization therefore needs to keep looking for improvements. Only after multiple successes have been achieved, it can be established that the change is paying off.

8. Anchor the changes

The last step of Kotter's 8 Step Change Model. A change will only become part of the corporate culture when it has become a part of the core of the organization. Change does not come about by itself. Values and standards must agree with the new vision and the employees' behaviour must provide a seamless match. Employees must continue to support the change. Regular evaluation and discussions about progress help consolidate the change.

Recommendations by John Kotter

When all steps of Kotter's 8 Step Change Model have been followed, John Kotter recommends taking the new vision as a starting point when recruiting and hiring new staff. This also applies to the training of (current) staff. The new vision and the changes must be given a solid place in the organization. Employees who have actively contributed to the change must receive public recognition. Their support is enormous and therefore they will be asked again for their support and help when another change needs to be brought about.

It's Your Turn

What do you think? Is the Kotter's 8 Step Change Model applicable in today's modern companies? Do you recognize the practical explanation or do you have more suggestions? What are your success factors for applying the Kotter's 8 Step Change Model?

Share your experience and knowledge in the comments box below.

If you liked this article, then please subscribe to our Free Newsletter for the latest posts on Management models and methods. You can also find us on Facebook, LinkedIn and Google+.
More information

1. Kotter, J. P. (2012, 1996). Leading change. Harvard Business Press.

2. Kotter, J. P. (1995). Leading Change: Why Transformation Efforts Fail. Harvard Business Review OnPoint (March-April), 1-10.

3. Kotter, J. P. and Cohen, D. S. (2002). The Heart of Change: Real-life Stories of how People Change Their Organizations. Harvard Business Press.

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Patty Mulder is an Dutch expert on Management Skills, Time Management, Personal Effectiveness and Business Communication. She is also a Content writer, Business Coach and Company Trainer and lives in the Netherlands (Europe).

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Kotter's 8 Step Change Model: learn to lead organisational change | ToolsHero

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This article explains Kotter's 8 step change model, developed by John Kotter in a practical way. After reading you will understand the basics of this powerful organisational management tool. Research carried out by the American change and leadership guru John Kotter has proved that major change efforts unfortunately do not always have the desired outcome.

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CREATING A CULTURE FOR DEEP CHANGE: IT'S THE TEAM THAT COUNTS

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CREATING A CULTURE FOR DEEP CHANGE: IT'S THE TEAM THAT COUNTS

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Change occurs when a leader dares to dream a big vision, have a plan for everyone to follow, and take a leap.

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Driving Question: How did an exemplar school create a culture for transformational change? Daphne (center) and the rest of sixth grade complete a project to revitalize an unused and run down part of the campus. The Night It Began.
It was no typical night at Katherine Smith School. It was our first ever school-wide exhibition. Unlike an Open House or display of student work, on this night every kindergarten to sixth grade student was going to present and demonstrate the final products from a project. The moments leading up our Exhibition Night were intense.

This was a real deadline. Every project across the campus had to be completed at the same time. Everyone scrambled to finish final details of the project deliverables and rehearsed the oral presentations. Ready or not, work on this night was going to be public. And, we were ready. More than 1,500 visitors crammed in the classrooms and saw firsthand the transformative change that had begun at the beginning of this same school year.

Our School
Katherine Smith School (www.ksmithschool.org) is a kindergarten to sixth grade public, neighborhood, elementary in the Evergreen School District on the east side of San Jose, CA. The urban neighborhood surrounding Katherine Smith faces many challenges with household incomes well below the poverty level and crime rates that are the highest in the county.

Years of "back to basics" strategies led to minimal academic gains, and the culture of the school was suffering. Much of the staff turned over each year as teachers were transferring out due to "burn out." Many parents were disconnected from the work on the campus and lined up at the superintendent's office to share those concerns. And, the students were disengaged as discipline referrals and suspensions were the most solid data on the rise.

A Time to Change
It was time to make a change - a real transformative change to reinvent this school with a 21st century vision where each student was being prepared to think, learn, work, collaborate, communicate, and contribute now and throughout his or her life. The reinvention brought changes in the curriculum using project-based learning to engage students in hands-on authentic learning experiences, access to cutting edge technology and necessary tools to do this work, and a school culture that empowered every person on the campus. The changes began with the adults and the professional culture.
Mr. Armstrong, 4th grade, working with 5th grade student, Tatiana, during a professional development opportunity.

A Culture of Universal Achievement To do transformative work, we needed to build a culture of universal achievement. The adults had to believe, "All students can achieve at high levels regardless of race, socio-economic background, language, or family situation." These kinds of statements are thrown around so often in schools, that they've become cliché. But, it was still true. Without a belief that our students could be successful, no change was going to occur.

So we recruited a staff that that not only shared these common beliefs, but was committed to putting theses beliefs into action. First we presented the reinvention plan to the current staff at Katherine Smith, and then to the rest of interested teachers throughout the district. Interested staff from across the school district wrote letters articulating their passion for this work and the commitment to the belief.

While more than 75% of the staff transferred out of the school, we assembled a completely self-selected crew of teachers who wanted to do this work and would hold each other accountable to the beliefs that brought them or kept them here.

A Culture of Collaboration. Collaboration is an essential skill that must be authentically embedded in the design of projects and tasks to achieve the college and career goals we have for our students. Again, this starts with the adults. How can we expect our students to work together if we are not doing so ourselves? A key aspect of the professional culture at K. Smith School is the expectation and authentic need to work in teams. Nothing is done in isolation. Teachers design, implement, and revise projects together. They are not modeling collaboration in an inauthentic way - they really need one another. They provide each other feedback using critical friends and other protocols, engage in inquiry to solve problems and design innovative learning experiences, and take ownership in our shared success.

A Culture of Risk Taking. It was time to jump off the cliff. Risk taking is an important aspect of our culture. I've heard it said, "To ask is to seek denial." Time is precious and there is urgency to this work - we cannot wait for approval and permission for what we know our students need. We drive innovation and encourage creative solutions to the academic and social challenges that students are facing today. Risk taking is a lot easier for the students, but the adults first and foremost need to be pushed. With solid beliefs in place and systems to encourage collaboration, the safety nets are removed; however, it feels safer because we have one another.

Much of this aspect of the culture is cultivated with "defined autonomy" from the leadership. It's important to define the space and limitations, so the creative work can happen within this space. For example, teachers at K. Smith School are not accountable to strict pacing guides. They are accountable to the learning outcomes and high standards and are given the creative freedom to collectively design solutions to meet those needs.
K. Smith School Habits- think, learn, work communicate, collaborate, and contribute- are aligned to our mission.
Moving Forward

K. Smith School is now into the third year of its reinvention. While we are eager to push further to achieving our 21st century vision, we have seen transformative change. Our students are engaged in projects that connect them to the essential skills they will need to be successful in this ever changing world. Those suspension numbers mentioned, have dropped from seventy in 2011 to just seven in our first year. And they continue to stay low.

Our parents are connected to our school and participate actively on campus. Now instead of complaining at the superintendent's office, they are filling district meeting office with ideas and support. Parents are showing up in record numbers and not just on Exhibition Night. They are getting involved and are empowered to offer solutions to needs of the community.

Most importantly, our professional culture is thriving. There are no easy days, but the staff has the belief that all of our students can and will achieve at high levels. The collaborative systems in place help us create solutions to any problem, and the trust we have built with each other enables us to be creative and take risks, which is leading to something incredible.

@brengard) is the principal of Katherine Smith School[ in the Evergreen School District in San Jose, California. Brengard led the implementation of Project-Based Learning to reinvent this traditional, public, neighborhood school into an innovative 21st Century learning environment. Katherine Smith is a New Tech Network School, a No Excuses University School, and a partner with Buck Institute for Education.

Follow K. Smith School on Facebook (facebook.com/ksmithschool), twitter (@ksmithschool), Instagram (intragram.com/ksmithschool)and YouTube (youtube.com/ksmithschool).

Tomorrow's Post: Beyond A Vision for 21st Century Teaching and Learning. Why Mess With What Works?

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Creating A Culture for Deep Change: It's the Team that Counts

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Driving Question: How did an exemplar school create a culture for transformational change? Daphne (center) and the rest of sixth grade complete a project to revitalize an unused and run down part of the campus. The Night It Began. It was no typical night at Katherine Smith School.

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7 Ways Common Core State Standards Will Change Your Classroom 

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7 Ways Common Core State Standards Will Change Your Classroom 

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I was excited to read about the unifying of the school districts across the U.S. As a prior military person, one of my worst fears, moving from state-to-state was the academic standards. Although, I fought this battle long ago, it is good to know things finally changed.

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The biggest pedagogic change to American education since the arrival of John Dewey is happening right now. It's called Common Core State Standards. Its goal: to prepare the nation's tens of thousands of students for college and/or career. If you are involved in any part of teaching, administrating, or planning, you are holding your breath, downing an aspirin, and crossing your fingers, knowing a storm is about to hit. You've prepared, but is it enough?

46 states adopted the Common Core State Standards in an effort to bring consistency and uniformity to the hodge podge of state standards that dot the education landscape from California to Maine and Alaska to Florida. For most states, implementation is piecemeal, a bit at a time, with the full roll out not expected until sometime in 2015.

Besides turning your curriculum upside down, there are philosophic changes you as a teacher will have to buy into to fit the mold that is Common Core:

1. Depth not width -Dig into ideas. Make them clearer, more robust. Teachers will cover fewer topics in a year, but with greater detail. Trust that the breadth of learning will come from that deeper understanding. The accepted pedagogy that similar topics be introduced every year, each with more detail, is no longer. Now, students will cover new topics at each grade level--fewer but fuller.

2. Nonfiction, not fiction-Literacy and reading is likely to be comprehensive narratives rather than inference from stories. Why? Post-high school reading in both college and career is more often expository than fiction as high school grads study for college courses or receive specific training on a job. Students need to know how to perform the critical reading necessary to pick through the staggering amount of print and digital information required to thrive at the game called life.

3. Evidence is required -It will be paramount that students logically and dispassionately prove their claims with organic conversations and authentic, well-understood evidence. Statements must have supporting facts that stand up under cerebral scrutiny. A claim of acceptability because it is 'their interpretation' will not be sufficient in a CCSS classroom.

1. Speaking and listening-Anyone who thrives in the adult world knows the importance of these two skills. Now, they will be taught in the K-12 curriculum. The youngest learners will have guidelines for how to carry on a conversation-- come to a discussion prepared, listen respectfully to others, take turns speaking, build on each other's conversations, ask clarifying questions. As they advance grade levels, so too will the requirements.

2. Technology is part of most/all standards-Not overtly, but teachers will find a fundamental understanding of how technology scaffolds learning to be essential in delivering Standards correctly. Many times, standards expect knowledge be 'collaborated on, published and shared'. This is done through technology--pdfs, printing, publishing to blogs and wikis, sharing via Tagxedos and Animotos. Students and teachers will use the internet, online tools, software, tech devices as vehicles for achieving educational goals. No longer will they be 'fun' tools employed in the computer lab. Now, they will be integral to the curriculum. This means teachers will have to be comfortable with iPads, online widgets, Google Docs, and all those geeky tools that they admired from afar, when colleagues used them, promising they would try them 'one day'. That day has arrived.

3. Life skills are emphasized across subject areas -It's not good enough students can write in literacy classes. CCSS expects them to communicate just as effectively in every subject. And, where critical thinking has always been fundamental to math and science, that now expands to all classes. Students must understand cause and effect, transfer knowledge from one subject area to another throughout their educational day. That means, math teachers must pay attention to writing and literature teachers to cognitive processes.

4. An increase in rigor-Accountability will be expected of students and teachers. Too often, passing a test was all the assessment that was expected. CCSS will look for more--transfer of knowledge (see 6 above), evidence of learning, student as risk-taker, authenticity of lessons, vertical planning, learning with increasingly less scaffolding and prompting, and differentiated instruction so all learners get it.

How are you preparing? Do you know something we-all can learn from?

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7 ways common core state standards will change your classroom

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7 Ways Common Core State Standards Will Change Your Classroom

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The biggest pedagogic change to American education since the arrival of John Dewey is happening right now. It's called Common Core State Standards . Its goal: to prepare the nation's tens of thousands of students for college and/or career.

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Beyond Test Scores: What NAEP Results Tell Us about Implementing the Common Core in Our Classrooms

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Beyond Test Scores: What NAEP Results Tell Us about Implementing the Common Core in Our Classrooms

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The article talks about gaps in the teaching/learning experience and ways to improve the outcomes.

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The site visits numerous aspects of  Demographics, Achievements, and Outcomes.  Additional, interesting information is it tracks the numbers that support education.

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Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

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This website presents key indicators that examine the educational progress and challenges students face in the United States by race/ethnicity. These indicators summarize the latest racial/ethnic data as well as trends on topics such as demographics; preprimary, elementary, and secondary participation; student achievement; student behaviors and persistence in education, postsecondary education, and outcomes of education.

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This article covers every aspect of teaching students. I was extremely excited to find this while looking for something else.

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Edited by Robert W. Cole

by Robert W. Cole

Children know how to learn in more ways than we know how to teach them.

-Ronald Edmonds (1991)

Good instruction is good instruction, regardless of students' racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic backgrounds. To a large extent, good teaching-teaching that is engaging, relevant, multicultural, and appealing to a variety of modalities and learning styles-works well with all children.

The instructional strategies outlined in this chapter reflect a sampling of the most exciting and determined efforts to change the way the United States educates its citizens. These "ideas at work" range in complexity and magnitude. They represent concepts that cut across content areas. They overlap so comfortably that they sometimes look like separate facets of a single gem. They are as much about attitude and general approach as about specific pedagogical techniques and classroom application. They have a few characteristics in common:

They tend to be inclusive, not exclusive.

They work best in context with other ideas and concepts, not in isolation.

They often focus on students working within social situations rather than alone.

Their activities, techniques, and goals are interactive and interdisciplinary, realistic rather than esoteric.

Possibly most important, they empower students to be actively involved in the processes of their own learning, rather than passively receptive.

None of the ideas in this chapter is new. Although some of them tend to be identified with specific programs, individuals, or locations, they are presented here as generic-that is, as applicable in virtually any classroom, in any subject area. All are adaptable.

Why ideas at work rather than ideas that work? Because "ideas that work" implies a kind of guarantee of effectiveness. In the real world of the schools, however, nothing works every time, everywhere, for everyone. No single strategy, approach, or technique works with all students. But the concepts in this chapter have proven themselves over time, with a multitude of students of diverse backgrounds and widely ranging abilities.

Unfortunately, numerous barriers can prevent poor and minority students from receiving good instruction. Some of these barriers are caused by educators' attitudes and beliefs; others are the result of institutional practices. The intent of the listing that follows is not to provide a thorough cataloguing of every barrier to sound instruction, but rather to place educators on alert.

Attitudes and Beliefs

Racism and Prejudice

Despite much progress during the past few decades, racism and prejudice are still ugly realities in all sectors of life in the United States, including education. Today, racism may be less overt and virulent than in the past, but its effects can still greatly harm minority students. In fact, subtle, insidious forms of racism may be even more harmful to young people than more blatant forms.

Prejudice against the poor, of whatever race or ethnicity, is another force that works against the academic achievement of disadvantaged students. For example, some teachers of poor students don't let them take materials home, out of fear that the materials will never be returned. Yet these same students tend to be proud to have the responsibility for taking materials home and are generally exceedingly careful to return them.

Obviously teachers must avoid discriminating, consciously or unconsciously, against students because of their racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic backgrounds. Such discrimination can be as blatant as imposing harsher discipline on minority students or as subtle as lowering expectations for poor children because they have "difficult" home lives. Teachers must be aware that they see students' behavior through the lens of their own culture. They must carefully examine their own attitudes and behaviors to be sure that they are not imposing a double standard. Most important, they must believe sincerely and completely that all children can learn.

Expectations

Educators must hold equally high expectations for affluent white students and poor and minority students-despite the disparity in students' backgrounds. Under the right conditions, low-income and minority students can learn just as well as any other children. One necessary condition, of course, is that the teacher hold expectations of high performance for all students.

Both high and low expectations can create self-fulfilling prophecies. Students must believe that they can achieve before they will risk trying, and young people are astute at sensing whether their teachers believe they can succeed. By the same token, teachers must truly believe their students can achieve before they will put forth their best effort to teach them. The teacher's beliefs must be translated into instructional practices if students are to benefit: actions speak louder than attitudes.

Teachers must also be sensitive to the subtle ways in which low expectations can be conveyed. According to researcher Sandra Graham of the University of California-Los Angeles, when a teacher expresses sympathy over failure, students typically infer that the teacher thinks they are incapable of succeeding, not that they simply may not have tried hard enough. Similarly, when a teacher gives students lavish praise for completing a simple task or offers help before being asked for it, students infer that the teacher thinks they are stupid. In other words, holding high expectations is not simply a matter of cheerleading; it requires insight into how students may interpret a teacher's words and behaviors.

Teachers must also resist the temptation to attribute student failure to lack of ability ("I've taught this concept and they didn't understand it; they must not be smart enough"). Failure to learn can stem from many other causes, such as inadequate prior knowledge, insufficient effort or motivation, lack of the right learning strategy, or inappropriate teaching. The bottom line is this: if students are not learning, the teacher needs to change the approach to teaching them.

Teachers are not the only ones who need to examine their expectations for students, however. Administrators who decide what courses their schools offer should ask themselves whether they are providing too few challenging courses. And counselors must consider whether they are steering students into undemanding courses because the students are poor, minority, or female. The expectation that all students can achieve at high levels, under the right circumstances, should be the guiding principle of every school.

Lack of Understanding of Cultural Differences

Teachers sometimes misinterpret the behaviors of poor and minority students because they do not understand the cultures they come from. White teachers can easily misread the behaviors of black students, for example. In Black Students and School Failure, Jacqueline Jordan Irvine (1990) writes:

Because the culture of black children is different and often misunderstood, ignored, or discounted, black students are likely to experience cultural discontinuity in schools. ... This lack of cultural sync becomes evident in instructional situations in which teachers misinterpret, denigrate, and dismiss black students' language, nonverbal cues, physical movements, learning styles, cognitive approaches, and worldview. When teachers and students are out of sync, they clash and confront each other, both consciously and unconsciously. ... (p. xix)

Only when teachers understand their students' cultural backgrounds can they avoid this kind of culture clash. In the meantime, the ways in which teachers comprehend and react to students' culture, language, and behaviors may create problems (Erickson, 1987). In too many schools, students are, in effect, required to leave their family and cultural backgrounds at the schoolhouse door and live in a kind of "hybrid culture" composed of the community of fellow learners (Au & Kawakami, 1991).

Especially in the early grades, teachers and students may differ in their expectations for the classroom setting; each may act in ways that the other misinterprets. In addition, those teachers (and they are legion) who insist on a single pedagogical style and who see other styles as being out of step, may be refusing to allow students to work to their strengths.

As Knapp and Shields (1990a) suggest, the so-called "deficit" or "disadvantage" model has two serious problems: (1) teachers are likely to set low standards for certain children "because their patterns of behavior, language use, and values do not match those required in the school setting"; and (2) over time a cycle of failure and despair is created that culminates "in students' turning their backs on school and dropping out ... because teachers and administrators fail to adapt to and take advantage of the strengths that these students do possess" (p. 755).

Institutional Practices

Tracking

The most notorious of the harmful institutional practices is tracking, which dooms children in the low tracks to a second-rate education by failing to provide them with the support they need to move to a higher track. As a result, they fall further and further behind their peers. Students in low tracks are stigmatized and lose self-esteem and motivation, while expectations for their performance plummet.

In Keeping Track, researcher Jeannie Oakes (1985) says, "We can be quite certain that the deficiencies of slower students are not more easily remediated when they are grouped together" (p. 12). Yet even now the practice of tracking persists, despite the negative effects on students documented by Oakes and many other researchers. Tracking is especially harmful to poor and minority students because these students are more likely to end up in the low tracks.

Effective alternatives to tracking have included the Accelerated Schools Project, developed by Henry Levin of Stanford University, which includes accelerated programs to bring at-risk students into the mainstream by the end of elementary school and results in faster learning because students receive engaging, active, interdisciplinary instruction; and the Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) program, developed by Stanley Pogrow of the University of Arizona- Tucson, which works to enhance the general thinking skills of remedial students by showing them how to work with ideas. These programs and others are aimed at helping students get up to speed, rather than permanently segregating them and feeding them a dumbed-down curriculum.

Inappropriate Instruction

Inappropriate instruction harms poor and minority students. Instead of being presented in a variety of modes, instruction in too many U.S. schools tends to be abstract, devoid of application, overly sequential, and redundant. Bits of knowledge are emphasized, not the big picture, thus handicapping global thinkers. Moreover, the largely Eurocentric curriculum downplays the experiences and contributions of minorities.

For teachers of diverse students, it is especially important to use a broad repertoire of strategies. Some children may be global thinkers; others, more analytical. Some children may learn best from lecture and reading; others, through manipulatives and other hands-on experiences. Some children may thrive on competition; others may achieve far more in cooperative groups.

Differential Access

Poor and minority students are often denied access to challenging coursework. Counselors place them in remedial or undemanding courses, and because more challenging courses often require students to have taken specific introductory courses, students can never switch to a more demanding track. Irvine (1990) cites data showing that "black students, particularly black male students, are three times as likely to be in a class for the educable mentally retarded as are white students, but only one-half as likely to be in a class for the gifted and talented" (p. xiv). In addition, the pull-out programs intended to help many of these students end up fragmenting their school day. And after pull-out programs end, students are given little support for reentering the regular classroom, so they tend to backslide when they rejoin their peers.

Lack of Consequences

Unfortunately, there are few consequences for students and teachers if poor and minority students do not learn. So long as students put in the required seat time, they will receive a diploma; so long as teachers go through the motions, they will have a job. In many cases, nobody-not the education establishment, not the parents or guardians, not the politicians-protests a status quo that is woefully deficient.

Schools that have had success in teaching poor and minority students do not keep ineffective teachers on the faculty; in these schools, teachers are held responsible if their students do not learn. These schools also collaborate with parents or guardians to ensure that students who come to school and strive to achieve are rewarded.

Disciplinary Practices

Teachers sometimes punish poor and minority children more harshly than they do other children for the same offenses. Moreover, suspension is often the punishment of choice, causing students to miss valuable class time. According to Irvine (1990), "one factor related to the nonachievement of black students is the disproportionate use of severe disciplinary practices, which leads to black students' exclusion from classes, their perceptions of mistreatment, and feelings of alienation and rejection, which result ultimately in their misbehaving more and/or leaving school" (p. 16).

On the other hand, some teachers are more lenient with poor or minority students, because they believe these children have been socialized differently than mainstream children. For example, teachers might overlook boisterous or aggressive behavior among poor or minority students while chastising mainstream students for similar behavior. Teachers need to establish a clear, reasonable discipline policy and require all students to abide by it.

Involvement of Parents or Guardians

Poor and minority parents or guardians often have no opportunities to create an ongoing relationship with their children's schools; in fact, they often have no communication with the schools at all. In turn, schools tend to make few efforts to develop a relationship with poor and minority parents or guardians, who may be too intimidated or hard-pressed to initiate contact themselves. For parents who don't speak English, the language barrier can pose another formidable obstacle.

James Comer of the Yale Child Study Center has developed a process to foster good relationships among children, teachers, and parents or guardians. Parents or guardians are encouraged to be an active presence in the school. Social activities bring families and school staff together, helping parents or guardians gain trust in the school. The program has reportedly helped to lower dropout rates, among other benefits.

Unequal Access to Resources

Unequal access to resources further reduces poor and minority students' chances of receiving equal opportunities to learn. Poor and minority students typically attend schools that receive less funding than those attended by mainstream students. As a result, they are taught with inferior materials and equipment and have fewer manipulatives, laboratories, and facilities. Teachers in such schools receive less staff-development, must cope with larger classes, and have less free time.

The Negative Impact of Testing

Standardized tests can be seen as one way in which a meritocratic society reorders a widely disparate populace into hierarchies of abilities, achievement, and opportunity. In fact, the power of tests to translate difference into disadvantage is felt at many points in the world of education, most notably in the decision to place low-income and language-minority students into compensatory or bilingual education classes, where a watered-down, fragmented, and rote curriculum reinforces the disadvantages presumably diagnosed by the tests.

More than ever before, it would seem, multiple-choice tests are being used inappropriately as the ultimate measure of students' learning and capabilities-despite a wealth of evidence that undermines the wisdom of using them in this manner. Decisions that significantly affect students' academic destinies are often made on the basis of a single test score. Moreover, norm-referenced tests reinforce the attitude that some students should be expected to do poorly. To be fair to all students, assessment should be primarily criterion-referenced and, as far as possible, based on actual performances. Perhaps most important, a variety of measures should be used to assess student learning.

Lack of Bilingual Instruction

Not surprisingly, many students who do not speak English fall behind in their studies early, because they are not taught content in their native language. When they eventually learn English, they have lost so much ground in their schoolwork that they find it difficult (and sometimes impossible) to catch up with their peers. In far too many cases, these students become discouraged and drop out of school.

Overall, there is the too-common problem of organizational inertia and resistance to change: reluctance to accept bilingual programs, to hire bilingual personnel, to upgrade the status of teachers of English as a second language (ESL), to support the acquisition and development of primary-language materials, to monitor and assess the progress of language-minority students, and to deal with the unique problems facing newcomers, including their need for counseling.

The number of bilingual teachers in U.S. schools is woefully insufficient, and the use of existing bilingual teachers is far from satisfactory. Schools do not use bilingual teachers to the best advantage-that is, to take maximum advantage of their dual-language abilities. The training and staffing of ESL and "sheltered English" classes remain inadequate. Beyond staffing, there is a dearth of primary-language materials, especially for languages other than Spanish, and bilingual educators regard even those materials as inadequate.

Students who speak a language other than English need to be taught content, for a time, in their native language, while they are also given intensive training in English. When they rejoin their English-speaking peers, they will be up to speed in their studies.

Universal Teaching Strategies

Naming the barriers to the kind of schooling we want for all of our children is at least a beginning. Naming the problem allows the challenging process of treating it to begin. The next section of this chapter will outline 16 generic instructional strategies that are intended to provide assistance in treatment.

Susie, Ron, Tasha, Jamal, and Juan have a lot in common. They are roughly the same age, sit in the same classroom, have the same teacher, and enjoy many of the same foods, games, and interests. As learners, however, they differ in critical ways. Susie is one of the 13 percent of youngsters in grades K-12 who learn best working alone; Ron, one of the 28 percent strongly oriented to working with a peer; and Tasha and Jamal, two of the 28 percent who learn best with adults (Tasha, by the way, with a collegial adult; Jamal, with an authoritative adult).

Of the five children, only Juan seems to learn reasonably well in any or all of those social configurations. In that respect, he represents fewer than one-third of the youngsters in a typical K-12 classroom. Of the five, only Susie and Juan are reasonably well served in the traditional teacher-oriented, teacher-directed classroom. Most of the time, the other three would be much better off in a different kind of learning situation-one far more diverse in its activities, curricular organization, and social configurations.

Few individuals in today's work world think of trying to solve a problem or launch a product or service without massive and persistent teamwork, including open discussion, fact gathering, consideration and argument, trial-and-error experimentation, research, and development. Typically, they not only depend on working with other individuals in their place of business, but also frequently call on outside consultants. Only in U.S. classrooms are individuals expected to find every answer, solve every problem, complete every task, and pass every test by relying solely on their own efforts and abilities.

