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Student Self-Assessment: The Key to Stronger Student Motivation and Higher Achievement

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Student Self-Assessment: The Key to Stronger Student Motivation and Higher Achievement

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Self-Assessment's powerful impact on student performance, in both classroom evaluations and large-scale accountability assessment, allows students to guide their own learning and adopt the criteria for judging their own success.

Self-assessment is a productive process in which students self-monitor, self-evaluate, and identify correctives regarding their learning abilities for the purpose of self-improvement in their education. (McMillan, Hearn, 2008)

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Awareness and understanding of one's own thought process through self monitoring worksheets.

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I've been thinking a lot about formative assessments lately. Formative assessments are all about gathering information from your students - during instruction - in order to inform your teaching. The most obvious place to gather that information is from student work (click HERE to see a post about that), and it can be a lot of fun.
Another place to gather information is also from your students. But now you have to get inside their brains, and find out how they assess their own learning. How in the world are we supposed to do this? And why is it important?
Let's tackle the importance question first. Studies show that students who are partners in their own assessment show increased engagement in all subject areas, and are more likely to become life-long learners. Also, students who are taught to analyze their own learning show increased motivation to learn.
Well, that's enough to convince me. It just makes sense, and I think we can agree that this is important. So the next question is, how do we do this? Here's the bad news. Most students don't walk into your classroom knowing how to assess themselves. In fact, many adults have trouble with metacognition.

Here's the good news. Metacognition can be explicitly taught. In fact, every teacher I know is already doing this (though perhaps we are not always aware of the fact that we are teaching metacognition. haha). We model reading strategies such as activating prior knowledge, summarizing, finding the meaning of a word through context, and stopping and rereading, just to name a few.

Here's another great Pinterest idea. If you have not invested in a tap light, it is fabulous for modeling reading strategies! Just tap the light on when you stop reading to model what you are thinking. Run to Walmart and get one. You won't be sorry. The only downside is that students will remind you to use it every time you interrupt your read aloud. So if the phone rings in the middle of the book, be prepared for 26 voices to yell, "Turn on the light first!" when you go to pick up the phone.

When it comes to math, those of us teaching the Common Core State Standards are modeling the 8 Math Practice Standards (see that post, HERE). These practices are vital to teaching students to monitor their own mathematical thinking. We model ourselves not giving up, even when something is difficult to master (MP1), or looking for a shortcut (MP8), etc. (I have to share this... the other day, one of my students was struggling with a math concept. I asked him if he could find a shortcut to use. He looked up at me and said, "I'm going to use the long cut, because I really want to learn this.")
So what about metacognition as it relates to self assessment? Well, we have to model that, too. And here is where it gets fun. We get to model for our students that we make mistakes. All. The. Time. Then we walk them through the thought processes involved in fixing the mistakes. I want my students to see mistakes as something positive - as the poster says, mistakes are proof that you are trying! Here are some ideas:

Model mispronouncing a word, catching yourself, and then correcting it.

Make a mistake on a math problem. Model how to find the correct answer.

Revise something. Decide (out loud) in the middle that it is not quite right. Then fix it.

Stop in the middle of a sentence and ask, "What am I doing right now? Am I on task? What is my strategy for learning?"

In the past I have used the idea of Marzano's levels of understanding for the process of self assessment. I gave each student the "stoplight" colors to keep on their desks (red - I need help, yellow - I'm trying, green - I can do this), but I felt as though I needed more than color coded paper. I've also used the number system (A student who holds up one finger needs help, and so on), but I wanted to use them together, with the addition of light bulbs to signify learning. I checked on Teachers Pay Teachers, and there are many excellent versions, but nothing quite matched the picture in my mind. So I made my own.

(So here you can see my own version of self assessment posters, a rubric, and cards for students to keep in/on their desks. There's also a notebook page. Click on the picture to take you to my TpT store and see for yourself, if you like.)

This process of going from 'not knowing' to 'trying' to 'understanding' to 'explaining' also has to be modeled for students. Here are some ideas:

Model those mistakes, and why they are a good thing.

Model that it's okay to ask for help.

Model that everyone is different, and some people need more practice than others. (I use drawing for this one, because I'm terrible at it, but I still try. And I need lots of practice!)

Model that being on #1 is not a bad thing. It just means that you haven't learned something yet. (I use the Spanish language for this example. Sometimes I don't even want to try, because I know I will make mistakes. About half of my third graders are bilingual, and when I mispronounce something, they let me know!)