The concept of cooperative/collaborative learning seeks to tap the potential that group interaction offers for learning and development. In its most formal manifestation, it places students-usually of varying levels of performance-into small groups in which they work together toward common goals. At the other end of the continuum is the more informal arrangement of peer tutoring, which has gained legitimacy as an effective form of cooperative/collaborative learning.

Those who advocate attending to students' varying learning styles note that some young people work best alone; others work most successfully with authority figures such as parents or teachers. In planning the use of various teaching strategies, teachers must be prepared to make adjustments according to the needs and learning styles of their students (Carbo, Dunn, & Dunn, 1986).

"So often teachers tell students to 'get along' or 'cooperate' but spend little time on skill practice and discussion of this basic human need," writes Robert Slavin (1986, p. 24). "Cooperative learning provides the teacher with a model to improve academic performance and socialization skills, and to instill democratic values. A wealth of research supports the idea that the consistent use of this technique improves students' academic performance and helps them become more caring." Slavin cites positive effects in such diverse areas as student achievement at various grade levels and subjects, intergroup relations, relationships between mainstreamed and normal-progress students, and student self-esteem.

David Johnson and Roger Johnson (1990), two veteran advocates of cooperation and collaboration in the classroom, note that people in general do not know instinctively how to interact effectively with others. If cooperative efforts in the classroom are to succeed, students must get to know and trust one another, communicate accurately and unambiguously, accept and support one another, and resolve conflicts constructively.

Some advocates of cooperative/collaborative learning suggest that students be periodically regrouped within heterogeneous classes. They also recognize the value of flexible grouping-that is, regrouping at various times by varying criteria for varying purposes, based on immediate needs. Their reasoning is as follows:

Small-group participation in various contexts for various purposes helps students recognize and learn to function effectively in a variety of social configurations.

Forming teams of students who perform at different levels of achievement not only encourages self-esteem and group pride, but also engenders general appreciation and understanding of how individuals differ from each other in attitudes, abilities, points of view, and approaches to problem solving.

Cooperative/collaborative learning has been incorporated in a variety of classrooms for a variety of purposes. Those applications have involved student-selected activities, apportioning specific elements of classroom projects or lessons, brainstorming, role playing, problem solving, developing awareness of thinking strategies used by oneself or by one's peers, common interests, group analyses, and team learning.

To implement a technique known as a circle of knowledge, for instance, a teacher organizes a class into small groups (circles) of four or five students each, appoints a recorder/reporter in each, poses to all a single question to which there are many possible answers, sets a time limit, expects each group member to contribute at least one answer, and then, after facilitating whole-class sharing and challenges, announces a winning group.

Another technique, the jigsaw, allows a teacher to assign specific components of a major learning project to small task-oriented groups; each group has only a piece of the larger picture under consideration. When all the groups have reported their findings to the entire class, every student has the opportunity to grasp the entire picture.

Peer conferencing and peer collaboration are two techniques that are particularly useful for teaching writing. They offer student writers the critical response of firsthand, face-to-face comments, help them discover what it is to write for an audience, and provide them with opportunities to improve their writing ability as they work on assignments and interact with their peers (Herrmann, 1989).

Cross-age and peer tutoring are other forms of student-to-student interaction. The age-old idea of tutoring has helped countless students. Many students identify with peers more easily than with adults, especially adult authority figures, and find it easier to model the behaviors of their peers than of their adult teachers. Finally, the one-to-one nature of peer tutoring offers immediate feedback, clarification, extension, and modification-usually in a nonthreatening social relationship (Webb, 1988).

Resources

Adams, 1990; Carbo, Dunn, & Dunn, 1986; Dunn & Dunn, 1993; Edmonds, 1991; Herrmann, 1989; Johnson & Johnson, 1986, 1990; Kilman & Richards, 1990; Knapp & Shields, 1990a, 1990b; Lehr & Harris, 1988; Slavin, 1986, 1987; Stevens, Madden, Slavin, & Farnish, 1987; Stover, 1993; Webb, 1988.

Jim had trouble writing effectively. To be sure, his sentences were complete and grammatical, the words in them spelled correctly, the syntax straightforward if prosaic. There was one overriding problem with Jim's writing: what he wrote didn't say much of anything. His content and purpose were not specific, precise, or clear. That fact led to a more personal problem for Jim: he had ceased to trust his teacher's judgments of his work. When the teacher observed that his writing wasn't clear, Jim balked. "You're just saying that," he blurted out. "What have you got against me?"

"I'll tell you what, Jim," said the teacher. "Write to me about something you know that I don't know anything about."

After considering two or three possibilities, Jim named a card game his teacher had never heard of.

"OK," the teacher agreed. "Write step-by-step instructions on how to play the game and bring them to me. I'll follow the instructions, and you can tell me whenever I make a mistake."

"Fair enough!" Jim said.

Jim wrote in his typical style, and his teacher followed the instructions as earnestly as possible. Step by frustrated step, Jim saw the game fall to pieces. He stopped the exercise midway through.

"Give me time for a rewrite," he said, determined as ever. This time, however, he was convinced that he had a problem with his writing, and he was armed with a clearer perception of what to do about it.

Provide students with real purposes and real audiences for their speaking and writing, and you offer them valuable feedback as well as increased motivation. Writing an essay on a topic assigned by the teacher to every member of the entire class lacks the punch and the credibility of writing a personal letter to an editor, a local politician, or a community activist to express a heartfelt compliment, complain about an injustice, or inquire about an important issue. Students derive no satisfaction from succeeding with a mindless, silly activity such as circling the silent E in a list of words. Such an activity has no relation to real reading and no link to real life.

Communicating with real people about real issues, feelings, and beliefs is further enhanced when the content and style of that writing are grounded in the outside reality that the student brings to school. No matter how gilded or gutted its location-in city, suburb, or countryside-the student's community and personal experiences are valuable resources to be explored. They are grounds for inquiry and learning-things that count most in any classroom!

Schema theory firmly undergirds the strategy of reality-based learning. It outlines the belief that individual facts and phenomena are best perceived, learned, and understood within the larger contexts of structure or process. The value of reality-based learning has been firmly documented in the language arts-in reading and writing as well as in the understanding and appreciation of literature. It bridges school and home, classroom and clubhouse, hallway and street.

Extending the recognition and use of authentic purposes, materials, and content into any subject area helps ensure that learning experiences are meaningful and satisfying. Thus maps, directions, brochures, and directories find a comfortable home in English classes, and community surveys in math classes.

Ideas proliferate in every school-real problems to solve, real issues to resolve: how to manage recycling in the school cafeteria; how to make hallways safer and more hospitable; what to do about truancy or dropouts; whether to lock school doors and when. Problems awaiting study lie just outside the walls of virtually any school in the United States: traffic patterns; paths for bicyclists, joggers, or rollerbladers; recreational needs and resources for young people; the needs of and services for an aging population.

The combined processes of analyzing real problems and then suggesting solutions to them not only motivate learners, but also enable them to range in their thinking processes from recognizing information they need in the resources available to them, to gathering relevant information, to summarizing ideas, to generating potential solutions, and finally to analyzing the consequences and effectiveness of their solutions.

Reality-based learning counters the common notion that many students suffer from "cultural deprivation" and bring no educationally worthwhile experiences to school. "A more worthwhile approach ... might be to examine the relationship between what particular groups of children know or how they learn and pedagogical practices," suggests Etta Ruth Hollins (1993, p. 93). "An improvement in teachers' understanding of how to build on and extend the knowledge and skills these children bring to school, rather than attempting to force the children to fit existing school practices, might get better results."

Resources

Bloome, 1976, 1985; Danehower, 1993; Hall, 1989; Hollins, 1993; Knapp & Turnbull, 1990; Lozanov & Gateva, 1988; Marzano et al., 1988; Marzano et al., 1992; Palincsar & Klenk, 1991; Palincsar, Ransom, & Derber, 1989/1990; Resnick, 1987; Richardson, 1988; Rowan, Guthrie, Lee, & Guthrie, 1986; U.S. Department of Labor, 1992; Walmsley & Walp, 1990.

Lynn Cherkasky-Davis (1993) described a collaborative project at the Foundations School (part of the Chicago Public Schools): an original version of the opera Aida, written, produced, costumed, rehearsed, and staged by students. What did that culminating event represent? It represented what the students had learned about the history, geography, sociology, culture, and drama of ancient Egypt, topics that over preceding weeks both nourished and fed on every subject area in the curriculum.

How useful might it be for a student to know something about the economics and the technology of 19th century New England whaling before reading Moby-Dick -and what better opportunity to merge the talents and interests inherent in the respective teachers of social studies, science, and language arts?

How might a thoughtful reading of Aldous Huxley's Brave New World illuminate issues, arguments, and ideas as diverse as eugenics, Malthusian economics, and the perceived amorality of modern mores and technology-again using convergent elements of separate disciplines?

Rarely, if ever, do we live our lives outside of school according to academic pigeonholes. We don't switch to a different frame of reference or way of doing things every 20 or 40 or 60 minutes. Even a well-executed shopping trip to the supermarket is an interdisciplinary experience! Scheduling, timing, planning, measuring, counting, reading, identifying, describing, comparing, assessing, affording, budgeting-not to mention spatial orientation, nutrition, and considerations of quality of life-all come into play within a single trip. Consciously or unconsciously, by the time we have negotiated our way from home through traffic to parking lot, then aisle to aisle to the checkout lane and home again, we have routinely called on the skills and content of every basic academic discipline that schools have to offer.

Most interdisciplinary teaching is not nearly so eclectic nor so involved. Just the same, such teaching does cross traditional subject-area lines and typically involves professional teamwork. It can incorporate into a social studies unit samples of literature and art produced during a given period or by a particular society. Ask students to interpret the samples in light of a specific social context, or to infer specific characteristics of the society from their observations and interpretations. Then let them compare their interpretations with those of their peers, and finally with written records from that period or society.

As another example, how about having students study the social impact of a given scientific or technological development at the same time they are becoming acquainted with the science or technology itself? Mathematics is a natural for interdisciplinary learning. Solving its problems can depend heavily on reading skills. Not only is math an integral component in scientific processes; it also plays an appealing role in creating puzzles, music, and architecture.

Interdisciplinary projects promote thinking strategies that cross content areas and transfer solidly into real-life applications-analytical observation, for instance, or critical thinking, comparison and contrast, evaluation, perspective, and judgment. The teacher's role includes supporting those processes and helping students, through practice, to become aware of them and comfortable in using them.

Probably no other interdisciplinary approach has won greater acceptance, especially in the earlier grades, than that which has integrated five "basic skills"-reading, writing, listening, speaking, and mathematics-into one holistic classroom enterprise. Dorothy Strickland (1985) has itemized how simply and obviously such integration can be attained. Reading, for instance, can serve as model and motivation for writing that classmates can share by listening to such spoken activities as storytelling, reporting, oral composition, poetry, and dramatic readings. Reading skills also give a student access to information required in solving mathematical problems, and they play a major role in the interpretation of tables, charts, and graphs.

The "whole language" approach to instruction in reading and the language arts is a salutary example of how "disciplines" once viewed and taught as essentially discrete and separate from each other-that is, reading, writing, speaking, and listening-can easily be explored as interwoven threads in a single, unified tapestry of individual development.

Resources

Cherkasky-Davis, 1993; Jacobs, 1991; Marzano et al., 1988; Paris, Wasik, & Turner, 1991; Strickland, 1985; U.S. Department of Labor, 1992.

In collecting lunch money, the 1st grade teacher discovered that 8 of her 20 students had apparently brought their lunches to school with them. Rather than simply filing that observation mentally under "classroom administrivia," she posed a question to her class: "Twelve of you brought lunch money today. Knowing that, how many of you apparently brought your own lunches to school with you?"

"Some got out blocks," Mary Lindquist reported. "Some got out toy figures, some used number lines, some used their fingers, and some just thought through it. There were 10 or 12 different solutions, and each child wanted to explain his or her own way."

Students passively memorizing a single arithmetic procedure? Not at all. Instead, students actively involved in problem solving, whether or not they agreed on their methods and results.

"Most of us can remember sitting in a math class at one time or another thinking, 'When in the world am I ever going to use this?'" Lindquist commented. Mary Lindquist, then president of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, recounted the anecdote during an interview for an article that appeared in Better Homes and Gardens (Atkins, 1993). "Rote memorization is not preparing our children for the future. Kids need to use and understand math."

"By far, the highest percentage of students are tactile/kinesthetic," writes Angela Bruno (1982), "and when these youngsters manipulate hands-on materials they tend to remember more of the required information than through the use of any other sense."

There are several other reasons why students should be allowed to construct their own understandings, generate their own analyses, and create their own solutions to problems:

It is neither engaging nor authentic to understand a fact or a situation exactly as someone else understands it. In real life, we build our own understandings to supplement, change, or confirm for ourselves what we already think we know or what others offer us in knowledge or ideas.

Teachers promote interest and engagement when they let students address problems for which answers do not exist or are not readily apparent. Students then have real purposes for discovering and applying information and for using all the strategies that might possibly apply and that are available to them.

Students who are intrinsically motivated and substantially engaged because of interest in meaningful learning activities are more likely to achieve high levels of performance than those for whom the completion of learning activities is simply a means of avoiding punishment.

Integrated throughout the school day and in every area of the curriculum, the range of active learning experiences includes games, simulations, role playing, creative dramatics, pantomime, storytelling, drawing, and contests that demonstrate integration of concepts and allow students to experience the ways in which concepts relate to each other in the world outside school. Other hands-on, tactile materials and activities include Cuisenaire rods, measuring cups, blocks and cubes, task cards, flip charts, field trips, and laboratory experiences. Many advocates suggest strongly that students be allowed to select for themselves those activities in which they will become involved.

Resources

Atkins, 1993; Brown, 1990; Bruno, 1982; Cohen, 1992; Hartshorn & Boren, 1990; Hodges, 1994; Joyner, 1990; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1989; Roser, 1987; Strickland & Morrow, 1989.

Everyone knows that there are all kinds of people: thinkers and doers, audiences and actors, readers and viewers, athletes and couch potatoes. (At least one venerated 6th grade music teacher routinely divided her class into singers and listeners.) Probably no other approach attempts to accommodate differences among individual students in greater detail than does that body of thought given the general rubric of learning styles.

David Kolb (Boyatzis & Kolb, 1991) identifies four predominant learning styles. Imaginative learners, he says, excel in watching, sensing, and feeling; analytic learners, in watching and thinking; common-sense learners, in thinking and doing; and dynamic learners, in doing, sensing, and feeling.

Anthony Gregorc (1982, 1985a, 1985b) identifies four basic processes by which individuals differ in their learning patterns: (1) a concrete-sequential process characterized as structured, practical, predictable, and thorough; (2) an abstract-sequential process-logical, analytical, conceptual, and studious; (3) an abstract-random process-sensitive, sociable, imaginative, and expressive; and (4) a concrete-random process-intuitive, original, investigative, and able to solve problems.

In his highly regarded theory of multiple intelligences, Howard Gardner (1999) outlined eight different aspects by which individuals can come to know the world: linguistic, logical/mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily/ kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist.

Addressing perennial debates about the best approach to teaching reading-phonics, whole language, sight vocabulary, and so forth-Marie Carbo (1987) writes that "any one of a dozen reading methods is 'best' if it enables a child to learn to read with facility and enjoyment" (p. 56).

No matter how much they echo or differ from each other, all descriptions of learning styles are simply attempts to define and accommodate the manner in which a given student learns most readily. The theory holds that learning styles develop through the unique interactions of biology, experience, personal interests, talents, and energy. A task force commissioned by the National Association of Secondary School Principals considered the many factors that can significantly shape an individual's learning style and selected 24 for further study; these range from "perceptual responses," "field dependence/independence," and "successive/simultaneous processing" to "persistence," "environmental elements," and "need for mobility."

Whatever the ultimate taxonomy of learning styles, it seems obvious that although all children can learn, each concentrates, processes, absorbs, and remembers new and difficult information differently. According to Rita and Kenneth Dunn (1993), the factors involved include the following:

Immediate environment-for example, noise level, temperature, amount of light, furniture type, and room design.

Emotional profile-for example, degree of motivation, persistence, responsibility, and need for structure and feedback.

Sociological needs-for example, learning alone or with peers, learning with adults present, learning in groups.

Physical characteristics-for example, perceptual strengths (auditory, visual, tactile, kinesthetic), best time of day for learning, potential need for periodic nourishment and mobility.

Psychological inclination-for example, global and analytic strengths.

In the most formal model of matching instruction to learning style, teachers first identify each individual student's style through observation, interview, or questionnaire. They share their observations individually with students and parents, and then plan and carry out an appropriate learning program for that child. The program includes compatible instructional practices and management strategies appropriate to what has been observed about the child's learning style. A less formal approach is to emphasize strategies that capitalize on the styles of most students, while accommodating those whose style differs markedly from the group.

Thus, instruction that attends to learning or reading styles capitalizes on an individual student's strengths and preferences while simultaneously removing barriers to learning. Instructional planning extends to such complementary methods, materials, and techniques as floor games, choices among reading materials and ways of receiving or presenting information, and participation in given activities (that is, with the entire class, in a small group, or alone). No one learning style is considered better or worse than any other (Carbo & Hodges, 1988; Hodges, 1994).

Research in learning styles and reading styles indicates that teaching academic underachievers in ways that complement their strengths in style has significantly increased their standardized test scores in reading and across subject areas.

Resources

Andrews, 1990, 1991; Bauer, 1991; Boyatzis & Kolb, 1991; Brunner & Majewski, 1990; Butler, 1984; Carbo, 1987; Carbo & Hodges, 1988; Dunn & Dunn, 1993; Gardner, 1999; Gardner & Hatch, 1989; Garrett, 1991; Gregorc, 1982, 1985a, 1985b; Hodges, 1994; Lewis & Steinberger, 1991; Orsak, 1990; Perrin, 1990.

Dorothy had tried for weeks to get her 6th graders to open up in class discussions. After years of traditional teaching, however (that is, the teacher asking the questions and one or two students offering "right" or "wrong" answers), her students were predictably passive. They consistently resisted all her attempts to open up her classroom. On the rare occasions when an intrepid student asked a question in return or dared to offer a comment, the eyes of every student in the room swung immediately and automatically to Dorothy for her verdict: right or wrong?

Then, quite by chance, Dorothy happened on a life-sized human figure made of cardboard. She realized at once that it was the very thing she needed to make her point. The following day, she launched a classroom discussion and popped a direct question to see if any of her students would volunteer a response.

Kathy did volunteer-tentatively, of course, and with just a word or two-but her response seemed to the class to merit a judgment from the teacher. All eyes fell in silence on Dorothy. Without saying a word, Dorothy walked to her closet, pulled out the cardboard figure, and set it in the chair behind her desk. With every eye following her in amazement, she sat down beside Kathy and stared silently at the cardboard figure, waiting like her students for its response.

Dorothy was modeling the behavior she saw in her students-behavior she was hoping they would overcome. They got the point! The humor in the situation engaged their trust, demonstrated Dorothy's sincerity as a teacher, and dramatized their responsibility as participants in their own learning. Class discussions began to pick up, and Dorothy found fewer and fewer occasions to pull her cardboard counterpart out of the closet.

Most modeling, of course, is intended to work the other way around-that is, teachers usually behave as they would have their students behave. Learners gain when teachers practice what they preach, try out ideas in front of the class, or even participate actively in projects or tasks with the class.

When modeling, teachers-regardless of their subject area-follow the same assignments or suggestions that they give their students: they write on the same topics, figure out the same problems, play the same games, and ask themselves the same questions. And they do so in full view and hearing of their students, often as coparticipants in small-group activities, or one-to-one with a student.

The practice is neither demeaning nor condescending. Instead, it dramatizes desired behavior, one of the surest means available to demonstrate process, motivate and guide students, and help develop perspective on a given task or concept. As a teacher, let your students hear you think aloud. Teachers who share thoughts on how they have completed a certain task or arrived at a particular conclusion help students become aware of their own thinking strategies.

Modeling enables teachers to furnish appropriate cues and reminders that help students apply particular problem-solving processes or complete specific tasks-in storytelling, for instance, or inquiry, or evaluation. Among such techniques, scaffolding is one of the most generic and useful approaches. Scaffolding is a device by which the teacher builds on the point of reference at which a student hesitates or leaves off-in telling a story, in explaining a process, in seeking an answer, in any moment of discourse, analysis, or explanation. In scaffolding, the teacher simply suggests the next step, both reinforcing what the student has already achieved and guiding the student to greater understanding or accomplishment.

More generally, Costa and Marzano (1987) identify seven starting points by which teachers can create a classroom "language of cognition":

Using precise vocabulary.

Posing critical and interpretive questions, rather than simple recall.

Providing data, not solutions.

Giving directions.

Probing for specificity.

Modeling metacognitive processes.

Analyzing the logic of language.

"Most teachers put too much emphasis on facts and right answers and too little attention on how to interpret those facts," writes school administrator Robert Burroughs (1993), commenting specifically on the teaching of literature. "The result has been growth in basic literacy at the expense of thoughtfulness. ..."

Burroughs outlines specific preferred techniques among those he has seen teachers use to guide learning processes and thus structure growth in understanding and appreciation. The techniques are adaptable to discourse, inquiry, or discussion in any subject area:

Focusing-refocusing students' efforts at refining their own responses if, for instance, they begin wandering from the specific content at hand.

Modifying or shaping-rephrasing a student's idea in slightly different language; for instance, if a student suggests that a character in a novel is resisting change, the teacher might add a word or two to encourage consideration of other explanations for the character's behavior.

Hinting-calling attention to a passage in the text that challenges a student's view.

Summarizing-restating ideas to bring them to everyone's attention and to spur discussion, or summarizing various positions students have taken along the way (1993, pp. 27-29).

Resources

Burroughs, 1993; Costa & Marzano, 1987; Langer, 1991; Marzano et al., 1988; Paris, Wasik, & Turner, 1991; Rosenshine & Meister, 1992; Vygotsky, 1962, 1978.

"What a beautiful horse!" said the city-bred dude. "How much is it worth?"

"Depends if you're buyin' or sellin'," answered the cowhand.

"Thinking cannot be divorced from content," writes Carr (1988). "In fact, thinking is a way of learning content. In every course, and especially in content subjects, students should be taught to think logically, analyze and compare, question and evaluate. Skills taught in isolation do little more than prepare students for tests of isolated skills."

If any of the ideas at work described in this chapter challenges the conventional wisdom of classroom practice, it is this notion: students, regardless of their performance levels, are capable of using higher-order thinking skills. This concept contrasts sharply with the attitude and practice of the high school English teacher who, on the first day of school, gave all 125 of her seniors a writing assignment. She collected and corrected their papers; pointed out the various lapses in spelling, grammar, and punctuation; and then used those errors to justify an unproductive, unchallenging year spent reviewing the same sterile exercises in spelling, grammar, and punctuation that her students had seen countless times before.

No one condones faulty grammar and inaccurate spelling, of course. At the same time, however (and far more important), teachers need not wait until students have mastered basic skills before they introduce the more complex skills of analysis, synthesis, criticism, and metacognition into their classroom routines. The process of gathering information, evaluating it critically, drawing inferences, and arriving at logical conclusions is based on evidence, and evidence can be expressed and recognized by many different means and in many different formats. Yes, every student should learn to spell accurately, but it is not necessary to know that I comes before E except after C in order to test fairness or bias in an editorial statement or to detect straightforwardness or ambiguity in a politician's promise.

Wiggins (1992) notes that tests typically overassess students' knowledge and underassess their know-how. Onosko (1992) reports measurable "climates of thoughtfulness" in the classrooms of social studies teachers who reflect on their own practices, who value thinking, and who emphasize depth over breadth in content coverage.

Carr (1988) and others suggest various ways by which to introduce and pursue higher-order thinking skills in the classroom. For example, using all major news media-newspapers, magazines, television, and radio-motivates students, and comparing different accounts of the same story helps them develop questioning attitudes. "In the process," writes Carr, "they become more discriminating consumers of news media, advertising, and entertainment."

"All classification tasks," she notes, "require identification of attributes and sorting into categories according to some rule. While sorting concrete objects is an appropriate activity for the young child, verbal analogies (for example, 'How are a diamond and an egg alike?') are appropriate for learners of any age. ... Applications to mathematics and science, especially the inquiry approach to science, are readily apparent."

"Schema theory," she continues, "holds that information, if it is to be retained, must be categorized with something already stored in memory. Brainstorming techniques that aid comprehension ... help students to access their prior knowledge about a topic to be introduced, and thus to classify and retain the new information."

Children's literature becomes its own powerful tool, Carr concludes, citing Somers and Worthington (1979): "Literature offers children more opportunities than any other area of the curriculum to consider ideas, values, and ethical questions."

Just how seriously should Chicken Little's neighbors have taken her complaint that the sky was falling? Why? Why not? Was it fair for the Little Red Hen to keep all the bread she had baked for herself? How true is it that sticks and stones can break your bones, but names will never hurt you? Why does a rolling stone gather no moss? If water is heavier than air, how do raindrops get up in the sky? How does science differ from art, music from noise, wisdom from fact?

What is truth?

Resources

Adams, 1986; Bransford, Sherwood, Vye, & Rieser, 1986; Carr, 1988; Chi, Bassok, Lewis, Reimann, & Glaser, 1989; Lambert, 1990; Onosko, 1992; Paul, 1984; Rosenshine & Meister, 1992; Somers & Worthington, 1979; Wiggins, 1992.

Multiculturalism doesn't mean what it used to mean in education in the United States. Adding a speech by Martin Luther King Jr. to the literature anthology and offering parental instructions in Spanish-both good ideas in their own right-simply do not go far enough anymore. Teaching multiculturally throughout the curriculum is more than simply an attempt to combat racism. The more important aim of studying human cultures in all their diversity is to understand what it is to be human.

Unfortunately, such study has too often been skewed to a single perspective while more inclusive perspectives have been labeled as somehow disloyal to the American tradition. The fact that racism is so prevalent in American society has until recently led many theorists to concentrate primarily on the study of specific ethnic groups, on their characteristics and unique contributions to the more general culture-usually described from a Euro-American or Anglo-American point of view.

By contrast, the history of the United States is actually the history of all the cultures that it comprises. Until recently, multicultural education has focused mostly on minority groups, even though Euro-Americans and Anglo-Americans also spring from a culture that was not originally and purely "American." Such skewing sets up the fallacy that Euro- and Anglo-American descendants are the "real" Americans while all others, particularly people of color, are culturally "different."

Classroom instruction in a multicultural context is enhanced when it involves students in learning about themselves first-through oral history projects, for example, in which children involve their parents, grandparents, and other older, living adults who can relate information about family backgrounds and histories. Shared in the classroom, such information becomes a powerful tool both for identifying similarities among students and for highlighting how they differ from one another in positive rather than negative ways.

In short, teaching multiculturally cultivates a school culture that celebrates diversity; supports mutual acceptance of, respect for, and understanding of all human differences; and provides a balanced viewpoint on key issues involved in such teaching. It provides students with a global, international perspective on the world in which they live. It seeks to eliminate racial, ethnic, cultural, and gender stereotypes and to resolve or ameliorate problems associated with racism and prejudice. And it underscores the importance of teaching ethics, values, and citizenship in promoting the democratic heritage of the United States.

Resources

Au & Kawakami, 1985; Banks, 1990; Bennett, 1986; Bloom, 1985; Collins, 1988; Dillon, 1989; Fullinwider, 1993; Hall, 1989; Hollins, 1993; Kendall, 1983; Quellmalz & Hoskyn, 1988; Taylor & Dorsey-Gaines, 1988; Tiedt & Tiedt, 1986.

The student report card is no longer the primary measure of success in schooling. The general vocabulary of education in the United States now includes a whole range of assessment terms: adequate yearly progress, SAT, standardized tests, norms, criterion references, outcomes, portfolios, and on and on. Little wonder that teachers and administrators feel pressured by the demands of "assessment" and harried by the clamor and misunderstanding that surround the term today.

Various modes of assessment yield critical and useful information to inform and shape tools and methods that promise to improve academic achievement. "Why do we evaluate students?" ask Rasbow and Hernandez (1988). Among the answers are to determine the following:

If objectives have been achieved.

The knowledge and skills that students have acquired.

Areas in which the curriculum needs improvement.

The effectiveness of a teaching process or methodology.

Student responses to specific aspects of the curriculum.

Students' ability to use knowledge and skills.

Evaluations are also used to do the following:

Design instruction for individuals, groups, or entire classes.

Diagnose a student's level of understanding before recommending further instruction on a given topic.

Gather information on the quality of the learning environment.

Guide the direction of future study.

Summarize an activity, topic, or unit of work.

Provide a basis for extra help where needed.

Identify the most useful information to communicate to students and parents.

Traditional assessment techniques and instruments for filling one or another of those roles are as familiar to most teachers as they are widespread in use: the National Assessment of Educational Progress, the SAT, norm- and criterion-referenced tests (some mandated by state legislatures, and even by the federal government), standardized tests in specific subject areas (the Stanford, the California, and the Metropolitan, among others), performance scales, and checklists. And, of course, among teacher-made instruments, examples include the essay exam and the ubiquitous multiple-choice test.

Researchers and curriculum specialists have emphasized the power of various alternative methods of assessment, such as the following:

Exhibitions or demonstrations that serve as culminating activities in a student's learning experience.

Observation and analysis of hands-on or open-ended experiences.

Portfolios (collections of records, letters of reference, samples of work, sometimes even including videotapes of student performance or task accomplishment-in fact, any evidence that appropriately documents a student's skills, capabilities, and past experiences).

If two of the primary purposes of assessment are to determine whether the goals of education are being met and to inform various stakeholders of the progress of education, then assessment techniques should be sufficiently varied to perform these functions as appropriately and accurately as possible. Those goals vary, after all, from broad national goals to the individual teacher's lesson plan. They encompass diagnoses of ability or style in teaching and learning, measurements of proficiency and achievement of individual students or entire classes, and the effectiveness of entire schools, districts, state systems, or national programs. The audiences for assessments may include students, teachers, parents, policymakers, colleges, and businesses. Some assessments serve gatekeeping roles-college admission tests, for instance.

Some assessment methods reflect some of what we have come to realize are preferred teaching practices; consequently, they contain activities that are congruent with and that support good instruction. They tend to invite diverse responses and to promote a range of thinking-hands-on science and mathematics problem-solving activities, for example. In some cases, assessment tasks may extend over several days, allowing students to reflect on their work, to polish and revise it. Some assessments give students the opportunity to respond in any of several ways, including writing, drawing, and making charts or graphic organizers.

In general, trends indicate that alternative assessment tends to do the following:

Use a variety of progress indicators, such as projects, writing samples, interviews, and observations.

Focus on an individual's progress over time rather than on one-time performance within a group.

Bring teachers into conference with students about their work and progress, helping students to evaluate themselves by perceiving the results of their own work.

Resources

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1992; Buechler, 1992; Grace, 1992; Hewitt, 1993; Johnson, 1993; Lockwood, 1991; Marzano et al., 1992; Marzano, Pickering, & McTighe, 1993; Perrone, 1991; Rasbow & Hernandez, 1988; Schnitzer, 1993; Sweet & Zimmerman, 1992; Worthen, 1993.

Years ago, the professionals at Harlem Park Middle School in Baltimore realized the vital importance of taking parental involvement seriously. They added three parent coordinators to their staff and located them full-time in the neighborhoods the school serves rather than in the school building itself. Living and working in those neighborhoods, the coordinators helped to fight a steady rise in the school's dropout rate by teaching parents how to keep their children in school, help with homework, keep track of progress, and work with school representatives before a crisis develops.

In Mesa, Arizona, school officials recognized that parenthood is 18 years of on-the-job training. So they organized a "Parent University," filling a Saturday schedule with 40 workshops ranging from creative art activities for preschoolers, to helping young people survive junior high, to financing a college education. More than 800 people attended (Education Leaders Consortium, 1989).

The list of ways in which school people have come to grips with the need to bring home and school together for the good of the children varies widely across the United States, limited only by the resourcefulness and imagination of the people in each school and district.

Epstein (1989) outlines several broad avenues by which parents and schools can share in a child's development. Parents have the basic obligation to provide food, clothing, and shelter; to ensure a child's general health and safety; and to provide child rearing and home training. But parents can also provide school supplies, a place for schoolwork at home, and positive home conditions for learning. The school, in turn, is obliged to communicate to the home such important information as school calendars; schedules; notices of special events, school goals, programs, and services; school rules, codes, and policies; report cards, grades, test scores, and informal evaluations; and the availability of parent/teacher conferences.

Parents can be directly involved in the work of the school: assisting teachers and students with lessons; chaperoning class trips; participating in classroom activities; aiding administrators, teachers, and school staff in the school cafeteria, library, laboratories, and workshops; organizing parent groups in fund-raising, community relations, political awareness, and program development; attending student assemblies, sports events, and special presentations; and participating in workshops, discussion groups, and training sessions. Parents can involve themselves in learning activities at home by developing a child's social and personal skills and by contributing to basic-skills education, development of advanced skills, and enrichment.

In governance and advocacy, parents can assume decision-making roles in parent-teacher organizations, on advisory councils, or through other committees and groups at the school, district, or state levels. They can become activists in monitoring schools and by working for school improvement.

Among private philanthropic organizations, the Rockefeller Foundation funded a $3 million effort to launch a project that incorporated the pioneering practices of James Comer, a child psychiatrist at Yale University. The Comer Model is based on the belief that parental involvement is the cornerstone of effective and responsible school change. Comer maintains that one cannot separate academic development from the child's social and cultural background. Thus one of several programs within the project has emphasized a school's obligation to work cooperatively with parents and mental health professionals in meeting the needs of children.

Williams and Chavkin (1989) report that successful home/school programs tend to share seven characteristics: (1) they are guided by written policies; (2) they enjoy administrative support; (3) they include training of staff, parents, or both; (4) they take a partnership approach; (5) they maintain two-way communications; (6) they encourage networking; and (7) they are constantly informed and reshaped by project evaluation.

Having abstracted and reviewed nearly 50 studies of home/school cooperation, Henderson (1987) reached the following conclusions:

The family provides the primary educational environment.

Involving parents in their children's formal education improves student achievement.

Parent involvement is most effective when it is comprehensive, long-lasting, and well planned.

The benefits of family involvement are not confined to early childhood or the elementary levels of schooling; strong effects result from involving parents continuously throughout high school. Henderson also concluded that involving parents in their own children's education at home is not enough. To ensure the quality of schools as institutions serving the community, parents must be involved at all levels of schooling. Moreover, children from low-income and minority families have the most to gain when schools involve parents. Parents can help, regardless of their level of formal education.

We cannot look at the school and the home in isolation from one another. We must see how they interconnect with each other and with the world at large.

Resources

Becher, 1984; Comer, 1980; Education Leaders Consortium, 1989; Epstein, 1987, 1989; Epstein & Dauber, 1991; Goodson & Hess, 1975; Henderson, 1987; Leler, 1983; Steinberg, 1988; U.S. Department of Education, 1990; Williams & Chavkin, 1989.

In Empowering the Spectrum of Your Mind, Colin Rose (1985) declares that most of us are probably using only 4 percent of the enormous potential of our brains. "The more you use your brain," he maintains, "and the more facts and experience you store, the more associations and connections you make. Therefore, the easier it is to remember and learn yet more new material."

Once considered appropriate for use almost exclusively with students identified as gifted and talented, accelerated learning has come to be regarded as effective with students of any level of performance or ability. How does one "accelerate learning"? What is the theory behind the phrase? Rose (1985) begins with a seemingly obvious fact: no learning can take place without memory. How does one best encode things into memory? By creating concrete images of sights, sounds, and feelings, and by the strong association of one image with another. The stronger the original encoding, the better the ultimate recall. "To achieve good memory," Rose writes, "you need to link a series of facts or ideas together, so that when one is remembered, it triggers recall for a whole series of others."

Thus, an ideal learning pattern involves the following steps:

Immediate rehearsal of new facts in the short term.

Repetition or testing of the facts a few minutes later.

Review of the facts an hour later.

A short recap of them after a night's rest. (Sleep appears to help memorization; new information is reviewed during REM-rapid eye movement-sleep.)

Short review a week later.

Short review a month later.

Rose claims that such a schedule of learning can enable the recall of up to 88 percent of the new information an individual receives-four times better than the usual rate of recall.

Among techniques recommended by advocates of accelerated learning are the following:

Chunking, that is, reducing new information to manageable bits-a chunk no longer than seven words or seven digits, for instance.

Use of music and rhyme as aids to memory.

Peripheral learning and the use of memory maps to encourage association, and thus recall.

Encoding as specifically as possible by principles rather than through isolated examples by rote.

Psychiatrist Georgi Lozanov (Lozanov & Gateva, 1988) urges maintaining an upbeat classroom presentation at all times, with constant attention to physical surroundings, self-esteem, goals and outcomes, competition, right and wrong answers, and individual learning styles, expectations, and outcomes.

Resources

Galyean, 1983; Levin, 1988a, 1988b, 1991a, 1991b; Lozanov & Gateva, 1988; Means & Knapp, 1991; Pritchard & Taylor, 1980; Richardson, 1988; Rose, 1985; Russell, 1975; Schuster, 1985.

The classroom "discussion" dragged on. Predictably, the teacher asked one factual-recall question after another about the short story at hand. Each question invariably elicited a right-or-wrong answer from one, and sometimes two, student volunteers. Then the teacher reached that point in the story where the main character faced what seemed like a life-or-death personal dilemma. "I wonder how many of you have ever faced such a situation," the teacher remarked offhandedly. Hands shot up all around the room, some flapping in urgency. "Oh, my! I'm afraid I've touched some raw nerves," the teacher exclaimed. "Let me withdraw the question." All the raised hands dropped. So did the students' attention to the topic.

That teacher couldn't have read Lehr and Harris's At-Risk, Low-Achieving Students in the Classroom (1988). The authors suggest (and their suggestions are well supported by research) how even the timeless classroom practice of questions from the teacher can be adapted to elicit individual involvement rather than passive response. They also show how to follow through for even greater student participation and response. Their advice, in part, includes the following suggestions (pp. 43-44):

Structure questions so that students can succeed.

Encourage students to respond. (Most teachers answer two-thirds of their own questions.)

Ask questions in all modes. (Most questions are asked at the level of basic recall or recognition. Questioning that is more complex increases student achievement.)

Pause. The number and quality of student answers increase when teachers provide wait time of three to five seconds after asking a question. Appropriate wait time is particularly important in teaching low achievers. Some higher-level questions might require as much as 15 to 20 seconds of wait time.

Call on students randomly, but be sure not to forget the low achiever.

If a student's response is vague, call for clarification or elaboration-for example, "Tell me more." Probe students to encourage higher levels of thinking.

Encourage students to develop and ask their own questions, thus increasing their opportunities for thinking.

Use techniques that require students to pose their own questions and to make discoveries on their own. For example, ask students in a science class to make predictions, based on their own experiences, before a demonstration or an experiment. The processes of observing, comparing, and describing are as important as the product.

Other studies of questioning techniques suggest that teachers break the total content of their questioning into bits small enough so that students are assured of being able to answer at least three-quarters of the questions correctly. They urge a high proportion of questions that are well beyond mere factual recall-questions that encourage interpretation or that challenge critical thinking.

Questioning need not simply follow a lesson or an assignment as a means of checking to see if students have completed or understood it. Reading specialists, for instance, have long advocated the use of prereading questioning techniques, using teacher- or student-generated questions to develop background knowledge, to preview key concepts, and to set purposes for the reading. Questioning after reading should provide students with opportunities to practice or rehearse what they have learned from the text, as well as increase associations between textual information and their own background knowledge ("Questioning Promotes," 1987).

To stimulate student discussions, Dillon (1984) suggests a three-step process:

Carefully formulate one or two questions to get the discussion going.

From then on, ask questions only when perplexed and genuinely in need of more information.

Then make more statements that present facts or opinions, reflect students' opinions to them, register confusion, or invite elaboration and student-to-student exchanges.

Student-generated questions and student-led discussions give students a higher stake and interest in their classroom activities and learning. Framing their own questions requires young people to interact with the meaning of content or text from a variety of perspectives. Generating their own questions, they support and challenge each other and recognize the social aspects of exploring the meaning of what they encounter in reading or in other learning activities.

Teachers need to model effective questioning and discussion strategies, including how to interact with others as well as how to think about and discuss text or content. Touch a raw nerve now and then-not to aggravate, but to stimulate!

Resources

Adams, 1986; Carlsen, 1991; Dillon, 1984; Goatley & Raphael, 1992; Lehr & Harris, 1988; "Questioning Promotes," 1987; Roberts & Zody, 1989; "Teachers' Questions," 1987.

Think of your most recent drink of water. Exactly what steps did you follow in taking it? What facts, what prior experiences, what understandings did you call on? It's been estimated that you performed 50 or so actions while taking that drink of water. Did you think of all 50-that is, did you bring any of them, in isolation, to the forefront of your consciousness while drinking?

Probably not. Your brain handled all the necessary steps for you! At the same time, your brain was probably helping you consider your plans for the weekend, reminding you of the slight soreness in your left thumb, telling you it was a warm afternoon, and juggling countless other "programs"-chains of thought needed to accomplish some foreseen goal, whether soaking your thumb or quenching your thirst (Della Neve et al., 1986).

Brain-compatible instruction builds on the notion that the human brain operates as an incredibly powerful parallel processor, always doing many different things simultaneously (Caine & Caine, 1991). The brain is capable of such a vast number and array of functions that its functioning can be visualized most easily only in terms of programs and patterns-one program, perhaps, for getting a glass of water at the kitchen sink, a different program for sipping from the water fountain outside your classroom door.

How does the brain differentiate among the vast array of programs it stores? By recognizing an apparently endless number and variety of patterns among them. Thus "brain-compatible instruction defines learning as the acquisition of useful programs," write Della Neve and her colleagues (1986). "The human brain is exceedingly intricate. For educational purposes, however, what counts is a broad, holistic understanding of what the brain is for (it did not evolve to pass tests or fill in worksheets), its principal architecture, its main drives, and its way of relating to the real world."

Carnine (1990) describes some of the misunderstandings that can result in teachers, students, or both after "brain-antagonistic" instruction:

Very young children know that the name of an object stays the same even after the orientation of the object has changed. For example, when a chair is turned to face the opposite direction, it remains a chair.

Consequently, in preschool, when a b is flipped to face the opposite direction, children often assume that it still goes by the name of b. Making this error doesn't necessarily imply that a student's visual brain function is weak or that the student would benefit from a kinesthetic approach to learning lowercase letters. Extensive research has shown that students are more likely to confuse objects and symbols that share visual or auditory sameness, such as b and d.

In solving simple computation problems, such as 24 + 13, 1st graders learn that they can start with the bottom number in the units column or with the top number: 4 + 3 equals 7, and so does 3 + 4. The sameness they note is that these problems can be worked in either direction, from top to bottom or the reverse.

Soon thereafter come subtraction problems, such as 24 - 13. Students can still apply the sameness learned in addition, thinking of the difference between 4 and 3 or between 3 and 4 and always subtracting the smaller number from the larger. However, when students encounter a problem such as 74 - 15, applying the sameness noted earlier leads them to subtract the smaller from the larger number and come up with the answer 61. Such a mistake is a sensible application of a mislearned sameness. ...

"The brain's search for samenesses," Carnine concludes, "has little regard for the intentions of educators." At the same time, he notes that although the brain's relentless search for patterns helps explain certain common student misconceptions, it can also help educators develop more effective classroom activities.

Della Neve and her colleagues at Drew Elementary School developed their own seven principles, which serve as focal points to guide teachers in designing and implementing brain-compatible instruction:

1. Create a nonthreatening climate.

2. Input lots of raw material from which students can extract patterns-a vast array of activities, aided by an ample supply of materials, equipment, and print and audiovisual resources.

3. Emphasize genuine communication in talking, listening, writing, and reading as ways to interact with other people.

4. Encourage lots of manipulation of materials. Students need to be in command and able to push things around, encouraging them to work toward goals and explore a range of means.

5. Emphasize reality. By using problems, examples, and contacts drawn from the "real world" rather than contrived exercises, texts, worksheets, and basal readers, students can see the real value of their own learning.

6. Address learning activities to actual, productive uses.

7. Respect natural thinking, including intuitive leaps, a grasp of patterns (as in number tables or good writing), and aesthetic and nonverbal interests and activities.

"Brain-based instruction," Caine and Caine (1991) warn us, "stems from recognizing that the brain does not take logical steps down one path like an analog computer, but can go down a hundred different paths simultaneously like an enormously powerful digital computer." They add, "Each brain is unique. Teaching should be multifaceted to allow all students to express visual, tactile, emotional, and auditory preferences. Providing choices that are variable enough to attract individual interests may require the reshaping of schools so that they exhibit the complexity found in life."

Resources

Bateson, 1980; Caine & Caine, 1991; Campbell, 1989; Carnine, 1990; Cousins, 1989; Della Neve, Hart, & Thomas, 1986; Hart, 1983, 1986; Vygotsky, 1962, 1978.

Activating students' prior knowledge-through the use of schema theory, for example-helps youngsters integrate new knowledge and skills with their own experiences. By doing so, teachers acknowledge that all students, regardless of their background, bring a wealth of knowledge to learning. The kind and amount "of knowledge one has before encountering a given topic in a discipline affects how one constructs meaning," writes Gaea Leinhardt (1992). "The impact of prior knowledge is not a matter of 'readiness,' component skills, or exhaustiveness; it is an issue of depth, interconnectedness, and access. Outcomes are determined jointly by what was known before and by the content of the instruction" (pp. 51-56).

Consequently, it just makes sense for teachers to begin by learning what students already know about a topic, thus preventing youngsters from having to repeat what they already know or trying to build on knowledge they do not yet possess. Connecting new knowledge to previous learning builds a strong foundation for future learning; it also gives teachers valuable opportunities to correct misperceptions. Modifying activities to suit learners' preferences helps them construct new understandings.

When tapping into students' prior knowledge, teachers recognize that the most effective means of learning is discovery, and the most effective means of teaching is modeling. Modeling by the teacher is one of many powerful tools for activating prior knowledge. Depending on the task, the teacher decides what prior knowledge needs to be activated and asks students to develop and answer questions that cause them to activate it. The teacher then proceeds to model appropriate questioning processes. Activating students' prior knowledge engages them more actively in learning, in generating their own questions, and in leading their own discussions.

Another strategy that effectively activates students' prior knowledge, allowing them to explore what they already know about a topic, is the K-W-L activity, first developed by Donna Ogle. This strategy asks students to identify what they already know about a topic, what they would like to learn, and, at the conclusion of the unit, what they actually did l earn.

Teachers can encourage students to develop a list of questions they would like to answer. (Teacher modeling helps students form these questions.) Teachers can then assist students in clustering similar questions and in deciding which questions to answer by further explaining the content to be learned. The teacher and students design a plan to find the answer for each question. Allowing students to work in cooperative and collaborative groups is effective because such groups encourage students to share their answers and the rationale behind the answers. During the sharing, the teacher has an opportunity to correct student misunderstandings.

In exploring new topics, students can experience a variety of active, experiential, or authentic assignments. Such assignments-for example, manipulating objects or concepts, engaging in product-oriented activities, and participating in real-life experiences that actively construct knowledge-allow youngsters to explore concepts in some depth and to make discoveries on their own. The opportunity to apply new learnings to real-life contexts that reflect the students' world helps them retain and effectively use new concepts and skills.

Many of the approaches to teaching and learning that appear in this book challenge the traditional model of schooling, which demands that students receive knowledge solely from the teacher. In explaining the nature of the "pedagogy of poverty," Martin Haberman (1991) notes that teachers and students are engaged in fundamentally different activities: teachers teach and students learn. But what if teachers join students as fellow learners searching for answers to real-life problems or for ways to describe and generalize scientific phenomena?

Another means of creating what might be called a pedagogy of plenty is to embrace a constructivist approach to teaching. Constructivism emphasizes an understanding of how and why students (and adults) learn; it provides a way to combine good teaching and learning practices. These practices include activating students' prior knowledge; providing a variety of active learning resources; using a variety of hands-on, minds-on activities; engaging youngsters in a variety of cooperative learning experiences; allowing students to formulate questions and discover concepts that can guide future learnings; asking students to think aloud while approaching a task; modeling powerful thinking strategies; and providing students with opportunities to apply new learnings within the context of real-life activities.

Such an instructional setting honors the importance of hands-on and "heads-on" experiences in learning. For students to learn to reason about their world, they must be constantly encouraged to ask questions and to solve problems that have meaning to them. Teachers can provide a wide variety of activities to help students construct-and reconstruct-their new learning in their own terms, as they begin to realize that knowledge is created out of life experiences.

Constructivist theory suggests that the goal of schooling is not simply acquiring specific knowledge and expertise, but rather building understanding. Learning how to learn becomes the goal. Considered from a constructivist viewpoint, the learning environment is a laboratory that provides the tools to support learners in their quest for understanding. In this approach, teachers facilitate learning by providing appropriate activities such as modeling and questioning techniques in well-designed, well-organized, well-managed classroom environments that allow students to construct their own understandings of concepts.

Constructivist teaching is best facilitated though the use of varied learning configurations. Providing students with opportunities to work in collaborative or small-group learning activities helps them to construct their own knowledge. Students have the opportunity to listen to other points of view, debate, discuss, and form insights into new ideas while working collaboratively with their peers. Such activities must also activate students' prior knowledge to help them develop questioning skills.

When the classroom environment encourages growth and development, students will respond. Instructionally effective environments offer youngsters a wide variety of powerful experiences, which include ways of interacting with and learning from one another in instructional areas that support experiential, problem-based, active learning. Creating such environments calls for the teacher to construct and allow cooperative, collaborative strategies.

Classroom design simply means arranging the room to make the best use of space and to create a comfortable learning climate-both physically and psychologically. Classroom management reflects the ways in which the teacher orchestrates high-quality instructional activities that help children take charge of their learning and eliminate unwanted behavioral and discipline problems.

Classroom Design

Our school system was invented to provide a sit-and-learn process of education. In 1915, for instance, John Dewey reportedly described the difficulties he encountered during an exhaustive search for furniture "suitable from all points of view-artistic ... and educational-to the needs of children." According to the account, Dewey finally met one school-supply dealer who admitted, "I'm afraid we do not have what you want. You want something at which children may work; these are for listening."

Amazingly, little has changed in U.S. classrooms since Dewey's time. Regardless of individual differences, many, many children are still expected to sit on a hard seat, not move, and not speak-just listen and answer questions.

Research strongly supports the important role of environmental preferences in students' motivation and their ability to learn. The quality of the environment in which we live and work is vitally important. Individuals tend to respond to their physical environment first in terms of personal comfort. Harmony makes it easier to concentrate and remember information.

The proper use of space within a classroom generates student activity and learning. Room arrangement, for example, allows students to work at computer stations, engage in small-group work, engage in project-based learning, and use multimedia equipment for individual or group activities. Appropriate classroom design empowers teachers to create instructional areas, such as learning and interest centers and media centers, that offer students varied learning opportunities and accommodate individual learning needs and interests.

Well-designed classrooms display high levels of student cooperation, academic success, and task involvement. Teachers work to develop intrinsic motivation in students, which is essential to creating lifelong learners. Thus effective classroom environments create multiple learning situations capable of addressing students' diverse characteristics to enhance their satisfaction and academic performance. Such classes are child centered; they meet young people's instructional needs by exposing them to a variety of highly motivating, stimulating, multilevel instructional activities.

Current research in the functioning of the brain confirms that we learn best in a rich, multi-sensory environment. We learn more about people by interacting with them in real-life contexts. We learn more meaningfully when we are fully immersed in the learning experience. Therefore, we should provide students with active learning experiences that incorporate a wide variety of materials, including high-quality, well-written literature.

Powerful learning activities are most likely to occur in a highly organized learning environment. When orchestrating such a setting, it is important to keep in mind how instruction will be reinforced, reviewed, and enriched to extend youngsters' learning potential; how procedures for completing assignments, working, locating instructional resources, and acquiring assistance will be facilitated; and how students will evaluate their own performance and that of others.

Classroom Management

Making a classroom an effective educational tool depends on creating not only a physically comfortable environment that supports instructional goals but also one that is emotionally, socially, psychologically, and physically safe. Classrooms should be places where a child can think, discover, grow, and ultimately learn to work independently and cooperatively in a group setting, developing self-discipline and self-esteem. At the heart of an emotionally safe learning environment is cooperation-among staff, students, and other stakeholders.

Cooperation leads to ownership, involvement, and great opportunities for student self-discipline, says Jerome Freiberg (1996)-but first must come trust. Students learn to trust through opportunities to take ownership of and responsibility for their own actions and those of others. Strategies to promote cooperation include establishing rules and regulations (with the assistance of students) for codes of behavior and conduct; talking about consequences of behavior; offering youngsters training in peer mediation and conflict resolution; creating rotating classroom management positions, with clearly outlined responsibilities; and helping youngsters develop norms of collaboration and social skills to enable them to work effectively in groups.

When children are truly engaged in learning and the approach to discipline is an active one, teachers do not have to waste valuable time dealing with disciplinary issues. When learning becomes less meaningful to students' lives, less interactive, or less stimulating, teachers increasingly need to control their students; in the process, they unwittingly create opportunities for undesirable student behaviors.

Teachers who try to impose too many rules, too much rigidity, and too many uniform activities quickly lose control. Teachers who can bring themselves to share power and confidence with their students gain more control. That is exactly why teachers should concentrate on creating conditions in which students can and will manage themselves.

Author's note: I would like to acknowledge the ASCD Advisory Panel on Improving Student Achievement and Lloyd W. Kline for their contributions to this chapter.

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Educating Everybody's Children: We Know What Works-And What Doesn't

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Edited by Robert W. Cole by Robert W. Cole Children know how to learn in more ways than we know how to teach them. -Ronald Edmonds (1991) Good instruction is good instruction, regardless of students' racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic backgrounds.

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Although this article is not scholarly it is a starting point and gives direction on where to go to solve academic failure issues.

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MET... MMMMetttttttttttt... Never has the word, met, sounded so beautiful. This past week our elementary school received information that we have met our goal of getting out of School Improvement within two years. It has been an insightful journey. Contrary to popular belief, there is one positive aspect to a school being placed in School Improvement: It opens eyes that growth has an opportunity to happen.

One of the major negatives is that change is rarely welcome. People tend to like the status quo and do not want the apple cart overturned. Our first year was fraught with change; change in vision, strategies, instructional methods and materials. Through it all, our staff preserved as we worked on our improvement.

Over the course of my educational experience I've collected a list of criteria that I believe create an atmosphere ripe for improving student achievement. Here I will call it:

Top 10 Ways to Improve Student Achievement and Create Learners
Disclaimer: This is by no means all that schools should be doing. Note that these are broad actions; there are many more detailed actions that need to be taken.

1. Share a Vision -- Review your school's Mission Statement. Your new vision should be tied to your district's Mission Statement, but build up on it. The vision should describe why it is important to achieve your mission statement while looking to the future. It should portray what will be achieved if the school is successful in achieving its goals. Everyone should be invested in the vision with a total buy-in from the entire school. You have to keep your eye on the prize and never veer from your vision.

2. Your School Should Be a Change Agent -- Change agents are passionate and driven about their vision. They make the tough decisions keeping what's best for the students in focus. When complaints about change and improvement come rolling in, and they will, pay close attention to your leadership and their decisions. If the leaders of a district do not want to upset the teachers or parents by moving forward, then your district's chances of improving are minimal at best. It's then that you find out what your leadership is made of in your school; from your school board on down to the principals.

3. Analyze Data -- Everyone involved must be data analysis; from the administration to the teachers. The secret to data analysis is to do something with the data. Many schools analyze the data and do not do anything with it. Celebrate your strengths, keep the focus on improvement and draw up plans on how you're going to improve on your weaknesses and implement it.

4. Introduce Students to Their Data -- As obvious as this may sound, many times teachers take on the burden of the responsibility and do not allow students to take ownership of their education. Involve students by sharing their data with them from standardized test data to classroom data.

5. Increase Rigor -- Schools are looking for miracles and the cure is right under their noses. Schools can do everything else in this list, including reducing class size, but if a school does not increase the rigor in instruction and learning, they are spitting in the wind. The key is recognizing the difference between hard questions and complex questions. Many teachers will tell you that they have rigorous assignments, when in reality, they do not. This one thing will make the biggest impact in not only learning, but in scores. If schools were to increase the rigor and complexity, the scores would take care of themselves.

6. Teach Students the Levels of Rigor -- Teach students the difference between recall, application, and strategic reasoning. When students learn the difference between how much thinking is required to answer questions at each level, it assists them in not only answering questions, but also in their learning. I've taught the levels to my former students and it was a defining moment in their careers as learners. This strategy paired with the above mentioned increasing rigor in instruction and assignments is a powerful combination.

7. Expectations -- Expectations go hand-in-hand with increasing rigor. Students will rise to expectations. Make sure the expectations are not set too low and demonstrate an expectation that all students can achieve the objectives of courses.

8. Teach Students How to Learn -- Students are taught what to learn. In order for them to be successful as learners, they also have to discover how to learn and to develop an appetite for learning. I'm convinced that one of the reasons some students do not succeed in college is that they sail through high school learning the prescribed curriculum, but never learn how to learn.

Students, at an early age have to be taught how to:
* self-regulate their learning
* set their own academic goals
* develop strategies to meet their goals
* reflect on their academic performance

9. Teachers as Learners Environment -- Teachers are all about instructing their students. Teachers should also invest in themselves. I'm referring to teachers actively pursuing knowledge because they want to know more. The best teachers continue to grow and don't rely solely on school designated professional development hours as their outlet to learn new concepts and ideas about education. This could include reading professional development books, blogs, or articles online. One powerful way to continue to grow as an educator is to join an online personal learning network and/or develop one on Twitter.

10. Teach Smarter and Not Harder -- Incorporate research-based teaching and learning strategies. In order to grow the district and its teachers need to be on top of the latest developments in research-based strategies.

These are the highlights of what I deem as important to creating an atmosphere that encourages student achievement. Our school still has changes that need to be made. Hopefully, we will strive to continue the good work we have begun and combine that with goals toward the future. Last year the number of schools in School Improvement across the United States was 12,599. That number is staggering, but if there's one thing I know about educators, it's that we are dedicated and we never give up. To quote the latest Robin Hood movie, we shall " Rise and rise again until lambs become lions."

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Top 10 Ways to Improve Student Achievement and Create Learners

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MET... MMMMetttttttttttt... Never has the word, met, sounded so beautiful. This past week our elementary school received information that we have met our goal of getting out of School Improvement within two years. It has been an insightful journey.

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Driving Question: How did an exemplar school create a culture for transformational change? Daphne (center) and the rest of sixth grade complete a project to revitalize an unused and run down part of the campus. The Night It Began.
It was no typical night at Katherine Smith School. It was our first ever school-wide exhibition. Unlike an Open House or display of student work, on this night every kindergarten to sixth grade student was going to present and demonstrate the final products from a project. The moments leading up our Exhibition Night were intense.

This was a real deadline. Every project across the campus had to be completed at the same time. Everyone scrambled to finish final details of the project deliverables and rehearsed the oral presentations. Ready or not, work on this night was going to be public. And, we were ready. More than 1,500 visitors crammed in the classrooms and saw firsthand the transformative change that had begun at the beginning of this same school year.

Our School
Katherine Smith School (www.ksmithschool.org) is a kindergarten to sixth grade public, neighborhood, elementary in the Evergreen School District on the east side of San Jose, CA. The urban neighborhood surrounding Katherine Smith faces many challenges with household incomes well below the poverty level and crime rates that are the highest in the county.

Years of "back to basics" strategies led to minimal academic gains, and the culture of the school was suffering. Much of the staff turned over each year as teachers were transferring out due to "burn out." Many parents were disconnected from the work on the campus and lined up at the superintendent's office to share those concerns. And, the students were disengaged as discipline referrals and suspensions were the most solid data on the rise.

A Time to Change
It was time to make a change - a real transformative change to reinvent this school with a 21st century vision where each student was being prepared to think, learn, work, collaborate, communicate, and contribute now and throughout his or her life. The reinvention brought changes in the curriculum using project-based learning to engage students in hands-on authentic learning experiences, access to cutting edge technology and necessary tools to do this work, and a school culture that empowered every person on the campus. The changes began with the adults and the professional culture.
Mr. Armstrong, 4th grade, working with 5th grade student, Tatiana, during a professional development opportunity.

A Culture of Universal Achievement To do transformative work, we needed to build a culture of universal achievement. The adults had to believe, "All students can achieve at high levels regardless of race, socio-economic background, language, or family situation." These kinds of statements are thrown around so often in schools, that they've become cliché. But, it was still true. Without a belief that our students could be successful, no change was going to occur.

So we recruited a staff that that not only shared these common beliefs, but was committed to putting theses beliefs into action. First we presented the reinvention plan to the current staff at Katherine Smith, and then to the rest of interested teachers throughout the district. Interested staff from across the school district wrote letters articulating their passion for this work and the commitment to the belief.

While more than 75% of the staff transferred out of the school, we assembled a completely self-selected crew of teachers who wanted to do this work and would hold each other accountable to the beliefs that brought them or kept them here.

A Culture of Collaboration. Collaboration is an essential skill that must be authentically embedded in the design of projects and tasks to achieve the college and career goals we have for our students. Again, this starts with the adults. How can we expect our students to work together if we are not doing so ourselves? A key aspect of the professional culture at K. Smith School is the expectation and authentic need to work in teams. Nothing is done in isolation. Teachers design, implement, and revise projects together. They are not modeling collaboration in an inauthentic way - they really need one another. They provide each other feedback using critical friends and other protocols, engage in inquiry to solve problems and design innovative learning experiences, and take ownership in our shared success.

A Culture of Risk Taking. It was time to jump off the cliff. Risk taking is an important aspect of our culture. I've heard it said, "To ask is to seek denial." Time is precious and there is urgency to this work - we cannot wait for approval and permission for what we know our students need. We drive innovation and encourage creative solutions to the academic and social challenges that students are facing today. Risk taking is a lot easier for the students, but the adults first and foremost need to be pushed. With solid beliefs in place and systems to encourage collaboration, the safety nets are removed; however, it feels safer because we have one another.

Much of this aspect of the culture is cultivated with "defined autonomy" from the leadership. It's important to define the space and limitations, so the creative work can happen within this space. For example, teachers at K. Smith School are not accountable to strict pacing guides. They are accountable to the learning outcomes and high standards and are given the creative freedom to collectively design solutions to meet those needs.
K. Smith School Habits- think, learn, work communicate, collaborate, and contribute- are aligned to our mission.
Moving Forward

K. Smith School is now into the third year of its reinvention. While we are eager to push further to achieving our 21st century vision, we have seen transformative change. Our students are engaged in projects that connect them to the essential skills they will need to be successful in this ever changing world. Those suspension numbers mentioned, have dropped from seventy in 2011 to just seven in our first year. And they continue to stay low.

Our parents are connected to our school and participate actively on campus. Now instead of complaining at the superintendent's office, they are filling district meeting office with ideas and support. Parents are showing up in record numbers and not just on Exhibition Night. They are getting involved and are empowered to offer solutions to needs of the community.

Most importantly, our professional culture is thriving. There are no easy days, but the staff has the belief that all of our students can and will achieve at high levels. The collaborative systems in place help us create solutions to any problem, and the trust we have built with each other enables us to be creative and take risks, which is leading to something incredible.

@brengard) is the principal of Katherine Smith School[ in the Evergreen School District in San Jose, California. Brengard led the implementation of Project-Based Learning to reinvent this traditional, public, neighborhood school into an innovative 21st Century learning environment. Katherine Smith is a New Tech Network School, a No Excuses University School, and a partner with Buck Institute for Education.

Follow K. Smith School on Facebook (facebook.com/ksmithschool), twitter (@ksmithschool), Instagram (intragram.com/ksmithschool)and YouTube (youtube.com/ksmithschool).

Tomorrow's Post: Beyond A Vision for 21st Century Teaching and Learning. Why Mess With What Works?

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Creating A Culture for Deep Change: It's the Team that Counts

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Driving Question: How did an exemplar school create a culture for transformational change? Daphne (center) and the rest of sixth grade complete a project to revitalize an unused and run down part of the campus. The Night It Began. It was no typical night at Katherine Smith School.

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Qualities of Effective Principals by (by James H. Stronge, Holly B. Richard and Nancy Catano).

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Qualities of Effective Principals by (by James H. Stronge, Holly B. Richard and Nancy Catano).

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Principals have a huge role in balancing responsibilities. This link highlights the first chapter in the book.

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by James H. Stronge, Holly B. Richard and Nancy Catano

Beth entered the education profession as a middle school science teacher who wanted to make a difference in the lives of her students. After teaching for a number of years, she wanted to accomplish more than the work that she could do within her classroom and, thus, became a grade-level chair. Beth also worked on the district's science curriculum committee, and then began taking classes at the university at night to earn her administrative and supervision license. Beth was an outstanding teacher, and her first administrative position as the assistant principal for instruction seemed tailor-made for her strengths. Her instructional expertise and knowledge of curriculum provided her with a sound foundation for leading instructional efforts in her school. Beth's office walls looked like a strategic command center of data disaggregation and data tracking. She traveled through classrooms daily, observing instruction and student learning. Her observations helped her to identify classroom needs and strengths. She collaborated regularly with grade-level teams to monitor the needs of students and to determine strategies and resources that could better support students and teachers. And she continued to meet with students to talk about their education goals and progress. In essence, Beth is committed to make teaching and learning in her school the most positive experience it can be.

One major emphasis in the educational arena in the early 21st century has been the continuing demand for greater accountability to increase student performance. National and state expectations require schools to ensure that all students achieve mastery of curriculum objectives, and local schools focus on implementing those requirements to the best of their ability. As a result, leading instructional efforts in a school has evolved into a primary role for school principals.

In order to meet the challenges associated with national and state expectations, principals must focus on teaching and learning-especially in terms of measurable student progress-to a greater degree than heretofore. Consequently, today's principals concentrate on building a vision for their schools, sharing leadership with teachers, and influencing schools to operate as learning communities. Accomplishing these essential school improvement efforts requires gathering and assessing data to determine needs, and monitoring instruction and curriculum to determine if the identified needs are addressed. This chapter summarizes existing research related to instructional leadership and methods principals use to exhibit and harness that leadership to meet their school goals. In particular, we focus on the following goals:

Building and sustaining a school vision

Sharing leadership

Leading a learning community

Using data to make instructional decisions

Monitoring curriculum and instruction

Figure 1.1 outlines key references relating to these elements of instructional leadership.

Figure 1.1. Key References for Instructional Leadership

Building and Sustaining a School Vision

If you are not sure of where you want to go, how will you ever get there? Furthermore, how will you know when and how to take corrective action along the way? And how will you know when you've arrived at the destination? A successful principal must have a clear vision that shows how all components of a school will operate at some point in the future. Having a clear image of their schools helps principals avoid becoming consumed by the administrative requirements of their jobs. In fact, principals may need two types of vision: one vision of their schools and the roles they play in those schools, and another vision of how the change process will proceed (Manasse, 1985).

Clearly, multiple role expectations exist for school leaders. All schools need principals to exercise their roles as instructional leaders who ensure the quality of instruction (Portin et al., 2003). Thus, there is a need to spend time in classrooms observing the process of teaching and learning while also balancing other needs such as student safety and parent relationships. Fulfilling these multiple responsibilities well requires principals to possess an inner compass that consistently points them toward the future interests of the school, never losing sight of their schools' visions, missions, and goals.

Successful principals understand that it is important to establish clear learning goals and garner schoolwide-and even communitywide-commitment to these goals. The development of a clear vision and goals for learning is emphasized by principals of high-achieving schools (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003). They hold high expectations that teachers and students will meet these goals and hold themselves accountable for the success of the school. These principals provide emotional support for teachers and are viewed as possessing the ability to foster positive interpersonal relationships. They protect instructional time by limiting loudspeaker announcements and scheduling building maintenance to minimize disruptions. They ensure that student progress is monitored through the continual aggregation and disaggregation of student performance data that are directly related to the school's mission and goals. Principals of high-achieving schools are confident that they will accomplish their vision and goals despite challenges and setbacks and, thus, serve as role models for staff and students (Cotton, 2003). And when milestone achievements are reached, those successful results are celebrated.

The following conclusions can be drawn from the research related to the role of the principal and building and sustaining the school's vision:

First and foremost, principals need to have a clear vision for their schools (Manasse, 1985; Zmuda, Kuklis, & Kline, 2004).

Schools need principals who strive to ensure the quality of instruction in their schools (Harris, 2007; Marzano et al., 2005; Portin et al., 2003).

Principals of high-achieving schools expect teachers and students to meet the schools' goals (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003).

Principals of high-achieving schools are confident that their schools can meet their goals (Cotton, 2003).

Principals who focus on school improvement have more effective schools (Shen & Hsieh, 1999).

Principals of high-achieving schools communicate to all stakeholders that learning is the school's most important mission (Cotton, 2003; Marzano et al., 2005).

Sharing Leadership

Guiding a school staff to reach a common vision requires intensive and sustained collaboration. After all, it is the expertise of teachers upon which any quality educational system is built. Wise principals know that going it alone makes meeting instructional goals virtually impossible. A key responsibility of school leaders is to sustain learning, and this can best be accomplished through leading learning endeavors that are focused on long-term outcomes rather than short-term returns. Additionally, distributing leadership throughout a school and providing for leadership succession are indispensable to a school's success (Hargreaves & Fink, 2003). "Leaders influence others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how. This process requires the facilitation of individual and shared efforts to accomplish common objectives" (Kyrtheotis & Pashiardis, 1998b, p. 3).

Tapping the Expertise of Teacher Leaders

There is no evidence of troubled schools turning around without the influence of strong leadership. Effective leadership sets the direction and influences members of the organization to work together toward meeting organizational goals. Principals can accomplish this essential responsibility by providing individual support, challenging teachers to examine their own practices, and securing models of best practice. Additionally, effective principals develop and depend on leadership contributions from a variety of stakeholders, including teachers and parents (Leithwood et al., 2004). As key instructional leaders, principals share their leadership with teachers to promote reflection and collaborative investigation to improve teaching and learning. Subsequently, teacher leaders lead change from the classroom by asking questions related to school improvement, and they feel empowered to help find the answer (Reason & Reason, 2007).

In practical terms, principals talk to teachers, provide staff development, and support lifelong learning about teaching and learning (Blase & Blase, 1999). They also create opportunities for teachers to work together and share teaching practices with one another. What they tend not to do, however, is to exhibit directive leadership styles (Mendel, Watson, & MacGregor, 2002). Consequently, principals are not the only instructional leaders in a school.

In sharing leadership, principals collaborate with teachers to evaluate issues related to curriculum, instruction, and assessment. As part of this collaborative process, teacher leaders provide valuable insight and ideas to principals as they work together toward school improvement. Principals who tap into the expertise of teachers throughout the process of transforming their schools and increasing the focus on learning are more successful. And a valuable byproduct for principals who collaboratively focus on instructional leadership is that they are less likely to burn out (Marks & Printy, 2003).

Collaborating in Leading

Interestingly, some evidence suggests that female elementary school principals participate more actively in instructional leadership than their male counterparts. Also, they spend more years in the classroom before entering their first administrative post and, consequently, may possess greater knowledge in instructional matters (Cotton, 2003; Hallinger, Bickman, & Davis, 1996). Perhaps most telling is the suggestion that because female administrators tend to assume a major instructional role as central to their work, they shape teachers' attitudes regarding students' ability to master subject matter, thus, having an indirect effect on student outcomes through their teachers (Cotton, 2003; Hallinger et al., 1996; Hallinger & Heck, 1996).

The research shows that effective principals (both men and women) facilitate shared leadership and collaboration among their staffs to include the following:

Wise principals understand that they cannot reach instructional goals alone (Hargreaves & Fink, 2003).

Attaining school goals requires individual and shared efforts (Kyrtheotis & Pashiardis, 1998b).

Effective instructional leaders believe that staff should collaborate and openly discuss instruction and program administration collectively among all stakeholders (Blase & Blase, 1999).

Principals who distribute leadership across their schools contribute to sustainable improvements within the school organization (Hargreaves & Fink, 2003).

Highly successful principals develop and count on the expertise of teacher leaders to improve school effectiveness (Leithwood et al., 2004).

Principals need to create opportunities for teachers to work together (Mendel et al., 2002).

Principals need to tap the expertise of teacher leaders in their schools in order to enhance improvement efforts and results (Marks & Printy, 2003).

Principals need to function as the chief instructional leader of their school while balancing multiple responsibilities. However, to effectively foster student learning requires the exercise of distributing leadership (Tucker & Tschannen-Moran, 2002).

Related Resources: Danielson, 2007; Donaldson, 2007; Dozier, 2007; Harrison & Killion, 2007; Lieberman & Friedrich, 2007; Wade & Ferriter, 2007.

Leading a Learning Community

Today's principals must become role models for learning while continually (or at least regularly) seeking tools and ideas that foster school improvement (Lashway, 2003). Simply put, schooling is organized around two key functions: (1) teaching and learning, and (2) organizing for teaching and learning. Thus, it seems clear that school principals need to manage the structures and processes of their schools around instruction.

Principals as Learners

Effective principals make student success pivotal to their work and, accordingly, pay attention to and communicate about instruction, curriculum, and student mastery of learning objectives, and are visible in the school. Learning needs to occur throughout an organization, and principals need to become participants in the learning process in order to shape and encourage the implementation of effective learning models in their schools. To illustrate, effective principals don't just arrange for professional development; rather, they participate in staff training provided to their staffs. Additionally, good principals foster the idea of working together as a valuable enterprise because they understand that this kind of collaborative learning community ultimately will build trust, collective responsibility, and a schoolwide focus on improved student learning (Prestine & Nelson, 2003).

Teachers as Learners

Keeping staff informed about current research and practice and possessing a belief system that schools are learning communities are crucial to school success. Principals use a variety of staff development tools to focus awareness on research-based strategies that facilitate improved instructional effectiveness (Blase & Blase, 1999). In an effort to infuse instructional know-how across the entire faculty, the concept of an instructional leader needs to become broadened beyond that of increasing student learning. Principals also need to mobilize teachers' energy and capacities. This requires a transformation of the learning cultures of schools-a capacity in which effective principals are adept (Fullan, 2002).

To summarize, principals-that is, effective principals-support instructional activities and programs by modeling expected behaviors and consistently prioritizing instructional concerns day-to-day. They strive to become a learner among learners. Involvement in curriculum, instruction, and assessment are crucial to the idea of instructional leadership. As part of their ongoing instructional leadership responsibilities, effective school principals are highly visible through contact and interaction with teachers, students, and parents, thus promoting the concept of a learning community (Marzano et al., 2005).

Particular features of effective principals and their role in leading the learning community include the following:

Effective principals tend to the learning of all members of a school community (Lashway, 2003).

Effective principals also serve as participatory learners with their staffs (Prestine & Nelson, 2003).

Successful instructional leaders provide conditions through staff development that incorporate study of professional literature and successful programs, demonstration and practice of new skills, peer coaching, and use of action research focused on student data, and they study the effect of new strategies on students (Blase & Blase, 1999).

Instructional leadership requires a broader view that incorporates the expertise of teachers (Fullan, 2002).

Schools that work (i.e., that are successful by various measures) have leadership that provides meaningful staff development (Marzano et al., 2005).

Using Data to Make Instructional Decisions

Data sources inform and guide action, or at least they should. Without meaningful data it is impossible to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of school initiatives. Effective principals skillfully gather information that determines how well a school organization is meeting goals and use that information to refine strategies designed to meet or extend the goals. Thus, they find themselves in a constant state of analysis, reflection, and refinement. They challenge their staff to reexamine assumptions about their work and how it can be performed. Beyond the ability to successfully gather and analyze school data, principals need to possess basic skills for using these data for setting directions, developing people, and reinventing the organization. The use of appropriate data helps to maintain a consistent focus on improving teaching and learning, and, consequently, effective principals accept no excuses for lack of success to improve student learning (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003).

Many proponents of school improvement stress the importance of data-driven decision making. Today, school districts collect demographic, achievement, instructional, and perceptual data in an effort to improve teaching and learning. For example, information is gathered to diagnose student learning and to prescribe interventions that will best support students in need (Education Commission of the States, 2002). At the building level it is vital that principals employ data-gathering processes to determine staff and student needs.

The demands that accompany high-stakes testing compel principals to guide their schools to learn from their results and experiences. Doing so will lead to coherence within a school and offer better opportunities to sustain results. Additionally, continuous improvement requires principals to examine data and find means to address inconsistencies with expected results (Fullan, 2005).

Useful and properly mined data can inform staff about the gaps between desired outcomes and the reality of the results. Furthermore, this knowledge should result in changes in practice. Encouraging staff to collect, analyze, and determine appropriate actions based upon the results should be a collective enterprise. When staff members assume an active role in the data analysis process, it promotes solutions and actions for improving results (Zmuda et al., 2004), and facilitating the active involvement of all staff in information gathering and analysis is the prerogative of the principal.

A summary of key indicators of the role of effective principals and gathering and using data in their schools is listed on the next page:

Effective school leaders skillfully gather data and use them to determine school effectiveness (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003).

Continuous improvement requires an examination of the data (Fullan, 2005).

Greater results are achieved when principals encourage school staff to actively analyze data for improving results (Zmuda et al., 2004).

Related Resources: Brimijoin, Marquisse, & Tomlinson, 2003; Guskey, 2003; Marzano, 2003; Parsons, 2003; Schmoker, 2003.

Monitoring Curriculum and Instruction

There are good reasons to focus on school leadership. The importance of the principal's role has never been greater, taking into consideration national accountability standards for schools and the likelihood that principal job vacancies will increase in the near future. Not only do effective principals focus attention on curriculum and teaching, they also understand teaching and possess credibility in the eyes of their staff (Mazzeo, 2003). Schmoker (2006) suggested that too often school cultures discourage close scrutiny of instruction. He says that effective leaders can raise the level of importance by looking for evidence that curriculum standards are taught through the review of formative assessments, grade books, team lesson logs, and student work.

Principals support instructional activities and programs by modeling expected behaviors, participating in staff development (as noted earlier), and consistently prioritizing instructional concerns on a day-to-day basis. They strive to protect instructional time by removing issues that would detract teachers from their instructional responsibilities (Marzano et al., 2005). Moreover, principals in effective schools are involved in instruction and work to provide resources that keep teachers focused on student achievement. They are knowledgeable about curriculum and instruction and promote teacher reflection about instruction and its effect on student achievement (Cotton, 2003).

Visiting Classrooms

Principals build trust by supporting and nurturing teacher development by providing feedback that helps teachers to improve. This is more likely to occur when principals exercise the collegiality of leadership. Additionally, principals are in the best position to help teachers improve in areas of weakness and can accomplish this through observations and dialogue that shows respect for teachers as professionals (Cooper, Ehrensal, & Bromme, 2005). Ultimately, many principals spend too little time in classrooms or analyzing instruction with teachers. It is important to evaluate the quality of teaching in order to select and retain good teachers, which is discussed in more depth in Chapter 3. Principals must develop leadership skills that help them to build the intellectual capital that is necessary to make good curriculum choices, establish expectations for student work, and provide teachers with opportunities to learn the specifics of teaching well within their academic areas. As such, leadership skills and knowledge of instruction must be tied together (Fink & Resnick, 2001).

Monitoring the Curriculum

Some educators believe that if a school organization is not meeting curriculum expectations established by state and local policymakers, the problem is leadership. Principals must monitor how the curriculum is taught and participate in how it is developed. The knowledge that principals gain through this process can ensure that teachers understand the curriculum and have access to all the necessary tools and resources. They then can hold teachers, students, and themselves responsible for the results (Ruebling, Stow, Kayona, & Clarke, 2004). Not only do principals need adequate knowledge and skill to assess teacher performance, they also need a sense of self-efficacy that they can do so successfully. This is especially important when principals are faced with removing ineffective teachers. Knowing what is important about good teaching is different from the ability to use that knowledge well in stressful situations such as teacher removal. To do so successfully requires that principals are confident in their ability not only to assess the quality and effectiveness of teachers but also to take the necessary actions when instruction is weak (Painter, 2000). Evaluating teachers is addressed in more depth in Chapter 4. Existing research related to the role of the principal and monitoring curriculum and instruction indicates the following:

Effective principals possess knowledge of the curriculum and good instructional practices (Cotton, 2003) and, subsequently, focus their attention in their schools on curriculum and instruction (Mazzeo, 2003).

Effective principals monitor the implementation of curriculum standards and make sure they are taught (Schmoker, 2006).

Effective principals model behaviors that they expect of school staff (Marzano et al., 2005).

Principals are in a good position to support teacher effectiveness through observations and conversations with teachers (Cooper et al., 2005).

Principals need to spend time in classrooms in order to effectively monitor and encourage curriculum implementation and quality instructional practices (Fink & Resnick, 2001; Pajak & McAfee, 1992; Ruebling et al., 2004).

Teachers and principals feel it is important to have someone to steer the curriculum and prioritize staff development (Portin et al., 2003).

Teachers too frequently view classroom observations as a means to satisfy contractual obligations rather than as a vehicle for improvement and professional growth (Cooper et al., 2005).

In effective schools, principals are able to judge the quality of teaching and share a deep knowledge of instruction with teachers (Fink & Resnick, 2001).

An effective leader promotes coherence in the instructional program where teachers and students follow a common curriculum framework (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003).

Effective principals trust teachers to implement instruction effectively, but they also monitor instruction with frequent classroom visits to verify the results (Portin et al., 2003).

Related Resources: Armstrong, 2007; Wise, 2001.

A Final Word on the Power of Positive Instructional Leadership

Nothing in the principal's role is more important for ensuring successful student learning than effective instructional leadership. School principals who focus on a vision for their schools nurture the leadership capabilities of their teachers. Additionally, if their schools are moving in the right direction, they model effective leading and learning. Combining these efforts with using data appropriately, as well as monitoring what takes place at the classroom level, will increase the likelihood that schools will achieve their goals for student learning.

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by James H. Stronge, Holly B. Richard and Nancy Catano Beth entered the education profession as a middle school science teacher who wanted to make a difference in the lives of her students. After teaching for a number of years, she wanted to accomplish more than the work that she could do within her classroom and, thus, became a grade-level chair.

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What better way to keep current with changes in the learning environment than to connect with organizations designed to support and enlighten.

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The school principal administers a dynamic organization consisting of teachers, students and staff. It is his/her responsibility to provide a safe and enabling environment that is conducive to the growth and learning of the students. In that role the principal is a manager, leader, catalyst, disciplinarian, and learner combined. It's an awesome responsibility, for in a job well done involving the entire school, students will be prepared to function constructively in tomorrow's terrifically complex world.

The effective principal continues to learn and expand his/her understanding and skills and to address challenges in innovative ways. This entails staying connected to professional groups and organizations and to be exposed to current research, new ideas, successful practices, helpful tools and other resources that can be pulled into ongoing efforts at the school. Of all the responsibilities faced daily by the principal, that of effective leadership is uppermost in activating the entire school toward raising the achievement and spirit of students.

Here are five professional organizations that will provide school principals with knowledge about different aspects of school administration and together, will give balanced support for school improvement and change.

As an education professional, the principal would want to be a member of the NEA to stay in touch with the pulse of education nationally, to learn of new developments and to support advocacy for public education. NEA has a membership of three million, and administrators number 16,000. Resources available to principals are Advice from School Leaders, Leadership Resources and Principal's Toolbox. Their Education World "Principal Files" contain articles and ideas submitted by principals around the world about practical elements of school administration.

NAESP is the professional organization that serves elementary and middle school principals. This organization supports school improvement efforts in various ways. It conducts an Annual Conference & Expo, runs a national mentor training and certification program, offers webinars and online learning programs, and publishes Principal, a bimonthly publication to keep elementary and middle school principals informed.

NASSP represents middle level and high school principals nationally and internationally. It supports research and provides professional learning experiences to strengthen school leadership practices. Among the many resources they offer is the magazine, Principal Leadership, which offers cutting edge ideas for improving schools. Another resource, School Leader's Review is a podcast series where principals discuss important issues in school leadership. NASSP also administers the National Honor Society to recognize outstanding high school students. Parallel programs are the National Junior Honor Society and the National Elementary Honor Society.

ASCD is a world leader in developing and providing innovative resources to support the school community and classroom. They advocate a whole child approach to get away from the previous narrowly defined academic achievement and instead to focus on the full personal, social, health as well as the academic development of each child. They also provide resources for the learning and growth of educators. ASCD is active in recruiting and training advocates to have a voice in policy decisions at the state and national levels.

ISTE was started by a small group of educators who wanted to empower students by giving them powerful tools for learning. A principal who is open to learning about this new opportunity in education can gain new insights from joining ISTE. This includes how technology can be integrated into subject areas and the curriculum as well as in the whole functioning of the school. ISTE's approach is reflected in their belief that "ultimately, it's not about the technology at all. It's about changing the way learning and teaching takes place to make it more meaningful and impactful for educators and learners around the globe."
5. Learning Forward
Learning Forward is an organization that provides training and resources for leaders engaged in the professional development of educators. Their quarterly publication called Tools for Learning presents resources for school improvement topics. They issue weekly e-news briefs and offer webinars, online classes and videos to keep members abreast on latest trends and knowledge. They bring the ideas of leading thinkers in the field to support the efforts of change agents in the field of education.

Although not a formal professional organization, a resource worth noting for principals who want the stimulation of interacting with innovative thinkers from diverse backgrounds around the world is the Ted-Ed Innovative Educator program. This is part of TED's education initiative.

Related Resource: 5 Great Books for Gifted Resource Teachers

School principals face unprecedented challenges in this fast-paced twenty-first century. They have to find ways that schools can reach and support the healthy growth and learning of students who come from complexly diverse orientations. Joining upbeat organizations and communicating with others will assist principals to find novel solutions for the challenges they face.

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5 Professional Organizations for School Principals

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The school principal administers a dynamic organization consisting of teachers, students and staff. It is his/her responsibility to provide a safe and enabling environment that is conducive to the growth and learning of the students. In that role the principal is a manager, leader, catalyst, disciplinarian, and learner combined.

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Five excellent tips for decision making.

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Five excellent tips for decision making.

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Tips for making decision reminds me of other management classes that teach the four types of manager-styles the only different is decisions making comes based on time restraints.

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Thanks to its partnership with publisher Eye on Education, Education World is pleased to present this administrator tip from School Leader Internship (4th Edition): Developing, Monitoring, and Evaluating Your Leadership Experience, by Gary E. Martin, Arnold B. Danzig, William F. Wright, Richard A. Flanary, and Fred Brown. This article provides school leaders with five factors to consider when making quality decisions.

Decision making is sine qua non to education administration because a school, like all formal organizations, is basically a decision-making structure (Hoy and Miskel, 2001). Decision making is a process that guides actions. Decisions are based on the beliefs, values and previous experiences of individuals. Leaders must know themselves, know why they choose particular paths, know whom to involve, and know which particular decision-making model to use. Today, researchers and theorists know that those at the top cannot accurately gather or predict all alternatives. They know that followers deserve to be involved and that input and collaboration result in better decisions. The first decision is to decide what level of involvement is most effective.

Leaders have at least four options of involvement in decisions: deciding alone, seeking participation and input, seeking collaboration, and letting others decide. These approaches are termed autocratic, participative, collaborative, and laissez fair, respectively. A wise leader uses participative and collaborative strategies for all important decisions. However, such an approach is not always possible, nor is it preferable in all situations. The leader must assess 5 factors to decide on the level of involvement:

Time

Urgency may require the leader to make his or her own decision without consulting others. Participative decisions, especially collaborative decisions, require more time than a decision made alone. If important decisions are at stake, the leader must schedule more time for involvement.

Staff Interest in the Decision

Barnard (1938) found that individuals have a "zone of indifference" in which they simply accept the leader's decision and are apathetic toward the decision. In these cases, the leader would not benefit from trying to gain participation or collaboration. At higher levels of interest, however, more participation or collaboration is appropriate. Leaders who desire more collaboration must generate interest in the decision.

Staff Expertise

Followers who have very low levels of expertise accept the decisions of leaders. Staff members who have higher levels of expertise require either participation or collaboration to arrive at successful decisions. The leader who desires collaboration must raise levels of expertise to successfully involve subordinates.

Importance or Need For a High-Quality Decision

Some decisions are much more important and carry significant consequences. This is usually the case for instruction and learning, whether directly or indirectly. For important questions that demand high-quality decisions, collaboration is the best model. If the decision is relatively unimportant, then the leader should simply make the decision.

Degree of Need for Buy-In or Support for the Decision

Many decisions in schools need staff support for successful implementation and results. A collaborative model often increases buy-in and support.

Education World®
Copyright © 2012, 2017 Education World

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Decision-Making for School Leaders: Five Tips | Education World

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Thanks to its partnership with publisher Eye on Education, Education World is pleased to present this administrator tip from School Leader Internship (4th Edition): Developing, Monitoring, and Evaluating Your Leadership Experience, by Gary E. Martin , Arnold B. Danzig , William F. Wright , Richard A. Flanary, and Fred Brown .

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I documented my Instructional Supervision journey via Padlet entries.

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Bradley EDG 6311 Padlet Log Instructional Supervsion

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The Idea in Brief

When struggling with stagnant growth-as many of us are today-do you look to acquisitions, aggressive marketing, or new technologies to rev up your revenues?

If so, you may be missing a much more reliable way to outperform your competition- operational innovation.

Creating new ways, not just better ways, of working has been central to some of business's greatest success stories: think Wal-Mart's cross-docking distribution system, or Dell's build-to-order model. But since operations aren't sexy, most companies overlook them.

To set the stage for operational innovation in your company, first convince managers that it will work-show them successes at other companies or pockets of innovation in your own business. Concentrate on reinventing work processes that will have the greatest strategic impact. And, to ensure that your processes are truly innovative instead of just improved, set performance targets unreachable by standard operating procedures.

Operational innovations fuel extraordinary results. Progressive Insurance completely reinvented claims processing-slashing the waiting time for vehicle repair estimates from ten days to nine hours and catapulting sales from $1.3 billion in 1991 to $9.5 billion in 2002. Companies that bake operational innovation into their culture, as Progressive did, make competitors continually scramble to keep up.

The Idea in Practice

Time, cost, and customer satisfaction all get major boosts from operational innovations. Here are guidelines for reinventing your own work processes:

Look for Role Models Outside Your Industry

Benchmarking within your own industry probably won't lead to breakthrough innovations. Instead, find operating techniques that have been successful in other industries and apply them to your business.

Taco Bell transformed its restaurant operations by thinking about them in manufacturing-not fast-food-terms. The chain outsourced production of key ingredients so it could focus on "assembly," not "fabrication," in its restaurants. The approach cut Taco Bell's costs and increased customer satisfaction by ensuring a consistently high-quality product.

Identify and Defy a Constraining Assumption

Every operational innovation defies conventional assumptions about how work should be done. Zero in on the assumption that interferes with achieving your strategic goal and then get rid of it. A hospital, for instance, was able to respond to physician referrals more quickly when it challenged the assumption that beds had to be assigned before patients could be accepted. Now it assigns the bed after accepting the patient-while that person is en route.

Make the Special Case the Norm

Companies often achieve extraordinary levels of performance under extraordinary conditions. The trick is to turn your do-or-die mode into everyday practice.

A packaged-goods maker had relied on sales forecasts for production scheduling. When demand for a new product wildly exceeded predictions, it created an ad hoc process to give real-time demand information to manufacturing, which made production planning and distribution more efficient. After the crisis passed, the company made its emergency mode standard. Customers were delighted, and overall costs dropped dramatically.

Rethink Critical Dimensions of Work

Experiment with changing one or more of these elements in your own operations:

What results are to be produced, who should perform the necessary activities, where should they be performed, in what sequence, and how thoroughly each activity must be performed.

In 2002, Shell Lubricants reconsidered who needed to participate in its order fulfillment process. By replacing a group of seven people who each handled different parts of the order with one person who does it all, Shell cut cycle time by 75%, reduced operating expenses by 45%, and boosted customer satisfaction by 105%.

In 1991, Progressive Insurance, an automobile insurer based in Mayfield Village, Ohio, had approximately $1.3 billion in sales. By 2002, that figure had grown to $9.5 billion. What fashionable strategies did Progressive employ to achieve sevenfold growth in just over a decade? Was it positioned in a high-growth industry? Hardly. Auto insurance is a mature, 100-year-old industry that grows with GDP. Did it diversify into new businesses? No, Progressive's business was and is overwhelmingly concentrated in consumer auto insurance. Did it go global? Again, no. Progressive operates only in the United States.

Neither did it grow through acquisitions or clever marketing schemes. For years, Progressive did little advertising, and some of its campaigns were notably unsuccessful. It didn't unveil a slew of new products. Nor did it grow at the expense of its margins, even when it set low prices. The proof is Progressive's combined ratio (expenses plus claims payouts, divided by premiums), the measure of financial performance in the insurance industry. Most auto insurers have combined ratios that fluctuate around 102%-that is, they run a 2% loss on their underwriting activities and recover the loss with investment income. By contrast, Progressive's combined ratio fluctuates around 96%. The company's growth has not only been dramatic-it is now the country's third largest auto insurer-it has also been profitable.

The secret of Progressive's success is maddeningly simple: It outoperated its competitors. By offering lower prices and better service than its rivals, it simply took their customers away. And what enabled Progressive to have better prices and service was operational innovation, the invention and deployment of new ways of doing work.

Operational innovation should not be confused with operational improvement or operational excellence. Those terms refer to achieving high performance via existing modes of operation: ensuring that work is done as it ought to be to reduce errors, costs, and delays but without fundamentally changing how that work gets accomplished. Operational innovation means coming up with entirely new ways of filling orders, developing products, providing customer service, or doing any other activity that an enterprise performs.

Operational innovation has been central to some of the greatest success stories in recent business history, including Wal-Mart, Toyota, and Dell. Wal-Mart is now the largest organization in the world, and it owns one of the world's strongest brands. Between 1972 and 1992, Wal-Mart went from $44 million in sales to $44 billion, powering past Sears and Kmart with faster growth, higher profits, and lower prices. How did it score that hat trick? Wal-Mart pioneered a great many innovations in how it purchased and distributed goods. One of the best known of these is cross-docking, in which goods trucked to a distribution center from suppliers are immediately transferred to trucks bound for stores-without ever being placed into storage. Cross-docking and companion innovations led to lower inventory levels and lower operating costs, which Wal-Mart translated into lower prices. The rest is history. Although operational innovation wasn't the sole ingredient in Wal-Mart's success-its culture, strategy, human resource policies, and a host of other elements (including operational excellence) were also critical-it was the foundation on which the company was built.

Similar observations can be made about Dell and Toyota, organizations whose operational innovations have become proper nouns: the Dell Business Model and the Toyota Production System. Each of these three companies fundamentally rethought how to do work in its industry. Their operational innovations dislodged some of the mightiest corporations in the history of capitalism, including Sears, General Motors, and IBM.

These stories are well known for two reasons. First, the stories are worth telling: Operational innovations fuel extraordinary results. But the stories are also repeated because there are, frankly, not many of them. Operational innovation is rare. By my estimate, no more than 10% of large enterprises have made a serious and successful effort at it. And that shouldn't be. Executives who understand how operational innovation happens-and who also understand the cultural and organizational barriers that prevent it from happening more often-can add to their strategic arsenal one of the most powerful competitive weapons in existence.

A Powerful Weapon

The Payoffs

For most of its history, Progressive focused on high-risk drivers, a market that it served profitably through extremely precise pricing. But in the early 1990s, the insurer believed that much larger companies were about to enter this niche and emulate its approach to pricing; the company's managers realized it couldn't compete against larger players on a level playing field. So Progressive decided to win the game by changing the rules. It reinvented claims processing to lower its costs and boost customer satisfaction and retention.

The company introduced what it calls Immediate Response claims handling: A claimant can reach a Progressive representative by phone 24 hours a day, and the representative then schedules a time when an adjuster will inspect the vehicle. Adjusters no longer work out of offices from nine to five but out of mobile claims vans. Instead of taking between seven and ten days for an adjuster to see the vehicle, Progressive's target is now just nine hours. The adjuster not only examines the vehicle but also prepares an on-site estimate of the damage and, if possible, writes a check on the spot.

This approach has many benefits. Claimants get faster service with less hassle, which means they're less likely to abandon Progressive because of an unsatisfactory claims experience. And the shortened cycle time reduced Progressive's costs dramatically. The cost of storing a damaged vehicle or renting a replacement car for one day-around $28-is roughly equal to the expected underwriting profit on a six-month policy. It's not hard to calculate the savings this translates into for a company that handles more than 10,000 claims each day. Other benefits for Progressive are an improved ability to detect fraud (because it is easier to conduct an accident investigation before skid marks wash away and witnesses leave the scene), lower operating costs (because fewer people are involved in handling the claim), and a reduction in claim payouts (because claimants often accept less money if it's given sooner and with less travail).

No single innovation conveys a lasting advantage, however. In addition to Immediate Response, Progressive has also introduced a system that allows customers to call an 800 number or visit its Web site and, by providing a small amount of information, compare Progressive's rates with those of three competitors. (Because insurance is a regulated industry, rates are on file with state insurance commissioners.) This offer has attracted customers in droves.

The company has also devised even better ways of assessing an applicant's risk profile to calculate the right rate to quote. When Progressive realized that an applicant's credit rating was a good proxy for responsible driving behavior, it changed its application process. Now its computer systems automatically contact those of a credit agency, and the applicant's credit score is factored into its pricing calculation. More accurate pricing translates into increased underwriting profit. Put these all together, and Progressive's remarkable growth becomes comprehensible.

Other companies have made similar performance gains through operational innovations. Beginning in 1994, Eastern Electric, a UK power utility, created a process that reduced the time needed to initiate electrical service by 90% and its cost by 66%. In the late 1990s, IBM invented a new product-development process that caused a 75% reduction in the time to develop new products, a 45% reduction in development expenses, and a 26% increase in customer satisfaction with these new products. In 2002, Shell Lubricants reinvented its order fulfillment process by replacing a group of people who handled different parts of an order with one individual who does it all. As a result, Shell has cut the cycle time of turning an order into cash by 75%, reduced operating expenses by 45%, and boosted customer satisfaction 105%-all by introducing a new way of handling orders. Time, cost, and customer satisfaction-the dimensions of performance shaped by operations-get major boosts from operational innovation.

Organizational Barriers

Compared with most of the other ways that managers try to stimulate growth-technology investments, acquisitions, major marketing campaigns, and the like-operational innovation is relatively reliable and low cost. So why don't more companies embrace it?

The question is particularly significant because operational innovation is needed now more than ever. Most industries today are struggling with low-growth, even stagnant, markets. Overcapacity is rampant, and competition-particularly global competition-is fierce. Virtually all product and service offerings have become commodities, almost no one has any pricing power, and none of this is likely to change in the near future. In this environment, the only way to grow is to take market share from competitors by running rings around them: by operating at lower costs that can be turned into lower prices and by providing extraordinary levels of quality and service. In other words, the game must now be played on the field of operations.

Mere operational improvement is not enough to win the game. Excellence in execution can win a close game, but it can't break a game wide open and turn it into a rout. The only way to get and stay ahead of competitors is by executing in a totally different way-that is, through operational innovation.

But operational innovation entails a departure from familiar norms and requires major changes in how departments conduct their work and relate to one another. It is truly deep change, affecting the very essence of a company: how its work is done. The effects of operational innovation ripple outward to all aspects of the enterprise, from measurement and reward systems and job designs to organizational structure and managerial roles. Thus, it will never get off the ground without executive leadership. Yet senior managers rarely perceive operational innovation as an important endeavor, nor do they enthusiastically embrace it when others present it to them. Why not? The answers hinge on some unpleasant characteristics of contemporary corporate leadership.

Business culture undervalues operations.

I have spoken with thousands of managers from hundreds of companies about operational innovation. Overwhelmingly, they've told me that their senior executives did not understand, support, or encourage it. As one manager said, "In our company, operations is not glamorous. Deals are." Making acquisitions, planning mergers, and buying and selling divisions will get the company's name and the CEO's picture in business magazines. Redesigning procurement or transforming product development will not, even though it might be much more important to the company's performance. Deals are easily explained to and understood by boards, shareholders, and the media. They offer the prospect of nearly immediate gratification, and the bold stroke of a deal is consistent with the modern image of the executive as someone who focuses on grand strategy and leaves operational details to others. The fact that the great majority of deals are unsuccessful does not deter executives from pursuing them.

Operations simply aren't sexy. One business school student recently observed to me, "There seems to be a hierarchy in the business world. Finance and strategy are at the top, marketing and sales occupy the middle tier, and operations is at the bottom." An insurance CEO once quipped that managers work hard at operations so they can be promoted to the executive level, where they can stop worrying about operations. A journalist at a prominent business magazine, assigned to do a story on operations, confessed that he thought it boring. This is the state of our business culture. The core, value-creating work of enterprises has become low status.

Operations are out of sight (and out of mind-set).

At its heart, operations is a branch of engineering. It requires a skill set and a mind-set different from those needed in most other executive activities. Most senior managers focus on strategic planning, budgeting, capital allocation, ﬁnancial management, mergers and acquisitions, personnel issues, regulatory concerns, and other macro issues, very different from the design work at the heart of operational innovation.

Many top managers are ignorant about operations and uninterested in learning more. They've ascended to the highest levels of the enterprise without ever getting their hands dirty. They enter the organization through finance, strategy, or marketing and build their reputations on work in these domains. When they move into their first general management role, they rely on others-plant managers, engineers, customer service leaders-to mind the details of the actual work. Their role is one of supervision, resource allocation, and direction-all vital, but all perched precariously on a foundation not grounded in the bedrock of the organization's real work.

At a major semiconductor maker, for instance, a group of middle managers who were frustrated with the complexity and poor performance of their order fulfillment process decided to make a case for change to executive management. They created a two-page diagram illustrating the endless series of steps every order went through, the redundant moves of the product between factories and depots, the accumulations of inventory, and the enormous delays. When members of the company's executive committee saw it, they were incredulous: "We do this? "

It should not be surprising that executives without experience in operations do not look there for competitive advantage. The information they usually get does little to focus their attention on the mechanics of operations. How many executives receive data about order fulfillment cycle time, 0r the accuracy of customer service responses, or the cost of each procurement transaction, or the percentage of parts that are reused in new products? Indeed, in how many organizations is such information available at all? Financial data dominate the discourse in the modern organization, although operational performance is the driver of financial results.

Nobody owns it.

No one holds the title Vice President of Operational Innovation; it is organizationally homeless. It doesn't fit into R&D, where product innovation is based. Functional line managers are too focused on meeting deadlines to have time for or interest in inventing new ways of doing things. What's more, important innovations are not limited to individual departments but involve end-to-end processes that cross departmental boundaries. Normal planning and budgeting focus on investments in new equipment, products, and services and take account of process improvement. It's a rare company whose budget or planning process explicitly looks for process breakthroughs. No wonder operational innovation has a hard time gaining traction in an organization.

This is particularly problematic because operational innovation can easily founder in a sea of competing but smaller change initiatives. It is all too common for enterprises today to have dozens-even hundreds-of operational improvement programs under way at any point in time. Some are technologically based, such as the implementation of enterprise resource planning (ERP), customer relationship management (CRM), or supply chain management (SCM) software systems. Others are centered on specific bodies of improvement techniques, such as Six Sigma quality or lean enterprise programs. Still others are defined in terms of outcomes, such as accelerating time to market or presenting a single face to customers, or focused on improving a particular aspect of the enterprise (procurement or customer service, for example). Each project typically has a narrow scope, a group of experts dedicated to it, and a sponsor whose enthusiasm is tolerated by his or her peers only as long as it is kept within bounds.

This kind of situation can cripple operational innovation because an organization has only so much capacity for change. If people are already juggling a great many improvement projects, they may conclude that they can't handle an innovation effort as well. Indeed, in a company consumed with improvement projects, the distinction between improvement and innovation may be lost. Improvement projects can also get in the way of innovation efforts by appearing to address similar issues. For instance, many companies implementing ERP or SCM systems merely use them to enhance existing processes. Real innovations in order fulfillment or supply chain management are also likely to involve these technologies, but they may be dismissed because, people think, "we're already doing ERP."

Making It Work

How do operational innovation efforts begin if no one is responsible for them and no formal channels for creating programs exist? Most often they start as grassroots movements, fostered by people sprinkled throughout organizations who are passionately committed to finding and exploiting opportunities for operational innovation. These catalysts take it upon themselves to find a leader who can grasp what they have in mind and then spearhead the innovation effort. The executive must have both the imagination and the charisma needed to drive major operational change.

Then the catalysts relentlessly campaign for the cause-confronting the executive with the inadequacies of existing operations and arranging for meetings with peers from other companies that have successfully implemented operational innovations. The campaign will be helped immensely if catalysts can tout existing pockets of operational innovation within their own organization. Maybe one plant implemented a new way of scheduling production, or a customer service center used a CRM system in a new way, or a sales team created a new way to support customers. Examples like these will help convince a leader that operational innovation can work.

Once the top executive is convinced that operational innovation is worth pursuing, the organization needs to focus its efforts. Because operational innovation is by nature disruptive, it should be concentrated in those activities with the greatest impact on an enterprise's strategic goals.

Progressive, for instance, realized that the key to its profitable growth is customer retention because acquiring new customers through commission-based agents is very expensive. And the key to customer retention is making sure customers have rewarding interactions with the company. That's why Progressive concentrated on streamlining claims; making it a more pleasant experience for customers would directly affect overall performance. Many auto insurers, by contrast, view claims as a nuisance at best because it entails paying claimants. They consider it to be a low-priority activity that doesn't deserve attention.

Or consider how American Standard, the diversified manufacturer, decided where to focus its innovation efforts in the early 1990s. It had just survived a hostile takeover bid by going through a leveraged buyout, and leaders realized that servicing the debt would consume virtually all the company's available cash and starve product development efforts. Because a large amount of cash was tied up in inventories, the CEO mandated that the company would have to drive down its working capital and dramatically increase inventory turns. A program was instituted to transform manufacturing from a conventional push-based system to one pulled by actual demand using a system known as Demand Flow Manufacturing. The innovation paid off and led to a successful IPO a few years later.

Using similar analyses, other companies have pinpointed procurement, order fulfillment, new product development, post-sales customer support, and even budgeting as the place where innovation would have the greatest effect on achieving key strategic goals. While operational innovation need not be confined to just one area, most companies find it prudent to limit their innovation programs to no more than two or three major efforts at a time. To undertake more would probably consume too many resources and create too much organizational disruption.

After selecting the area for innovation, the company must set stretch performance goals. At American Standard, the goal was to triple its inventory turns; at Progressive, to initiate claims within nine hours. Absent such specific targets, innovation efforts are likely to drift or degenerate into incremental improvement projects. Only a daunting target-clearly unattainable through existing modes of operation-will stimulate radical thinking and willingness to overturn tradition.

Inventing a new way of operating that achieves the target need not be simply a matter of crossing your fingers and hoping for inspiration. Following these suggestions should accelerate your efforts.

Look for role models outside your industry.

Benchmarking within your own industry is unlikely to uncover breakthrough concepts. But techniques used in other industries with seemingly very different characteristics may turn out to be unexpectedly applicable. For instance, in the 1980s, Taco Bell transformed its restaurant operations by thinking about them in manufacturing rather than in fast-food terms. The restaurant chain reduced the amount of on-site food preparation by outsourcing to its suppliers, centralizing the production of key components, and concentrating on assembly rather than fabrication in the restaurants. The new approach lowered Taco Bell's costs and increased customer satisfaction by ensuring consistency and by allowing restaurant personnel to focus on customers rather than production. Harvard Pilgrim Health Care has applied techniques of market segmentation, common in consumer goods but not in health insurance, to identify patients most likely to have a medical crisis and to intervene before the crisis occurs.

Identify and defy a constraining assumption.

At its heart, every operational innovation defies an assumption about how work should be done. Cross-docking negates the assumption that goods need to be stored in a warehouse, build-to-order that goods should be produced based on forecasts and destined for inventory. Zero in on the assumption that interferes with achieving a strategic goal, and then figure out how to get rid of it. A major hospital, for instance, recognized that to increase the number of patients admitted for (well-reimbursed) cardiac bypass graft operations, it needed to respond more quickly to physicians who wanted to refer a patient. The reason for the delay in response was the assumption that the hospital first had to assign a prospective patient a bed, a supposition that generated hours of delay and often led physicians to send their patients somewhere else. The solution? Send the patient to the hospital immediately, and assign the bed while the patient is in transit.

Make the special case into the norm.

Companies often achieve extraordinary levels of performance under extraordinary conditions; their problem is performing extraordinarily in normal situations. One way to accomplish this is to turn the special-case process into the norm. A consumer packaged-goods maker, for instance, based its production scheduling on sales forecasts rather than on actual customer demand. When demand for a new product wildly exceeded forecasts, an ad hoc process was created that gave the manufacturing division real-time information about customer demand, which in turn allowed them to do production planning and product distribution much more efficiently. After the crisis had passed, the company decided to adopt this emergency mode of operation as its standard one. The results included a dramatic drop in inventory, an improvement in customer service, and a major reduction in the total cost of product deployment.

Rethink critical dimensions of work.

Designing operations entails making choices in seven areas. It requires specifying what results are to be produced and deciding who should perform the necessary activities, where they should be performed, and when. It also involves determining under which circumstances (whether) each of the activities should or should not be performed, what information should be available to the performers, and how thoroughly or intensively each activity needs to be performed. Managers looking to innovate should consider changing one or more of these dimensions to create a new operational design that delivers better performance. (The exhibit "Reimagining Processes" shows examples of companies that have rethought these various dimensions of work.)

Reimagining Processes

Getting Implementation Right

In The Innovator's Dilemma, Clayton Christensen observed that conventional market-analysis tools lead organizations astray when applied to disruptive technologies. In a similar way, conventional implementation methodologies often lead to failure when applied to disruptive modes of operation.

Companies that follow traditional implementation methodologies inevitably take too long. There is so much to be done, and so much that must be integrated with everything else, that years can pass before the innovation is implemented and its benefits start to flow. Furthermore, because every proposed major change in operating procedures is invariably greeted with a chorus of "it will never work," a lengthy implementation period gives opponents an extended opportunity to campaign against it. In fact, even those who aren't aggressively opposed to the innovation will find a protracted transition unsettling and disquieting. As more time passes and more money is spent without the innovation or its payoffs seeing the light of day, organizational support leaks away. Executive leadership then loses heart, and the denouement is inevitable.

Another problem with conventional implementation is that it assumes that the initial specifications for an operational innovation will be accurate and complete. In reality, they will be neither. When envisioning new ways of working, it is impossible to get everything right from the outset. Ideas that look good on paper don't always work as well in practice; only when a concept is actually tried does one learn what it should really have been in the first place. Companies must be prepared to roll with the punches and learn as they go. An apparel manufacturer had to regroup when the technology underlying its plans for a new approach to production scheduling did not live up to expectations; a consumer goods maker had to scale back an innovation in logistics when its implementation became more difficult than expected.

Companies need to adopt a new approach to implementing operational innovations. This alternative method builds on an idea that is popular in software product development, an idea variously known as iterative, evolutionary, or spiral development. One begins with one's best estimate of the innovation, builds a first version of it, and then tries it out with customers or users. Knowledge gained from these tests is then fed back into a fast-cycle iteration of the next version. ¹

Companies would also be wise not to try to implement an innovation all at once. Breaking a large-scale implementation into a series of limited releases creates momentum, dispels skepticism and anxiety, and delivers a powerful rejoinder to carping critics.

When MetLife, for instance, was implementing a new process for installing coverage of a new customer, it did so in two releases. The first involved the creation of a new role-a case-implementation leader, who was responsible for collecting all the information to establish coverage. In that release, a new project-management tool was also introduced to control the process. That took only a few months and delivered substantial reductions in cycle time, as well as a 15% productivity gain. But it continued to rely on old information systems to support the process. In the second release, a new information system was installed that facilitated data collection and the production of documentation and also offered enhanced reporting capabilities. This second release delivered another 20% productivity improvement, as well as a 20-point increase in customer satisfaction.

Shell Lubricants followed a similar strategy when it transformed its order fulfillment process. The first release brought all the departments involved in the process under a single manager. This easy-to-implement change quickly delivered a degree of performance improvement. The improvements continued when the next release brought people from the various departments together into cross-functional teams. In the final release, each team member was trained to handle an entire order. This was the goal from the outset; Shell simply reached it in manageable steps.

Is It Sustainable?

Even with all the benefits operational innovation can deliver, some executives may wonder if it is truly worth the effort. Why bother to be the first on the block to develop and deploy a new way of working? Why not let a competitor break that ground and then capitalize on its experiences, doing an even better job? Indeed, where is the real strategic advantage in operational innovation at all? Once one company introduces a new way of doing things, all competitors can follow, and before long all are back on the same level playing field.

In theory, that is a powerful argument, but in the real world, operational innovations have legs. Even today, not all auto insurers offer immediate claims response. And despite Dell's success, build-to-order has not swept the PC industry. At one major PC maker, an effort to do so was suppressed by both the head of manufacturing (who was concerned that it would lead to outsourcing) and the head of marketing (who was afraid of alienating the retail channel), and top leadership was too preoccupied with other matters to intervene. Toyota has confidently opened its factories to visitors from other automakers and yet continues to expand its productivity lead.

There are many reasons why theoretically imitable operational innovations have staying power. Some companies, even when confronted by a competitor's innovations, will not rush to emulate them. Denial of competitor superiority and a disinclination to truck with operations are powerful forces of nature, and so is organizational inertia. Some competitors who attempt to imitate the innovation won't understand it, and others won't be able to implement it. Even those who do follow will be at a disadvantage until they catch up.

Operational innovation is a step change: It moves a company to an entirely new level. Once there, the organization can focus its efforts on a generation of additional changes-refinements of the innovation-that will keep it ahead of the pack until the inevitable time comes for a new wave of innovation.

That's why companies should strive to make operational innovation not an extraordinary project but a way of life. Even areas of the business that have already been rethought can benefit from subsequent rethinking as new technologies and new customer needs make the old innovations passé. Companies that bake operational innovation into their culture make competitors continually scramble to catch up with the changing rules. What's more, they can even develop a reputation with customers for relentlessly improving performance, a brand promise of extraordinary value.

Progressive has created such a culture; leaving well enough alone is a principle with which the company is systemically uncomfortable. It recently revised its very successful Immediate Response claims process so that the representative no longer attempts to assign an adjuster as soon as the claimant calls. Rather, the representative guarantees to call the claimant back within two hours with specifics about when an adjuster will see the vehicle. This two-hour window gives the company the opportunity to assign the right kind of adjuster given the specifics of the case, so that a junior adjuster is not confronted with a complex accident beyond his level of expertise. Progressive is also deploying in select markets what it calls a concierge approach to claims handling. Here, a claimant simply brings the car to a Progressive claims facility at a convenient time and leaves it there, picking up a loaner at the same time. Progressive then takes responsibility for getting the car fixed. Under this system, the claimant is spared the hassle of dealing with body shops, the Progressive adjuster works in a climate-controlled environment that allows more careful inspection, and the body shop doesn't have to get between Progressive and its customers. By the time its competitors imitate this latest innovation, Progressive will no doubt have moved onto something else.

Operational innovation may appear unglamorous or unfamiliar to many executives, but it is the only lasting basis for superior performance. In an economy that has overdosed on hype and in which customers rule as they never have before, operational innovation offers a meaningful and sustainable way to get ahead-and stay ahead-of the pack.

1. Marco Iansiti and Alan MacCormack describe how this approach was successfully applied in the development of Internet browsers in their article "Developing Products on Internet Time" (HBR September-October 1997).

A version of this article appeared in the April 2004 issue of Harvard Business Review.

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Deep Change: How Operational Innovation Can Transform Your Company

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The Idea in Brief When struggling with stagnant growth-as many of us are today-do you look to acquisitions, aggressive marketing, or new technologies to rev up your revenues? If so, you may be missing a much more reliable way to outperform your competition- operational innovation.

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NAEP Report Cards - About The Nation's Report Card

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NAEP Report Cards - About The Nation's Report Card

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education statistics questions and answers

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The NCES Fast Facts Tool provides quick answers to many education questions (National Center for Education Statistics). Get answers on Early Childhood Education, Elementary and Secondary Education and Higher Education here.

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The Accountability Research Unit in the Division of Research and Analysis publishes an annual report presenting enrollment trends in the Texas public school system, as well as special reports on related topics. The annual report provides statewide enrollment data by grade, race/ethnicity, gender, and economically disadvantaged status and for special populations and instructional programs. Enrollment data for the 20 regional education service centers throughout the state are presented, as are data for open-enrollment charter schools. National enrollment trends are also reported.

To view or download enrollment data at the campus, district, county, region, or state level, please visit PEIMS Standard Reports and select one of the Student Reports.

Enrollment in Texas Public Schools, 2016-17 (June 2017), PDF (1.2 MB)

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This page last updated June 8, 2017.

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The Accountability Research Unit in the Division of Research and Analysis publishes an annual report presenting enrollment trends in the Texas public school system, as well as special reports on related topics.

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Fast FActs

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education statistics questions and answers

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The NCES Fast Facts Tool provides quick answers to many education questions (National Center for Education Statistics). Get answers on Early Childhood Education, Elementary and Secondary Education and Higher Education here.

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Statistical data on national demographics

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Indicator 14: Retention, Suspension, and Expulsion

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Students may be suspended (temporarily removed from regular school activities in or out of school) or expelled (permanently removed from school with no services) due to behavior problems. The Civil Rights Data Collection provides data on the number of public school students who were disciplined during the 2011-12 school year by the type of action taken (e.g., suspension, expulsion).

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Sandra Bradley Philosophy of Instruction from a Head Start Perspective

I desire to see positive changes in the world by helping students receive knowledge, which empowers them to make good decisions.  Education is the vehicle that provides foundational principles that students require to experience positive and negative activities.  I become the liaison between the student and creating the basic knowledge needed for higher-level thinking.

My community of learners contains students from zero-months-old to the age of five who learn through proper examples and guidelines, kinetic play, and repetition.  Prior to engaging in teaching, I have a desire to understand the cultural background, home experiences, parent perspective, and my students learning style.  Then present foundational facts to Head Start students, which include the recognition of numbers, letters, colors, and shapes.

My belief is children learn through repeated opportunities to explore their world and mentally file the outcomes of explorations in a usable format for future events.  The dynamics involved in teaching students starts with the whole group concept and narrows to individual needs.  Classroom management establishes the ground rules and activates a positive learning environment by explaining and demonstrating expected responses to a stimulus.  Suppling information in at least two different formats each time encourages student engagement.

I desire the use of student-centered curriculum, which allows the student to control the pace of learning and the development of useful schema concepts.  Throughout the school year, there is a need for both formative and summative assessments, which guides repeated or remedial instruction as students show readiness to learn or display mastery of a task.  Meeting educational needs is a delicate balance between strategically grouping students based on learning style and knowing when to address the needs in a large or small group format.

My learning goal for my students includes meeting or exceeding Texas state educational requirements for grade-level advancement.  Achieving this goal requires current and accurate knowledge of global issues through reading articles, acquiring technical advancement, attending seminars, and colleague collaboration.  I desire to maintain an open mind and candid multilateral communication to aid in a team concept for student development.  When taking a proactive approach to learning, teaching, and educational advancements knowledge becomes a critical factor for all involved.

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1. The Monday Memo

An endless barrage of emails, texts, handouts, and announcements can lead to a communication overdose. The message, scattered about, gets lost when there are too many outlets. The easiest remedy is to consolidate these communications in a single, consistent package. We called ours the Monday Memo. It contained operational nuts and bolts, calendar events and deadlines, observations and insights from the school leader and others, weekly goals (which were shared with students as well), and at least one professional article aligned with the school's mission and vision. The Monday Memo was like a Napoleonic bulletin-it kept the troops well-informed and on the path to victory.

Note: Whenever possible, add a little levity. A cartoon or humorous story usually does the trick. A Monday morning smile can often carry a teacher all the way over to hump day.

2. The Huddle

At big schools with lots of grades, teachers often work themselves into silos. Freeing them from these silos is a scheduling challenge, but one well worth taking up. A teacher of ours came up with a simple solution: The Huddle. (We actually called ours "The Herd" because our mascot was a yak.) Once a week for just 15 minutes, we would all gather (with refreshments, of course) to share team plans and to look for opportunities for collaboration across grade levels.

And just like a football huddle, we would break with a unified clap.

Note: This can be accomplished electronically, but being eyeball to eyeball makes a world of difference.

3. Tea With Teachers

Once a month, I would meet with parents in the morning to discuss anything and everything having to do with the school. I called it Donuts With Dunbar. (We served lots and lots of coffee as well.) One day a teacher came up to me and asked, "Why don't you ever have donuts with us?"

"Y'all are always too busy in the morning," I said.

"Then let's do refreshments in the afternoon," she said. And thus Tea With Teachers, or TWT, was born. Unlike most faculty meetings, TWT was voluntary and the agenda was set by the participants. There were no time limits nor goals-only open, honest, real discussion.

4. Shout-Outs

There are a number of ways to acknowledge and celebrate best practices and excellence in schools. One of the best and easiest is the humble shout-out. Throughout the week, faculty and staff would submit nominations for academic, artistic, and cultural achievement. Every Friday, we would recognize those students, teachers, and community members who had gone above and beyond the call of duty. We would also note progress toward weekly and annual goals. It was a way of keeping all eyes firmly on the prize.

5. Art Jams

During the school day, it's almost impossible to think creatively. Grading papers and juggling deadlines doesn't exactly foster creative thinking. Yet such thinking is more important today than ever. So how and when do you generate new, innovative ideas? For us, it took place after school and off campus, surrounded by art and with plenty of adult beverages. Being an arts-integrated school, we called it an Art Jam. It was a time to brainstorm crazy ideas-ideas that might just lead to improved teaching and learning.

6. Social Media

A board member once asked me why I managed the school's Facebook page. "Don't you have more important things to do?" she asked.

"Believe it or not," I said, "Facebook is one of the most important things I do."

The principal is the vision keeper for a school. That vision has to be shared with all stakeholders. Social media-Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, etc.-is one of the best ways to accomplish this. Use it to promote instructional best practices, to celebrate excellence, and to recognize all of the things that make your school unique.

7. Professional Culture Surveys

So with all of this improved communication, how do you know if it's working? As with student achievement, there has to be an end goal or measure for success. At our school, we developed a professional culture survey and gave it out three times a year. It was anonymous, and the perception data was shared with the entire faculty and staff. We used the results to, among other things, further improve communication.

When it comes to communication in schools, less is not more, and more is not necessarily better. It needs to be systematic, intentional, and transparent.

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7 Easy Ways to Improve School-Wide Communication

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An endless barrage of emails, texts, handouts, and announcements can lead to a communication overdose. The message, scattered about, gets lost when there are too many outlets. The easiest remedy is to consolidate these communications in a single, consistent package. We called ours the Monday Memo.

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Edited by Robert W. Cole

by Robert W. Cole

Children know how to learn in more ways than we know how to teach them.

-Ronald Edmonds (1991)

Good instruction is good instruction, regardless of students' racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic backgrounds. To a large extent, good teaching-teaching that is engaging, relevant, multicultural, and appealing to a variety of modalities and learning styles-works well with all children.

The instructional strategies outlined in this chapter reflect a sampling of the most exciting and determined efforts to change the way the United States educates its citizens. These "ideas at work" range in complexity and magnitude. They represent concepts that cut across content areas. They overlap so comfortably that they sometimes look like separate facets of a single gem. They are as much about attitude and general approach as about specific pedagogical techniques and classroom application. They have a few characteristics in common:

They tend to be inclusive, not exclusive.

They work best in context with other ideas and concepts, not in isolation.

They often focus on students working within social situations rather than alone.

Their activities, techniques, and goals are interactive and interdisciplinary, realistic rather than esoteric.

Possibly most important, they empower students to be actively involved in the processes of their own learning, rather than passively receptive.

None of the ideas in this chapter is new. Although some of them tend to be identified with specific programs, individuals, or locations, they are presented here as generic-that is, as applicable in virtually any classroom, in any subject area. All are adaptable.

Why ideas at work rather than ideas that work? Because "ideas that work" implies a kind of guarantee of effectiveness. In the real world of the schools, however, nothing works every time, everywhere, for everyone. No single strategy, approach, or technique works with all students. But the concepts in this chapter have proven themselves over time, with a multitude of students of diverse backgrounds and widely ranging abilities.

Unfortunately, numerous barriers can prevent poor and minority students from receiving good instruction. Some of these barriers are caused by educators' attitudes and beliefs; others are the result of institutional practices. The intent of the listing that follows is not to provide a thorough cataloguing of every barrier to sound instruction, but rather to place educators on alert.

Attitudes and Beliefs

Racism and Prejudice

Despite much progress during the past few decades, racism and prejudice are still ugly realities in all sectors of life in the United States, including education. Today, racism may be less overt and virulent than in the past, but its effects can still greatly harm minority students. In fact, subtle, insidious forms of racism may be even more harmful to young people than more blatant forms.

Prejudice against the poor, of whatever race or ethnicity, is another force that works against the academic achievement of disadvantaged students. For example, some teachers of poor students don't let them take materials home, out of fear that the materials will never be returned. Yet these same students tend to be proud to have the responsibility for taking materials home and are generally exceedingly careful to return them.

Obviously teachers must avoid discriminating, consciously or unconsciously, against students because of their racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic backgrounds. Such discrimination can be as blatant as imposing harsher discipline on minority students or as subtle as lowering expectations for poor children because they have "difficult" home lives. Teachers must be aware that they see students' behavior through the lens of their own culture. They must carefully examine their own attitudes and behaviors to be sure that they are not imposing a double standard. Most important, they must believe sincerely and completely that all children can learn.

Expectations

Educators must hold equally high expectations for affluent white students and poor and minority students-despite the disparity in students' backgrounds. Under the right conditions, low-income and minority students can learn just as well as any other children. One necessary condition, of course, is that the teacher hold expectations of high performance for all students.

Both high and low expectations can create self-fulfilling prophecies. Students must believe that they can achieve before they will risk trying, and young people are astute at sensing whether their teachers believe they can succeed. By the same token, teachers must truly believe their students can achieve before they will put forth their best effort to teach them. The teacher's beliefs must be translated into instructional practices if students are to benefit: actions speak louder than attitudes.

Teachers must also be sensitive to the subtle ways in which low expectations can be conveyed. According to researcher Sandra Graham of the University of California-Los Angeles, when a teacher expresses sympathy over failure, students typically infer that the teacher thinks they are incapable of succeeding, not that they simply may not have tried hard enough. Similarly, when a teacher gives students lavish praise for completing a simple task or offers help before being asked for it, students infer that the teacher thinks they are stupid. In other words, holding high expectations is not simply a matter of cheerleading; it requires insight into how students may interpret a teacher's words and behaviors.

Teachers must also resist the temptation to attribute student failure to lack of ability ("I've taught this concept and they didn't understand it; they must not be smart enough"). Failure to learn can stem from many other causes, such as inadequate prior knowledge, insufficient effort or motivation, lack of the right learning strategy, or inappropriate teaching. The bottom line is this: if students are not learning, the teacher needs to change the approach to teaching them.

Teachers are not the only ones who need to examine their expectations for students, however. Administrators who decide what courses their schools offer should ask themselves whether they are providing too few challenging courses. And counselors must consider whether they are steering students into undemanding courses because the students are poor, minority, or female. The expectation that all students can achieve at high levels, under the right circumstances, should be the guiding principle of every school.

Lack of Understanding of Cultural Differences

Teachers sometimes misinterpret the behaviors of poor and minority students because they do not understand the cultures they come from. White teachers can easily misread the behaviors of black students, for example. In Black Students and School Failure, Jacqueline Jordan Irvine (1990) writes:

Because the culture of black children is different and often misunderstood, ignored, or discounted, black students are likely to experience cultural discontinuity in schools. ... This lack of cultural sync becomes evident in instructional situations in which teachers misinterpret, denigrate, and dismiss black students' language, nonverbal cues, physical movements, learning styles, cognitive approaches, and worldview. When teachers and students are out of sync, they clash and confront each other, both consciously and unconsciously. ... (p. xix)

Only when teachers understand their students' cultural backgrounds can they avoid this kind of culture clash. In the meantime, the ways in which teachers comprehend and react to students' culture, language, and behaviors may create problems (Erickson, 1987). In too many schools, students are, in effect, required to leave their family and cultural backgrounds at the schoolhouse door and live in a kind of "hybrid culture" composed of the community of fellow learners (Au & Kawakami, 1991).

Especially in the early grades, teachers and students may differ in their expectations for the classroom setting; each may act in ways that the other misinterprets. In addition, those teachers (and they are legion) who insist on a single pedagogical style and who see other styles as being out of step, may be refusing to allow students to work to their strengths.

As Knapp and Shields (1990a) suggest, the so-called "deficit" or "disadvantage" model has two serious problems: (1) teachers are likely to set low standards for certain children "because their patterns of behavior, language use, and values do not match those required in the school setting"; and (2) over time a cycle of failure and despair is created that culminates "in students' turning their backs on school and dropping out ... because teachers and administrators fail to adapt to and take advantage of the strengths that these students do possess" (p. 755).

Institutional Practices

Tracking

The most notorious of the harmful institutional practices is tracking, which dooms children in the low tracks to a second-rate education by failing to provide them with the support they need to move to a higher track. As a result, they fall further and further behind their peers. Students in low tracks are stigmatized and lose self-esteem and motivation, while expectations for their performance plummet.

In Keeping Track, researcher Jeannie Oakes (1985) says, "We can be quite certain that the deficiencies of slower students are not more easily remediated when they are grouped together" (p. 12). Yet even now the practice of tracking persists, despite the negative effects on students documented by Oakes and many other researchers. Tracking is especially harmful to poor and minority students because these students are more likely to end up in the low tracks.

Effective alternatives to tracking have included the Accelerated Schools Project, developed by Henry Levin of Stanford University, which includes accelerated programs to bring at-risk students into the mainstream by the end of elementary school and results in faster learning because students receive engaging, active, interdisciplinary instruction; and the Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) program, developed by Stanley Pogrow of the University of Arizona- Tucson, which works to enhance the general thinking skills of remedial students by showing them how to work with ideas. These programs and others are aimed at helping students get up to speed, rather than permanently segregating them and feeding them a dumbed-down curriculum.

Inappropriate Instruction

Inappropriate instruction harms poor and minority students. Instead of being presented in a variety of modes, instruction in too many U.S. schools tends to be abstract, devoid of application, overly sequential, and redundant. Bits of knowledge are emphasized, not the big picture, thus handicapping global thinkers. Moreover, the largely Eurocentric curriculum downplays the experiences and contributions of minorities.

For teachers of diverse students, it is especially important to use a broad repertoire of strategies. Some children may be global thinkers; others, more analytical. Some children may learn best from lecture and reading; others, through manipulatives and other hands-on experiences. Some children may thrive on competition; others may achieve far more in cooperative groups.

Differential Access

Poor and minority students are often denied access to challenging coursework. Counselors place them in remedial or undemanding courses, and because more challenging courses often require students to have taken specific introductory courses, students can never switch to a more demanding track. Irvine (1990) cites data showing that "black students, particularly black male students, are three times as likely to be in a class for the educable mentally retarded as are white students, but only one-half as likely to be in a class for the gifted and talented" (p. xiv). In addition, the pull-out programs intended to help many of these students end up fragmenting their school day. And after pull-out programs end, students are given little support for reentering the regular classroom, so they tend to backslide when they rejoin their peers.

Lack of Consequences

Unfortunately, there are few consequences for students and teachers if poor and minority students do not learn. So long as students put in the required seat time, they will receive a diploma; so long as teachers go through the motions, they will have a job. In many cases, nobody-not the education establishment, not the parents or guardians, not the politicians-protests a status quo that is woefully deficient.

Schools that have had success in teaching poor and minority students do not keep ineffective teachers on the faculty; in these schools, teachers are held responsible if their students do not learn. These schools also collaborate with parents or guardians to ensure that students who come to school and strive to achieve are rewarded.

Disciplinary Practices

Teachers sometimes punish poor and minority children more harshly than they do other children for the same offenses. Moreover, suspension is often the punishment of choice, causing students to miss valuable class time. According to Irvine (1990), "one factor related to the nonachievement of black students is the disproportionate use of severe disciplinary practices, which leads to black students' exclusion from classes, their perceptions of mistreatment, and feelings of alienation and rejection, which result ultimately in their misbehaving more and/or leaving school" (p. 16).

On the other hand, some teachers are more lenient with poor or minority students, because they believe these children have been socialized differently than mainstream children. For example, teachers might overlook boisterous or aggressive behavior among poor or minority students while chastising mainstream students for similar behavior. Teachers need to establish a clear, reasonable discipline policy and require all students to abide by it.

Involvement of Parents or Guardians

Poor and minority parents or guardians often have no opportunities to create an ongoing relationship with their children's schools; in fact, they often have no communication with the schools at all. In turn, schools tend to make few efforts to develop a relationship with poor and minority parents or guardians, who may be too intimidated or hard-pressed to initiate contact themselves. For parents who don't speak English, the language barrier can pose another formidable obstacle.

James Comer of the Yale Child Study Center has developed a process to foster good relationships among children, teachers, and parents or guardians. Parents or guardians are encouraged to be an active presence in the school. Social activities bring families and school staff together, helping parents or guardians gain trust in the school. The program has reportedly helped to lower dropout rates, among other benefits.

Unequal Access to Resources

Unequal access to resources further reduces poor and minority students' chances of receiving equal opportunities to learn. Poor and minority students typically attend schools that receive less funding than those attended by mainstream students. As a result, they are taught with inferior materials and equipment and have fewer manipulatives, laboratories, and facilities. Teachers in such schools receive less staff-development, must cope with larger classes, and have less free time.

The Negative Impact of Testing

Standardized tests can be seen as one way in which a meritocratic society reorders a widely disparate populace into hierarchies of abilities, achievement, and opportunity. In fact, the power of tests to translate difference into disadvantage is felt at many points in the world of education, most notably in the decision to place low-income and language-minority students into compensatory or bilingual education classes, where a watered-down, fragmented, and rote curriculum reinforces the disadvantages presumably diagnosed by the tests.

More than ever before, it would seem, multiple-choice tests are being used inappropriately as the ultimate measure of students' learning and capabilities-despite a wealth of evidence that undermines the wisdom of using them in this manner. Decisions that significantly affect students' academic destinies are often made on the basis of a single test score. Moreover, norm-referenced tests reinforce the attitude that some students should be expected to do poorly. To be fair to all students, assessment should be primarily criterion-referenced and, as far as possible, based on actual performances. Perhaps most important, a variety of measures should be used to assess student learning.

Lack of Bilingual Instruction

Not surprisingly, many students who do not speak English fall behind in their studies early, because they are not taught content in their native language. When they eventually learn English, they have lost so much ground in their schoolwork that they find it difficult (and sometimes impossible) to catch up with their peers. In far too many cases, these students become discouraged and drop out of school.

Overall, there is the too-common problem of organizational inertia and resistance to change: reluctance to accept bilingual programs, to hire bilingual personnel, to upgrade the status of teachers of English as a second language (ESL), to support the acquisition and development of primary-language materials, to monitor and assess the progress of language-minority students, and to deal with the unique problems facing newcomers, including their need for counseling.

The number of bilingual teachers in U.S. schools is woefully insufficient, and the use of existing bilingual teachers is far from satisfactory. Schools do not use bilingual teachers to the best advantage-that is, to take maximum advantage of their dual-language abilities. The training and staffing of ESL and "sheltered English" classes remain inadequate. Beyond staffing, there is a dearth of primary-language materials, especially for languages other than Spanish, and bilingual educators regard even those materials as inadequate.

Students who speak a language other than English need to be taught content, for a time, in their native language, while they are also given intensive training in English. When they rejoin their English-speaking peers, they will be up to speed in their studies.

Universal Teaching Strategies

Naming the barriers to the kind of schooling we want for all of our children is at least a beginning. Naming the problem allows the challenging process of treating it to begin. The next section of this chapter will outline 16 generic instructional strategies that are intended to provide assistance in treatment.

Susie, Ron, Tasha, Jamal, and Juan have a lot in common. They are roughly the same age, sit in the same classroom, have the same teacher, and enjoy many of the same foods, games, and interests. As learners, however, they differ in critical ways. Susie is one of the 13 percent of youngsters in grades K-12 who learn best working alone; Ron, one of the 28 percent strongly oriented to working with a peer; and Tasha and Jamal, two of the 28 percent who learn best with adults (Tasha, by the way, with a collegial adult; Jamal, with an authoritative adult).

Of the five children, only Juan seems to learn reasonably well in any or all of those social configurations. In that respect, he represents fewer than one-third of the youngsters in a typical K-12 classroom. Of the five, only Susie and Juan are reasonably well served in the traditional teacher-oriented, teacher-directed classroom. Most of the time, the other three would be much better off in a different kind of learning situation-one far more diverse in its activities, curricular organization, and social configurations.

Few individuals in today's work world think of trying to solve a problem or launch a product or service without massive and persistent teamwork, including open discussion, fact gathering, consideration and argument, trial-and-error experimentation, research, and development. Typically, they not only depend on working with other individuals in their place of business, but also frequently call on outside consultants. Only in U.S. classrooms are individuals expected to find every answer, solve every problem, complete every task, and pass every test by relying solely on their own efforts and abilities.

The concept of cooperative/collaborative learning seeks to tap the potential that group interaction offers for learning and development. In its most formal manifestation, it places students-usually of varying levels of performance-into small groups in which they work together toward common goals. At the other end of the continuum is the more informal arrangement of peer tutoring, which has gained legitimacy as an effective form of cooperative/collaborative learning.

Those who advocate attending to students' varying learning styles note that some young people work best alone; others work most successfully with authority figures such as parents or teachers. In planning the use of various teaching strategies, teachers must be prepared to make adjustments according to the needs and learning styles of their students (Carbo, Dunn, & Dunn, 1986).

"So often teachers tell students to 'get along' or 'cooperate' but spend little time on skill practice and discussion of this basic human need," writes Robert Slavin (1986, p. 24). "Cooperative learning provides the teacher with a model to improve academic performance and socialization skills, and to instill democratic values. A wealth of research supports the idea that the consistent use of this technique improves students' academic performance and helps them become more caring." Slavin cites positive effects in such diverse areas as student achievement at various grade levels and subjects, intergroup relations, relationships between mainstreamed and normal-progress students, and student self-esteem.

David Johnson and Roger Johnson (1990), two veteran advocates of cooperation and collaboration in the classroom, note that people in general do not know instinctively how to interact effectively with others. If cooperative efforts in the classroom are to succeed, students must get to know and trust one another, communicate accurately and unambiguously, accept and support one another, and resolve conflicts constructively.

Some advocates of cooperative/collaborative learning suggest that students be periodically regrouped within heterogeneous classes. They also recognize the value of flexible grouping-that is, regrouping at various times by varying criteria for varying purposes, based on immediate needs. Their reasoning is as follows:

Small-group participation in various contexts for various purposes helps students recognize and learn to function effectively in a variety of social configurations.

Forming teams of students who perform at different levels of achievement not only encourages self-esteem and group pride, but also engenders general appreciation and understanding of how individuals differ from each other in attitudes, abilities, points of view, and approaches to problem solving.

Cooperative/collaborative learning has been incorporated in a variety of classrooms for a variety of purposes. Those applications have involved student-selected activities, apportioning specific elements of classroom projects or lessons, brainstorming, role playing, problem solving, developing awareness of thinking strategies used by oneself or by one's peers, common interests, group analyses, and team learning.

To implement a technique known as a circle of knowledge, for instance, a teacher organizes a class into small groups (circles) of four or five students each, appoints a recorder/reporter in each, poses to all a single question to which there are many possible answers, sets a time limit, expects each group member to contribute at least one answer, and then, after facilitating whole-class sharing and challenges, announces a winning group.

Another technique, the jigsaw, allows a teacher to assign specific components of a major learning project to small task-oriented groups; each group has only a piece of the larger picture under consideration. When all the groups have reported their findings to the entire class, every student has the opportunity to grasp the entire picture.

Peer conferencing and peer collaboration are two techniques that are particularly useful for teaching writing. They offer student writers the critical response of firsthand, face-to-face comments, help them discover what it is to write for an audience, and provide them with opportunities to improve their writing ability as they work on assignments and interact with their peers (Herrmann, 1989).

Cross-age and peer tutoring are other forms of student-to-student interaction. The age-old idea of tutoring has helped countless students. Many students identify with peers more easily than with adults, especially adult authority figures, and find it easier to model the behaviors of their peers than of their adult teachers. Finally, the one-to-one nature of peer tutoring offers immediate feedback, clarification, extension, and modification-usually in a nonthreatening social relationship (Webb, 1988).

Resources

Adams, 1990; Carbo, Dunn, & Dunn, 1986; Dunn & Dunn, 1993; Edmonds, 1991; Herrmann, 1989; Johnson & Johnson, 1986, 1990; Kilman & Richards, 1990; Knapp & Shields, 1990a, 1990b; Lehr & Harris, 1988; Slavin, 1986, 1987; Stevens, Madden, Slavin, & Farnish, 1987; Stover, 1993; Webb, 1988.

Jim had trouble writing effectively. To be sure, his sentences were complete and grammatical, the words in them spelled correctly, the syntax straightforward if prosaic. There was one overriding problem with Jim's writing: what he wrote didn't say much of anything. His content and purpose were not specific, precise, or clear. That fact led to a more personal problem for Jim: he had ceased to trust his teacher's judgments of his work. When the teacher observed that his writing wasn't clear, Jim balked. "You're just saying that," he blurted out. "What have you got against me?"

"I'll tell you what, Jim," said the teacher. "Write to me about something you know that I don't know anything about."

After considering two or three possibilities, Jim named a card game his teacher had never heard of.

"OK," the teacher agreed. "Write step-by-step instructions on how to play the game and bring them to me. I'll follow the instructions, and you can tell me whenever I make a mistake."

"Fair enough!" Jim said.

Jim wrote in his typical style, and his teacher followed the instructions as earnestly as possible. Step by frustrated step, Jim saw the game fall to pieces. He stopped the exercise midway through.

"Give me time for a rewrite," he said, determined as ever. This time, however, he was convinced that he had a problem with his writing, and he was armed with a clearer perception of what to do about it.

Provide students with real purposes and real audiences for their speaking and writing, and you offer them valuable feedback as well as increased motivation. Writing an essay on a topic assigned by the teacher to every member of the entire class lacks the punch and the credibility of writing a personal letter to an editor, a local politician, or a community activist to express a heartfelt compliment, complain about an injustice, or inquire about an important issue. Students derive no satisfaction from succeeding with a mindless, silly activity such as circling the silent E in a list of words. Such an activity has no relation to real reading and no link to real life.

Communicating with real people about real issues, feelings, and beliefs is further enhanced when the content and style of that writing are grounded in the outside reality that the student brings to school. No matter how gilded or gutted its location-in city, suburb, or countryside-the student's community and personal experiences are valuable resources to be explored. They are grounds for inquiry and learning-things that count most in any classroom!

Schema theory firmly undergirds the strategy of reality-based learning. It outlines the belief that individual facts and phenomena are best perceived, learned, and understood within the larger contexts of structure or process. The value of reality-based learning has been firmly documented in the language arts-in reading and writing as well as in the understanding and appreciation of literature. It bridges school and home, classroom and clubhouse, hallway and street.

Extending the recognition and use of authentic purposes, materials, and content into any subject area helps ensure that learning experiences are meaningful and satisfying. Thus maps, directions, brochures, and directories find a comfortable home in English classes, and community surveys in math classes.

Ideas proliferate in every school-real problems to solve, real issues to resolve: how to manage recycling in the school cafeteria; how to make hallways safer and more hospitable; what to do about truancy or dropouts; whether to lock school doors and when. Problems awaiting study lie just outside the walls of virtually any school in the United States: traffic patterns; paths for bicyclists, joggers, or rollerbladers; recreational needs and resources for young people; the needs of and services for an aging population.

The combined processes of analyzing real problems and then suggesting solutions to them not only motivate learners, but also enable them to range in their thinking processes from recognizing information they need in the resources available to them, to gathering relevant information, to summarizing ideas, to generating potential solutions, and finally to analyzing the consequences and effectiveness of their solutions.

Reality-based learning counters the common notion that many students suffer from "cultural deprivation" and bring no educationally worthwhile experiences to school. "A more worthwhile approach ... might be to examine the relationship between what particular groups of children know or how they learn and pedagogical practices," suggests Etta Ruth Hollins (1993, p. 93). "An improvement in teachers' understanding of how to build on and extend the knowledge and skills these children bring to school, rather than attempting to force the children to fit existing school practices, might get better results."

Resources

Bloome, 1976, 1985; Danehower, 1993; Hall, 1989; Hollins, 1993; Knapp & Turnbull, 1990; Lozanov & Gateva, 1988; Marzano et al., 1988; Marzano et al., 1992; Palincsar & Klenk, 1991; Palincsar, Ransom, & Derber, 1989/1990; Resnick, 1987; Richardson, 1988; Rowan, Guthrie, Lee, & Guthrie, 1986; U.S. Department of Labor, 1992; Walmsley & Walp, 1990.

Lynn Cherkasky-Davis (1993) described a collaborative project at the Foundations School (part of the Chicago Public Schools): an original version of the opera Aida, written, produced, costumed, rehearsed, and staged by students. What did that culminating event represent? It represented what the students had learned about the history, geography, sociology, culture, and drama of ancient Egypt, topics that over preceding weeks both nourished and fed on every subject area in the curriculum.

How useful might it be for a student to know something about the economics and the technology of 19th century New England whaling before reading Moby-Dick -and what better opportunity to merge the talents and interests inherent in the respective teachers of social studies, science, and language arts?

How might a thoughtful reading of Aldous Huxley's Brave New World illuminate issues, arguments, and ideas as diverse as eugenics, Malthusian economics, and the perceived amorality of modern mores and technology-again using convergent elements of separate disciplines?

Rarely, if ever, do we live our lives outside of school according to academic pigeonholes. We don't switch to a different frame of reference or way of doing things every 20 or 40 or 60 minutes. Even a well-executed shopping trip to the supermarket is an interdisciplinary experience! Scheduling, timing, planning, measuring, counting, reading, identifying, describing, comparing, assessing, affording, budgeting-not to mention spatial orientation, nutrition, and considerations of quality of life-all come into play within a single trip. Consciously or unconsciously, by the time we have negotiated our way from home through traffic to parking lot, then aisle to aisle to the checkout lane and home again, we have routinely called on the skills and content of every basic academic discipline that schools have to offer.

Most interdisciplinary teaching is not nearly so eclectic nor so involved. Just the same, such teaching does cross traditional subject-area lines and typically involves professional teamwork. It can incorporate into a social studies unit samples of literature and art produced during a given period or by a particular society. Ask students to interpret the samples in light of a specific social context, or to infer specific characteristics of the society from their observations and interpretations. Then let them compare their interpretations with those of their peers, and finally with written records from that period or society.

As another example, how about having students study the social impact of a given scientific or technological development at the same time they are becoming acquainted with the science or technology itself? Mathematics is a natural for interdisciplinary learning. Solving its problems can depend heavily on reading skills. Not only is math an integral component in scientific processes; it also plays an appealing role in creating puzzles, music, and architecture.

Interdisciplinary projects promote thinking strategies that cross content areas and transfer solidly into real-life applications-analytical observation, for instance, or critical thinking, comparison and contrast, evaluation, perspective, and judgment. The teacher's role includes supporting those processes and helping students, through practice, to become aware of them and comfortable in using them.

Probably no other interdisciplinary approach has won greater acceptance, especially in the earlier grades, than that which has integrated five "basic skills"-reading, writing, listening, speaking, and mathematics-into one holistic classroom enterprise. Dorothy Strickland (1985) has itemized how simply and obviously such integration can be attained. Reading, for instance, can serve as model and motivation for writing that classmates can share by listening to such spoken activities as storytelling, reporting, oral composition, poetry, and dramatic readings. Reading skills also give a student access to information required in solving mathematical problems, and they play a major role in the interpretation of tables, charts, and graphs.

The "whole language" approach to instruction in reading and the language arts is a salutary example of how "disciplines" once viewed and taught as essentially discrete and separate from each other-that is, reading, writing, speaking, and listening-can easily be explored as interwoven threads in a single, unified tapestry of individual development.

Resources

Cherkasky-Davis, 1993; Jacobs, 1991; Marzano et al., 1988; Paris, Wasik, & Turner, 1991; Strickland, 1985; U.S. Department of Labor, 1992.

In collecting lunch money, the 1st grade teacher discovered that 8 of her 20 students had apparently brought their lunches to school with them. Rather than simply filing that observation mentally under "classroom administrivia," she posed a question to her class: "Twelve of you brought lunch money today. Knowing that, how many of you apparently brought your own lunches to school with you?"

"Some got out blocks," Mary Lindquist reported. "Some got out toy figures, some used number lines, some used their fingers, and some just thought through it. There were 10 or 12 different solutions, and each child wanted to explain his or her own way."

Students passively memorizing a single arithmetic procedure? Not at all. Instead, students actively involved in problem solving, whether or not they agreed on their methods and results.

"Most of us can remember sitting in a math class at one time or another thinking, 'When in the world am I ever going to use this?'" Lindquist commented. Mary Lindquist, then president of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, recounted the anecdote during an interview for an article that appeared in Better Homes and Gardens (Atkins, 1993). "Rote memorization is not preparing our children for the future. Kids need to use and understand math."

"By far, the highest percentage of students are tactile/kinesthetic," writes Angela Bruno (1982), "and when these youngsters manipulate hands-on materials they tend to remember more of the required information than through the use of any other sense."

There are several other reasons why students should be allowed to construct their own understandings, generate their own analyses, and create their own solutions to problems:

It is neither engaging nor authentic to understand a fact or a situation exactly as someone else understands it. In real life, we build our own understandings to supplement, change, or confirm for ourselves what we already think we know or what others offer us in knowledge or ideas.

Teachers promote interest and engagement when they let students address problems for which answers do not exist or are not readily apparent. Students then have real purposes for discovering and applying information and for using all the strategies that might possibly apply and that are available to them.

Students who are intrinsically motivated and substantially engaged because of interest in meaningful learning activities are more likely to achieve high levels of performance than those for whom the completion of learning activities is simply a means of avoiding punishment.

Integrated throughout the school day and in every area of the curriculum, the range of active learning experiences includes games, simulations, role playing, creative dramatics, pantomime, storytelling, drawing, and contests that demonstrate integration of concepts and allow students to experience the ways in which concepts relate to each other in the world outside school. Other hands-on, tactile materials and activities include Cuisenaire rods, measuring cups, blocks and cubes, task cards, flip charts, field trips, and laboratory experiences. Many advocates suggest strongly that students be allowed to select for themselves those activities in which they will become involved.

Resources

Atkins, 1993; Brown, 1990; Bruno, 1982; Cohen, 1992; Hartshorn & Boren, 1990; Hodges, 1994; Joyner, 1990; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1989; Roser, 1987; Strickland & Morrow, 1989.

Everyone knows that there are all kinds of people: thinkers and doers, audiences and actors, readers and viewers, athletes and couch potatoes. (At least one venerated 6th grade music teacher routinely divided her class into singers and listeners.) Probably no other approach attempts to accommodate differences among individual students in greater detail than does that body of thought given the general rubric of learning styles.

David Kolb (Boyatzis & Kolb, 1991) identifies four predominant learning styles. Imaginative learners, he says, excel in watching, sensing, and feeling; analytic learners, in watching and thinking; common-sense learners, in thinking and doing; and dynamic learners, in doing, sensing, and feeling.

Anthony Gregorc (1982, 1985a, 1985b) identifies four basic processes by which individuals differ in their learning patterns: (1) a concrete-sequential process characterized as structured, practical, predictable, and thorough; (2) an abstract-sequential process-logical, analytical, conceptual, and studious; (3) an abstract-random process-sensitive, sociable, imaginative, and expressive; and (4) a concrete-random process-intuitive, original, investigative, and able to solve problems.

In his highly regarded theory of multiple intelligences, Howard Gardner (1999) outlined eight different aspects by which individuals can come to know the world: linguistic, logical/mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily/ kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist.

Addressing perennial debates about the best approach to teaching reading-phonics, whole language, sight vocabulary, and so forth-Marie Carbo (1987) writes that "any one of a dozen reading methods is 'best' if it enables a child to learn to read with facility and enjoyment" (p. 56).

No matter how much they echo or differ from each other, all descriptions of learning styles are simply attempts to define and accommodate the manner in which a given student learns most readily. The theory holds that learning styles develop through the unique interactions of biology, experience, personal interests, talents, and energy. A task force commissioned by the National Association of Secondary School Principals considered the many factors that can significantly shape an individual's learning style and selected 24 for further study; these range from "perceptual responses," "field dependence/independence," and "successive/simultaneous processing" to "persistence," "environmental elements," and "need for mobility."

Whatever the ultimate taxonomy of learning styles, it seems obvious that although all children can learn, each concentrates, processes, absorbs, and remembers new and difficult information differently. According to Rita and Kenneth Dunn (1993), the factors involved include the following:

Immediate environment-for example, noise level, temperature, amount of light, furniture type, and room design.

Emotional profile-for example, degree of motivation, persistence, responsibility, and need for structure and feedback.

Sociological needs-for example, learning alone or with peers, learning with adults present, learning in groups.

Physical characteristics-for example, perceptual strengths (auditory, visual, tactile, kinesthetic), best time of day for learning, potential need for periodic nourishment and mobility.

Psychological inclination-for example, global and analytic strengths.

In the most formal model of matching instruction to learning style, teachers first identify each individual student's style through observation, interview, or questionnaire. They share their observations individually with students and parents, and then plan and carry out an appropriate learning program for that child. The program includes compatible instructional practices and management strategies appropriate to what has been observed about the child's learning style. A less formal approach is to emphasize strategies that capitalize on the styles of most students, while accommodating those whose style differs markedly from the group.

Thus, instruction that attends to learning or reading styles capitalizes on an individual student's strengths and preferences while simultaneously removing barriers to learning. Instructional planning extends to such complementary methods, materials, and techniques as floor games, choices among reading materials and ways of receiving or presenting information, and participation in given activities (that is, with the entire class, in a small group, or alone). No one learning style is considered better or worse than any other (Carbo & Hodges, 1988; Hodges, 1994).

Research in learning styles and reading styles indicates that teaching academic underachievers in ways that complement their strengths in style has significantly increased their standardized test scores in reading and across subject areas.

Resources

Andrews, 1990, 1991; Bauer, 1991; Boyatzis & Kolb, 1991; Brunner & Majewski, 1990; Butler, 1984; Carbo, 1987; Carbo & Hodges, 1988; Dunn & Dunn, 1993; Gardner, 1999; Gardner & Hatch, 1989; Garrett, 1991; Gregorc, 1982, 1985a, 1985b; Hodges, 1994; Lewis & Steinberger, 1991; Orsak, 1990; Perrin, 1990.

Dorothy had tried for weeks to get her 6th graders to open up in class discussions. After years of traditional teaching, however (that is, the teacher asking the questions and one or two students offering "right" or "wrong" answers), her students were predictably passive. They consistently resisted all her attempts to open up her classroom. On the rare occasions when an intrepid student asked a question in return or dared to offer a comment, the eyes of every student in the room swung immediately and automatically to Dorothy for her verdict: right or wrong?

Then, quite by chance, Dorothy happened on a life-sized human figure made of cardboard. She realized at once that it was the very thing she needed to make her point. The following day, she launched a classroom discussion and popped a direct question to see if any of her students would volunteer a response.

Kathy did volunteer-tentatively, of course, and with just a word or two-but her response seemed to the class to merit a judgment from the teacher. All eyes fell in silence on Dorothy. Without saying a word, Dorothy walked to her closet, pulled out the cardboard figure, and set it in the chair behind her desk. With every eye following her in amazement, she sat down beside Kathy and stared silently at the cardboard figure, waiting like her students for its response.

Dorothy was modeling the behavior she saw in her students-behavior she was hoping they would overcome. They got the point! The humor in the situation engaged their trust, demonstrated Dorothy's sincerity as a teacher, and dramatized their responsibility as participants in their own learning. Class discussions began to pick up, and Dorothy found fewer and fewer occasions to pull her cardboard counterpart out of the closet.

Most modeling, of course, is intended to work the other way around-that is, teachers usually behave as they would have their students behave. Learners gain when teachers practice what they preach, try out ideas in front of the class, or even participate actively in projects or tasks with the class.

When modeling, teachers-regardless of their subject area-follow the same assignments or suggestions that they give their students: they write on the same topics, figure out the same problems, play the same games, and ask themselves the same questions. And they do so in full view and hearing of their students, often as coparticipants in small-group activities, or one-to-one with a student.

The practice is neither demeaning nor condescending. Instead, it dramatizes desired behavior, one of the surest means available to demonstrate process, motivate and guide students, and help develop perspective on a given task or concept. As a teacher, let your students hear you think aloud. Teachers who share thoughts on how they have completed a certain task or arrived at a particular conclusion help students become aware of their own thinking strategies.

Modeling enables teachers to furnish appropriate cues and reminders that help students apply particular problem-solving processes or complete specific tasks-in storytelling, for instance, or inquiry, or evaluation. Among such techniques, scaffolding is one of the most generic and useful approaches. Scaffolding is a device by which the teacher builds on the point of reference at which a student hesitates or leaves off-in telling a story, in explaining a process, in seeking an answer, in any moment of discourse, analysis, or explanation. In scaffolding, the teacher simply suggests the next step, both reinforcing what the student has already achieved and guiding the student to greater understanding or accomplishment.

More generally, Costa and Marzano (1987) identify seven starting points by which teachers can create a classroom "language of cognition":

Using precise vocabulary.

Posing critical and interpretive questions, rather than simple recall.

Providing data, not solutions.

Giving directions.

Probing for specificity.

Modeling metacognitive processes.

Analyzing the logic of language.

"Most teachers put too much emphasis on facts and right answers and too little attention on how to interpret those facts," writes school administrator Robert Burroughs (1993), commenting specifically on the teaching of literature. "The result has been growth in basic literacy at the expense of thoughtfulness. ..."

Burroughs outlines specific preferred techniques among those he has seen teachers use to guide learning processes and thus structure growth in understanding and appreciation. The techniques are adaptable to discourse, inquiry, or discussion in any subject area:

Focusing-refocusing students' efforts at refining their own responses if, for instance, they begin wandering from the specific content at hand.

Modifying or shaping-rephrasing a student's idea in slightly different language; for instance, if a student suggests that a character in a novel is resisting change, the teacher might add a word or two to encourage consideration of other explanations for the character's behavior.

Hinting-calling attention to a passage in the text that challenges a student's view.

Summarizing-restating ideas to bring them to everyone's attention and to spur discussion, or summarizing various positions students have taken along the way (1993, pp. 27-29).

Resources

Burroughs, 1993; Costa & Marzano, 1987; Langer, 1991; Marzano et al., 1988; Paris, Wasik, & Turner, 1991; Rosenshine & Meister, 1992; Vygotsky, 1962, 1978.

"What a beautiful horse!" said the city-bred dude. "How much is it worth?"

"Depends if you're buyin' or sellin'," answered the cowhand.

"Thinking cannot be divorced from content," writes Carr (1988). "In fact, thinking is a way of learning content. In every course, and especially in content subjects, students should be taught to think logically, analyze and compare, question and evaluate. Skills taught in isolation do little more than prepare students for tests of isolated skills."

If any of the ideas at work described in this chapter challenges the conventional wisdom of classroom practice, it is this notion: students, regardless of their performance levels, are capable of using higher-order thinking skills. This concept contrasts sharply with the attitude and practice of the high school English teacher who, on the first day of school, gave all 125 of her seniors a writing assignment. She collected and corrected their papers; pointed out the various lapses in spelling, grammar, and punctuation; and then used those errors to justify an unproductive, unchallenging year spent reviewing the same sterile exercises in spelling, grammar, and punctuation that her students had seen countless times before.

No one condones faulty grammar and inaccurate spelling, of course. At the same time, however (and far more important), teachers need not wait until students have mastered basic skills before they introduce the more complex skills of analysis, synthesis, criticism, and metacognition into their classroom routines. The process of gathering information, evaluating it critically, drawing inferences, and arriving at logical conclusions is based on evidence, and evidence can be expressed and recognized by many different means and in many different formats. Yes, every student should learn to spell accurately, but it is not necessary to know that I comes before E except after C in order to test fairness or bias in an editorial statement or to detect straightforwardness or ambiguity in a politician's promise.

Wiggins (1992) notes that tests typically overassess students' knowledge and underassess their know-how. Onosko (1992) reports measurable "climates of thoughtfulness" in the classrooms of social studies teachers who reflect on their own practices, who value thinking, and who emphasize depth over breadth in content coverage.

Carr (1988) and others suggest various ways by which to introduce and pursue higher-order thinking skills in the classroom. For example, using all major news media-newspapers, magazines, television, and radio-motivates students, and comparing different accounts of the same story helps them develop questioning attitudes. "In the process," writes Carr, "they become more discriminating consumers of news media, advertising, and entertainment."

"All classification tasks," she notes, "require identification of attributes and sorting into categories according to some rule. While sorting concrete objects is an appropriate activity for the young child, verbal analogies (for example, 'How are a diamond and an egg alike?') are appropriate for learners of any age. ... Applications to mathematics and science, especially the inquiry approach to science, are readily apparent."

"Schema theory," she continues, "holds that information, if it is to be retained, must be categorized with something already stored in memory. Brainstorming techniques that aid comprehension ... help students to access their prior knowledge about a topic to be introduced, and thus to classify and retain the new information."

Children's literature becomes its own powerful tool, Carr concludes, citing Somers and Worthington (1979): "Literature offers children more opportunities than any other area of the curriculum to consider ideas, values, and ethical questions."

Just how seriously should Chicken Little's neighbors have taken her complaint that the sky was falling? Why? Why not? Was it fair for the Little Red Hen to keep all the bread she had baked for herself? How true is it that sticks and stones can break your bones, but names will never hurt you? Why does a rolling stone gather no moss? If water is heavier than air, how do raindrops get up in the sky? How does science differ from art, music from noise, wisdom from fact?

What is truth?

Resources

Adams, 1986; Bransford, Sherwood, Vye, & Rieser, 1986; Carr, 1988; Chi, Bassok, Lewis, Reimann, & Glaser, 1989; Lambert, 1990; Onosko, 1992; Paul, 1984; Rosenshine & Meister, 1992; Somers & Worthington, 1979; Wiggins, 1992.

Multiculturalism doesn't mean what it used to mean in education in the United States. Adding a speech by Martin Luther King Jr. to the literature anthology and offering parental instructions in Spanish-both good ideas in their own right-simply do not go far enough anymore. Teaching multiculturally throughout the curriculum is more than simply an attempt to combat racism. The more important aim of studying human cultures in all their diversity is to understand what it is to be human.

Unfortunately, such study has too often been skewed to a single perspective while more inclusive perspectives have been labeled as somehow disloyal to the American tradition. The fact that racism is so prevalent in American society has until recently led many theorists to concentrate primarily on the study of specific ethnic groups, on their characteristics and unique contributions to the more general culture-usually described from a Euro-American or Anglo-American point of view.

By contrast, the history of the United States is actually the history of all the cultures that it comprises. Until recently, multicultural education has focused mostly on minority groups, even though Euro-Americans and Anglo-Americans also spring from a culture that was not originally and purely "American." Such skewing sets up the fallacy that Euro- and Anglo-American descendants are the "real" Americans while all others, particularly people of color, are culturally "different."

Classroom instruction in a multicultural context is enhanced when it involves students in learning about themselves first-through oral history projects, for example, in which children involve their parents, grandparents, and other older, living adults who can relate information about family backgrounds and histories. Shared in the classroom, such information becomes a powerful tool both for identifying similarities among students and for highlighting how they differ from one another in positive rather than negative ways.

In short, teaching multiculturally cultivates a school culture that celebrates diversity; supports mutual acceptance of, respect for, and understanding of all human differences; and provides a balanced viewpoint on key issues involved in such teaching. It provides students with a global, international perspective on the world in which they live. It seeks to eliminate racial, ethnic, cultural, and gender stereotypes and to resolve or ameliorate problems associated with racism and prejudice. And it underscores the importance of teaching ethics, values, and citizenship in promoting the democratic heritage of the United States.

Resources

Au & Kawakami, 1985; Banks, 1990; Bennett, 1986; Bloom, 1985; Collins, 1988; Dillon, 1989; Fullinwider, 1993; Hall, 1989; Hollins, 1993; Kendall, 1983; Quellmalz & Hoskyn, 1988; Taylor & Dorsey-Gaines, 1988; Tiedt & Tiedt, 1986.

The student report card is no longer the primary measure of success in schooling. The general vocabulary of education in the United States now includes a whole range of assessment terms: adequate yearly progress, SAT, standardized tests, norms, criterion references, outcomes, portfolios, and on and on. Little wonder that teachers and administrators feel pressured by the demands of "assessment" and harried by the clamor and misunderstanding that surround the term today.

Various modes of assessment yield critical and useful information to inform and shape tools and methods that promise to improve academic achievement. "Why do we evaluate students?" ask Rasbow and Hernandez (1988). Among the answers are to determine the following:

If objectives have been achieved.

The knowledge and skills that students have acquired.

Areas in which the curriculum needs improvement.

The effectiveness of a teaching process or methodology.

Student responses to specific aspects of the curriculum.

Students' ability to use knowledge and skills.

Evaluations are also used to do the following:

Design instruction for individuals, groups, or entire classes.

Diagnose a student's level of understanding before recommending further instruction on a given topic.

Gather information on the quality of the learning environment.

Guide the direction of future study.

Summarize an activity, topic, or unit of work.

Provide a basis for extra help where needed.

Identify the most useful information to communicate to students and parents.

Traditional assessment techniques and instruments for filling one or another of those roles are as familiar to most teachers as they are widespread in use: the National Assessment of Educational Progress, the SAT, norm- and criterion-referenced tests (some mandated by state legislatures, and even by the federal government), standardized tests in specific subject areas (the Stanford, the California, and the Metropolitan, among others), performance scales, and checklists. And, of course, among teacher-made instruments, examples include the essay exam and the ubiquitous multiple-choice test.

Researchers and curriculum specialists have emphasized the power of various alternative methods of assessment, such as the following:

Exhibitions or demonstrations that serve as culminating activities in a student's learning experience.

Observation and analysis of hands-on or open-ended experiences.

Portfolios (collections of records, letters of reference, samples of work, sometimes even including videotapes of student performance or task accomplishment-in fact, any evidence that appropriately documents a student's skills, capabilities, and past experiences).

If two of the primary purposes of assessment are to determine whether the goals of education are being met and to inform various stakeholders of the progress of education, then assessment techniques should be sufficiently varied to perform these functions as appropriately and accurately as possible. Those goals vary, after all, from broad national goals to the individual teacher's lesson plan. They encompass diagnoses of ability or style in teaching and learning, measurements of proficiency and achievement of individual students or entire classes, and the effectiveness of entire schools, districts, state systems, or national programs. The audiences for assessments may include students, teachers, parents, policymakers, colleges, and businesses. Some assessments serve gatekeeping roles-college admission tests, for instance.

Some assessment methods reflect some of what we have come to realize are preferred teaching practices; consequently, they contain activities that are congruent with and that support good instruction. They tend to invite diverse responses and to promote a range of thinking-hands-on science and mathematics problem-solving activities, for example. In some cases, assessment tasks may extend over several days, allowing students to reflect on their work, to polish and revise it. Some assessments give students the opportunity to respond in any of several ways, including writing, drawing, and making charts or graphic organizers.

In general, trends indicate that alternative assessment tends to do the following:

Use a variety of progress indicators, such as projects, writing samples, interviews, and observations.

Focus on an individual's progress over time rather than on one-time performance within a group.

Bring teachers into conference with students about their work and progress, helping students to evaluate themselves by perceiving the results of their own work.

Resources

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1992; Buechler, 1992; Grace, 1992; Hewitt, 1993; Johnson, 1993; Lockwood, 1991; Marzano et al., 1992; Marzano, Pickering, & McTighe, 1993; Perrone, 1991; Rasbow & Hernandez, 1988; Schnitzer, 1993; Sweet & Zimmerman, 1992; Worthen, 1993.

Years ago, the professionals at Harlem Park Middle School in Baltimore realized the vital importance of taking parental involvement seriously. They added three parent coordinators to their staff and located them full-time in the neighborhoods the school serves rather than in the school building itself. Living and working in those neighborhoods, the coordinators helped to fight a steady rise in the school's dropout rate by teaching parents how to keep their children in school, help with homework, keep track of progress, and work with school representatives before a crisis develops.

In Mesa, Arizona, school officials recognized that parenthood is 18 years of on-the-job training. So they organized a "Parent University," filling a Saturday schedule with 40 workshops ranging from creative art activities for preschoolers, to helping young people survive junior high, to financing a college education. More than 800 people attended (Education Leaders Consortium, 1989).

The list of ways in which school people have come to grips with the need to bring home and school together for the good of the children varies widely across the United States, limited only by the resourcefulness and imagination of the people in each school and district.

Epstein (1989) outlines several broad avenues by which parents and schools can share in a child's development. Parents have the basic obligation to provide food, clothing, and shelter; to ensure a child's general health and safety; and to provide child rearing and home training. But parents can also provide school supplies, a place for schoolwork at home, and positive home conditions for learning. The school, in turn, is obliged to communicate to the home such important information as school calendars; schedules; notices of special events, school goals, programs, and services; school rules, codes, and policies; report cards, grades, test scores, and informal evaluations; and the availability of parent/teacher conferences.

Parents can be directly involved in the work of the school: assisting teachers and students with lessons; chaperoning class trips; participating in classroom activities; aiding administrators, teachers, and school staff in the school cafeteria, library, laboratories, and workshops; organizing parent groups in fund-raising, community relations, political awareness, and program development; attending student assemblies, sports events, and special presentations; and participating in workshops, discussion groups, and training sessions. Parents can involve themselves in learning activities at home by developing a child's social and personal skills and by contributing to basic-skills education, development of advanced skills, and enrichment.

In governance and advocacy, parents can assume decision-making roles in parent-teacher organizations, on advisory councils, or through other committees and groups at the school, district, or state levels. They can become activists in monitoring schools and by working for school improvement.

Among private philanthropic organizations, the Rockefeller Foundation funded a $3 million effort to launch a project that incorporated the pioneering practices of James Comer, a child psychiatrist at Yale University. The Comer Model is based on the belief that parental involvement is the cornerstone of effective and responsible school change. Comer maintains that one cannot separate academic development from the child's social and cultural background. Thus one of several programs within the project has emphasized a school's obligation to work cooperatively with parents and mental health professionals in meeting the needs of children.

Williams and Chavkin (1989) report that successful home/school programs tend to share seven characteristics: (1) they are guided by written policies; (2) they enjoy administrative support; (3) they include training of staff, parents, or both; (4) they take a partnership approach; (5) they maintain two-way communications; (6) they encourage networking; and (7) they are constantly informed and reshaped by project evaluation.

Having abstracted and reviewed nearly 50 studies of home/school cooperation, Henderson (1987) reached the following conclusions:

The family provides the primary educational environment.

Involving parents in their children's formal education improves student achievement.

Parent involvement is most effective when it is comprehensive, long-lasting, and well planned.

The benefits of family involvement are not confined to early childhood or the elementary levels of schooling; strong effects result from involving parents continuously throughout high school. Henderson also concluded that involving parents in their own children's education at home is not enough. To ensure the quality of schools as institutions serving the community, parents must be involved at all levels of schooling. Moreover, children from low-income and minority families have the most to gain when schools involve parents. Parents can help, regardless of their level of formal education.

We cannot look at the school and the home in isolation from one another. We must see how they interconnect with each other and with the world at large.

Resources

Becher, 1984; Comer, 1980; Education Leaders Consortium, 1989; Epstein, 1987, 1989; Epstein & Dauber, 1991; Goodson & Hess, 1975; Henderson, 1987; Leler, 1983; Steinberg, 1988; U.S. Department of Education, 1990; Williams & Chavkin, 1989.

In Empowering the Spectrum of Your Mind, Colin Rose (1985) declares that most of us are probably using only 4 percent of the enormous potential of our brains. "The more you use your brain," he maintains, "and the more facts and experience you store, the more associations and connections you make. Therefore, the easier it is to remember and learn yet more new material."

Once considered appropriate for use almost exclusively with students identified as gifted and talented, accelerated learning has come to be regarded as effective with students of any level of performance or ability. How does one "accelerate learning"? What is the theory behind the phrase? Rose (1985) begins with a seemingly obvious fact: no learning can take place without memory. How does one best encode things into memory? By creating concrete images of sights, sounds, and feelings, and by the strong association of one image with another. The stronger the original encoding, the better the ultimate recall. "To achieve good memory," Rose writes, "you need to link a series of facts or ideas together, so that when one is remembered, it triggers recall for a whole series of others."

Thus, an ideal learning pattern involves the following steps:

Immediate rehearsal of new facts in the short term.

Repetition or testing of the facts a few minutes later.

Review of the facts an hour later.

A short recap of them after a night's rest. (Sleep appears to help memorization; new information is reviewed during REM-rapid eye movement-sleep.)

Short review a week later.

Short review a month later.

Rose claims that such a schedule of learning can enable the recall of up to 88 percent of the new information an individual receives-four times better than the usual rate of recall.

Among techniques recommended by advocates of accelerated learning are the following:

Chunking, that is, reducing new information to manageable bits-a chunk no longer than seven words or seven digits, for instance.

Use of music and rhyme as aids to memory.

Peripheral learning and the use of memory maps to encourage association, and thus recall.

Encoding as specifically as possible by principles rather than through isolated examples by rote.

Psychiatrist Georgi Lozanov (Lozanov & Gateva, 1988) urges maintaining an upbeat classroom presentation at all times, with constant attention to physical surroundings, self-esteem, goals and outcomes, competition, right and wrong answers, and individual learning styles, expectations, and outcomes.

Resources

Galyean, 1983; Levin, 1988a, 1988b, 1991a, 1991b; Lozanov & Gateva, 1988; Means & Knapp, 1991; Pritchard & Taylor, 1980; Richardson, 1988; Rose, 1985; Russell, 1975; Schuster, 1985.

The classroom "discussion" dragged on. Predictably, the teacher asked one factual-recall question after another about the short story at hand. Each question invariably elicited a right-or-wrong answer from one, and sometimes two, student volunteers. Then the teacher reached that point in the story where the main character faced what seemed like a life-or-death personal dilemma. "I wonder how many of you have ever faced such a situation," the teacher remarked offhandedly. Hands shot up all around the room, some flapping in urgency. "Oh, my! I'm afraid I've touched some raw nerves," the teacher exclaimed. "Let me withdraw the question." All the raised hands dropped. So did the students' attention to the topic.

That teacher couldn't have read Lehr and Harris's At-Risk, Low-Achieving Students in the Classroom (1988). The authors suggest (and their suggestions are well supported by research) how even the timeless classroom practice of questions from the teacher can be adapted to elicit individual involvement rather than passive response. They also show how to follow through for even greater student participation and response. Their advice, in part, includes the following suggestions (pp. 43-44):

Structure questions so that students can succeed.

Encourage students to respond. (Most teachers answer two-thirds of their own questions.)

Ask questions in all modes. (Most questions are asked at the level of basic recall or recognition. Questioning that is more complex increases student achievement.)

Pause. The number and quality of student answers increase when teachers provide wait time of three to five seconds after asking a question. Appropriate wait time is particularly important in teaching low achievers. Some higher-level questions might require as much as 15 to 20 seconds of wait time.

Call on students randomly, but be sure not to forget the low achiever.

If a student's response is vague, call for clarification or elaboration-for example, "Tell me more." Probe students to encourage higher levels of thinking.

Encourage students to develop and ask their own questions, thus increasing their opportunities for thinking.

Use techniques that require students to pose their own questions and to make discoveries on their own. For example, ask students in a science class to make predictions, based on their own experiences, before a demonstration or an experiment. The processes of observing, comparing, and describing are as important as the product.

Other studies of questioning techniques suggest that teachers break the total content of their questioning into bits small enough so that students are assured of being able to answer at least three-quarters of the questions correctly. They urge a high proportion of questions that are well beyond mere factual recall-questions that encourage interpretation or that challenge critical thinking.

Questioning need not simply follow a lesson or an assignment as a means of checking to see if students have completed or understood it. Reading specialists, for instance, have long advocated the use of prereading questioning techniques, using teacher- or student-generated questions to develop background knowledge, to preview key concepts, and to set purposes for the reading. Questioning after reading should provide students with opportunities to practice or rehearse what they have learned from the text, as well as increase associations between textual information and their own background knowledge ("Questioning Promotes," 1987).

To stimulate student discussions, Dillon (1984) suggests a three-step process:

Carefully formulate one or two questions to get the discussion going.

From then on, ask questions only when perplexed and genuinely in need of more information.

Then make more statements that present facts or opinions, reflect students' opinions to them, register confusion, or invite elaboration and student-to-student exchanges.

Student-generated questions and student-led discussions give students a higher stake and interest in their classroom activities and learning. Framing their own questions requires young people to interact with the meaning of content or text from a variety of perspectives. Generating their own questions, they support and challenge each other and recognize the social aspects of exploring the meaning of what they encounter in reading or in other learning activities.

Teachers need to model effective questioning and discussion strategies, including how to interact with others as well as how to think about and discuss text or content. Touch a raw nerve now and then-not to aggravate, but to stimulate!

Resources

Adams, 1986; Carlsen, 1991; Dillon, 1984; Goatley & Raphael, 1992; Lehr & Harris, 1988; "Questioning Promotes," 1987; Roberts & Zody, 1989; "Teachers' Questions," 1987.

Think of your most recent drink of water. Exactly what steps did you follow in taking it? What facts, what prior experiences, what understandings did you call on? It's been estimated that you performed 50 or so actions while taking that drink of water. Did you think of all 50-that is, did you bring any of them, in isolation, to the forefront of your consciousness while drinking?

Probably not. Your brain handled all the necessary steps for you! At the same time, your brain was probably helping you consider your plans for the weekend, reminding you of the slight soreness in your left thumb, telling you it was a warm afternoon, and juggling countless other "programs"-chains of thought needed to accomplish some foreseen goal, whether soaking your thumb or quenching your thirst (Della Neve et al., 1986).

Brain-compatible instruction builds on the notion that the human brain operates as an incredibly powerful parallel processor, always doing many different things simultaneously (Caine & Caine, 1991). The brain is capable of such a vast number and array of functions that its functioning can be visualized most easily only in terms of programs and patterns-one program, perhaps, for getting a glass of water at the kitchen sink, a different program for sipping from the water fountain outside your classroom door.

How does the brain differentiate among the vast array of programs it stores? By recognizing an apparently endless number and variety of patterns among them. Thus "brain-compatible instruction defines learning as the acquisition of useful programs," write Della Neve and her colleagues (1986). "The human brain is exceedingly intricate. For educational purposes, however, what counts is a broad, holistic understanding of what the brain is for (it did not evolve to pass tests or fill in worksheets), its principal architecture, its main drives, and its way of relating to the real world."

Carnine (1990) describes some of the misunderstandings that can result in teachers, students, or both after "brain-antagonistic" instruction:

Very young children know that the name of an object stays the same even after the orientation of the object has changed. For example, when a chair is turned to face the opposite direction, it remains a chair.

Consequently, in preschool, when a b is flipped to face the opposite direction, children often assume that it still goes by the name of b. Making this error doesn't necessarily imply that a student's visual brain function is weak or that the student would benefit from a kinesthetic approach to learning lowercase letters. Extensive research has shown that students are more likely to confuse objects and symbols that share visual or auditory sameness, such as b and d.

In solving simple computation problems, such as 24 + 13, 1st graders learn that they can start with the bottom number in the units column or with the top number: 4 + 3 equals 7, and so does 3 + 4. The sameness they note is that these problems can be worked in either direction, from top to bottom or the reverse.

Soon thereafter come subtraction problems, such as 24 - 13. Students can still apply the sameness learned in addition, thinking of the difference between 4 and 3 or between 3 and 4 and always subtracting the smaller number from the larger. However, when students encounter a problem such as 74 - 15, applying the sameness noted earlier leads them to subtract the smaller from the larger number and come up with the answer 61. Such a mistake is a sensible application of a mislearned sameness. ...

"The brain's search for samenesses," Carnine concludes, "has little regard for the intentions of educators." At the same time, he notes that although the brain's relentless search for patterns helps explain certain common student misconceptions, it can also help educators develop more effective classroom activities.

Della Neve and her colleagues at Drew Elementary School developed their own seven principles, which serve as focal points to guide teachers in designing and implementing brain-compatible instruction:

1. Create a nonthreatening climate.

2. Input lots of raw material from which students can extract patterns-a vast array of activities, aided by an ample supply of materials, equipment, and print and audiovisual resources.

3. Emphasize genuine communication in talking, listening, writing, and reading as ways to interact with other people.

4. Encourage lots of manipulation of materials. Students need to be in command and able to push things around, encouraging them to work toward goals and explore a range of means.

5. Emphasize reality. By using problems, examples, and contacts drawn from the "real world" rather than contrived exercises, texts, worksheets, and basal readers, students can see the real value of their own learning.

6. Address learning activities to actual, productive uses.

7. Respect natural thinking, including intuitive leaps, a grasp of patterns (as in number tables or good writing), and aesthetic and nonverbal interests and activities.

"Brain-based instruction," Caine and Caine (1991) warn us, "stems from recognizing that the brain does not take logical steps down one path like an analog computer, but can go down a hundred different paths simultaneously like an enormously powerful digital computer." They add, "Each brain is unique. Teaching should be multifaceted to allow all students to express visual, tactile, emotional, and auditory preferences. Providing choices that are variable enough to attract individual interests may require the reshaping of schools so that they exhibit the complexity found in life."

Resources

Bateson, 1980; Caine & Caine, 1991; Campbell, 1989; Carnine, 1990; Cousins, 1989; Della Neve, Hart, & Thomas, 1986; Hart, 1983, 1986; Vygotsky, 1962, 1978.

Activating students' prior knowledge-through the use of schema theory, for example-helps youngsters integrate new knowledge and skills with their own experiences. By doing so, teachers acknowledge that all students, regardless of their background, bring a wealth of knowledge to learning. The kind and amount "of knowledge one has before encountering a given topic in a discipline affects how one constructs meaning," writes Gaea Leinhardt (1992). "The impact of prior knowledge is not a matter of 'readiness,' component skills, or exhaustiveness; it is an issue of depth, interconnectedness, and access. Outcomes are determined jointly by what was known before and by the content of the instruction" (pp. 51-56).

Consequently, it just makes sense for teachers to begin by learning what students already know about a topic, thus preventing youngsters from having to repeat what they already know or trying to build on knowledge they do not yet possess. Connecting new knowledge to previous learning builds a strong foundation for future learning; it also gives teachers valuable opportunities to correct misperceptions. Modifying activities to suit learners' preferences helps them construct new understandings.

When tapping into students' prior knowledge, teachers recognize that the most effective means of learning is discovery, and the most effective means of teaching is modeling. Modeling by the teacher is one of many powerful tools for activating prior knowledge. Depending on the task, the teacher decides what prior knowledge needs to be activated and asks students to develop and answer questions that cause them to activate it. The teacher then proceeds to model appropriate questioning processes. Activating students' prior knowledge engages them more actively in learning, in generating their own questions, and in leading their own discussions.

Another strategy that effectively activates students' prior knowledge, allowing them to explore what they already know about a topic, is the K-W-L activity, first developed by Donna Ogle. This strategy asks students to identify what they already know about a topic, what they would like to learn, and, at the conclusion of the unit, what they actually did l earn.

Teachers can encourage students to develop a list of questions they would like to answer. (Teacher modeling helps students form these questions.) Teachers can then assist students in clustering similar questions and in deciding which questions to answer by further explaining the content to be learned. The teacher and students design a plan to find the answer for each question. Allowing students to work in cooperative and collaborative groups is effective because such groups encourage students to share their answers and the rationale behind the answers. During the sharing, the teacher has an opportunity to correct student misunderstandings.

In exploring new topics, students can experience a variety of active, experiential, or authentic assignments. Such assignments-for example, manipulating objects or concepts, engaging in product-oriented activities, and participating in real-life experiences that actively construct knowledge-allow youngsters to explore concepts in some depth and to make discoveries on their own. The opportunity to apply new learnings to real-life contexts that reflect the students' world helps them retain and effectively use new concepts and skills.

Many of the approaches to teaching and learning that appear in this book challenge the traditional model of schooling, which demands that students receive knowledge solely from the teacher. In explaining the nature of the "pedagogy of poverty," Martin Haberman (1991) notes that teachers and students are engaged in fundamentally different activities: teachers teach and students learn. But what if teachers join students as fellow learners searching for answers to real-life problems or for ways to describe and generalize scientific phenomena?

Another means of creating what might be called a pedagogy of plenty is to embrace a constructivist approach to teaching. Constructivism emphasizes an understanding of how and why students (and adults) learn; it provides a way to combine good teaching and learning practices. These practices include activating students' prior knowledge; providing a variety of active learning resources; using a variety of hands-on, minds-on activities; engaging youngsters in a variety of cooperative learning experiences; allowing students to formulate questions and discover concepts that can guide future learnings; asking students to think aloud while approaching a task; modeling powerful thinking strategies; and providing students with opportunities to apply new learnings within the context of real-life activities.

Such an instructional setting honors the importance of hands-on and "heads-on" experiences in learning. For students to learn to reason about their world, they must be constantly encouraged to ask questions and to solve problems that have meaning to them. Teachers can provide a wide variety of activities to help students construct-and reconstruct-their new learning in their own terms, as they begin to realize that knowledge is created out of life experiences.

Constructivist theory suggests that the goal of schooling is not simply acquiring specific knowledge and expertise, but rather building understanding. Learning how to learn becomes the goal. Considered from a constructivist viewpoint, the learning environment is a laboratory that provides the tools to support learners in their quest for understanding. In this approach, teachers facilitate learning by providing appropriate activities such as modeling and questioning techniques in well-designed, well-organized, well-managed classroom environments that allow students to construct their own understandings of concepts.

Constructivist teaching is best facilitated though the use of varied learning configurations. Providing students with opportunities to work in collaborative or small-group learning activities helps them to construct their own knowledge. Students have the opportunity to listen to other points of view, debate, discuss, and form insights into new ideas while working collaboratively with their peers. Such activities must also activate students' prior knowledge to help them develop questioning skills.

When the classroom environment encourages growth and development, students will respond. Instructionally effective environments offer youngsters a wide variety of powerful experiences, which include ways of interacting with and learning from one another in instructional areas that support experiential, problem-based, active learning. Creating such environments calls for the teacher to construct and allow cooperative, collaborative strategies.

Classroom design simply means arranging the room to make the best use of space and to create a comfortable learning climate-both physically and psychologically. Classroom management reflects the ways in which the teacher orchestrates high-quality instructional activities that help children take charge of their learning and eliminate unwanted behavioral and discipline problems.

Classroom Design

Our school system was invented to provide a sit-and-learn process of education. In 1915, for instance, John Dewey reportedly described the difficulties he encountered during an exhaustive search for furniture "suitable from all points of view-artistic ... and educational-to the needs of children." According to the account, Dewey finally met one school-supply dealer who admitted, "I'm afraid we do not have what you want. You want something at which children may work; these are for listening."

Amazingly, little has changed in U.S. classrooms since Dewey's time. Regardless of individual differences, many, many children are still expected to sit on a hard seat, not move, and not speak-just listen and answer questions.

Research strongly supports the important role of environmental preferences in students' motivation and their ability to learn. The quality of the environment in which we live and work is vitally important. Individuals tend to respond to their physical environment first in terms of personal comfort. Harmony makes it easier to concentrate and remember information.

The proper use of space within a classroom generates student activity and learning. Room arrangement, for example, allows students to work at computer stations, engage in small-group work, engage in project-based learning, and use multimedia equipment for individual or group activities. Appropriate classroom design empowers teachers to create instructional areas, such as learning and interest centers and media centers, that offer students varied learning opportunities and accommodate individual learning needs and interests.

Well-designed classrooms display high levels of student cooperation, academic success, and task involvement. Teachers work to develop intrinsic motivation in students, which is essential to creating lifelong learners. Thus effective classroom environments create multiple learning situations capable of addressing students' diverse characteristics to enhance their satisfaction and academic performance. Such classes are child centered; they meet young people's instructional needs by exposing them to a variety of highly motivating, stimulating, multilevel instructional activities.

Current research in the functioning of the brain confirms that we learn best in a rich, multi-sensory environment. We learn more about people by interacting with them in real-life contexts. We learn more meaningfully when we are fully immersed in the learning experience. Therefore, we should provide students with active learning experiences that incorporate a wide variety of materials, including high-quality, well-written literature.

Powerful learning activities are most likely to occur in a highly organized learning environment. When orchestrating such a setting, it is important to keep in mind how instruction will be reinforced, reviewed, and enriched to extend youngsters' learning potential; how procedures for completing assignments, working, locating instructional resources, and acquiring assistance will be facilitated; and how students will evaluate their own performance and that of others.

Classroom Management

Making a classroom an effective educational tool depends on creating not only a physically comfortable environment that supports instructional goals but also one that is emotionally, socially, psychologically, and physically safe. Classrooms should be places where a child can think, discover, grow, and ultimately learn to work independently and cooperatively in a group setting, developing self-discipline and self-esteem. At the heart of an emotionally safe learning environment is cooperation-among staff, students, and other stakeholders.

Cooperation leads to ownership, involvement, and great opportunities for student self-discipline, says Jerome Freiberg (1996)-but first must come trust. Students learn to trust through opportunities to take ownership of and responsibility for their own actions and those of others. Strategies to promote cooperation include establishing rules and regulations (with the assistance of students) for codes of behavior and conduct; talking about consequences of behavior; offering youngsters training in peer mediation and conflict resolution; creating rotating classroom management positions, with clearly outlined responsibilities; and helping youngsters develop norms of collaboration and social skills to enable them to work effectively in groups.

When children are truly engaged in learning and the approach to discipline is an active one, teachers do not have to waste valuable time dealing with disciplinary issues. When learning becomes less meaningful to students' lives, less interactive, or less stimulating, teachers increasingly need to control their students; in the process, they unwittingly create opportunities for undesirable student behaviors.

Teachers who try to impose too many rules, too much rigidity, and too many uniform activities quickly lose control. Teachers who can bring themselves to share power and confidence with their students gain more control. That is exactly why teachers should concentrate on creating conditions in which students can and will manage themselves.

Author's note: I would like to acknowledge the ASCD Advisory Panel on Improving Student Achievement and Lloyd W. Kline for their contributions to this chapter.

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Educating Everybody's Children: We Know What Works-And What Doesn't

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Edited by Robert W. Cole by Robert W. Cole Children know how to learn in more ways than we know how to teach them. -Ronald Edmonds (1991) Good instruction is good instruction, regardless of students' racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic backgrounds.

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T-TESS includes three components:

Goal-setting and professional development plan

The evaluation cycle (including: pre-conference, observation, post-conference)

Student growth measure