Model the difference between explaining how to do something and simply giving the answer.

Thank you for reading along as I think about my thinking (and teaching). I truly believe that writing this blog is helping me to become a better teacher. I'm sure that most of you are light years beyond me in this journey, and I'm humbled by the fact that you choose to read my meanderings.
I hope you can use the free posters at the beginning of this post, and I hope you will come back again to read some more. Next time, I'll show you my new KWL charts. And KWHL charts, too.
Happy Self Assessment and Metacognition,

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Metacognition: Helping Students Assess Their Own Learning

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I've been thinking a lot about formative assessments lately. Formative assessments are all about gathering information from your students - during instruction - in order to inform your teaching. The most obvious place to gather that information is from student work (click HERE to see a post about that), and it can be a lot of fun.

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Increased confidence and more motivation to learn

Encourages students to become independent learners

Increases enthusiasm for collaborative working

Students can become users of assessment alongside the teacher

Students become better learners and can achieve self improvement more easily

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Duckor, B. (2014). Formative Assessment in Seven Good Moves. Educational Leadership, 71(6), 28–32. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.uleth.ca/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1043869&site=ehost-live&scope=site

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Elmahdi, I., Al-Hattami, A., & Fawzi, H. (2018). Using Technology for Formative Assessment to Improve Students’ Learning. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology - TOJET, 17(2), 182–188. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.uleth.ca/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1176157&site=ehost-live&scope=site

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Knestrick.J (2012). The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and Why It Matters for Early Childhood Learning. Retrieved from https://www.nwea.org/blog/2012/the-zone-of-proximal-development-zpd-and-why-it-matters-for-early-childhood-learning/

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McLeod, S. A. (2012). Zone of proximal development. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html

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The zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.

It represents tasks beyond the learner's current abilities but are attainable with the help and guidance of the more knowledgeable other (MKO)). The ZPD is the range of tasks a person can't complete independently but can accomplish with support.

Thus, the term "proximal" refers to skills the learner is "close" to mastering. The ZPD ensures challenge is not too hard or too easy.

ZPD is the zone where instruction is the most beneficial, as it is when the task is just beyond the individual's capabilities.

To learn, we must be presented with tasks just out of our ability range. Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth.

ZPD Theory

The zone of proximal development was developed by Soviet psychologist and social constructivist Lev Vygotsky (1896 - 1934).

Vygotsky introduced the ZPD concept to criticize psychometric testing which only measured current abilities, not potential for development. He argued assessment should be collaborative to reveal emerging skills.

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been defined as:

"the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).

For teachers, the ZPD is the space between current teaching knowledge and potential new level with assistance. Willingness to learn enables ZPD progression.

Vygotsky believed that when a student is in the zone of proximal development for a particular task, providing the appropriate assistance will give the student enough of a "boost" to achieve the task.

To assist a person to move through the zone of proximal development, educators are encouraged to focus on three important components which aid the learning process:

The presence of someone with knowledge and skills beyond that of the learner (a more knowledgeable other).

Social interactions with a skillful tutor that allow the learner to observe and practice their skills.

Scaffolding, or supportive activities provided by the educator, or more competent peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the ZPD.

Scaffolding Theory

The ZPD has become synonymous in the literature with the term scaffolding. However, it is important to note that Vygotsky never used this term in his writing, and it was introduced by Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976).

Scaffolding consists of the activities provided by the educator, or more competent peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the zone of proximal development.

Support is tapered off (i.e., withdrawn) as it becomes unnecessary, much as a scaffold is removed from a building during construction. The student will then be able to complete the task again independently.

Wood et al. (1976, p. 90) define scaffolding as a process "that enables a child or novice to solve a task or achieve a goal that would be beyond his unassisted efforts."

As they note, scaffolds require the adult's "controlling those elements of the task that are initially beyond the learner's capability, thus permitting him to concentrate upon and complete only those elements that are within his range of competence" (p. 90).

It is important to note that the terms cooperative learning, scaffolding and guided learning all have the same meaning within the literature.

The following study provides empirical support both the concept of scaffolding and the ZPD.

Wood and Middleton (1975)

Procedure: 4-year-old children had to use a set of blocks and pegs to build a 3D model shown in a picture. Building the model was too difficult a task for a 4-year-old child to complete alone.

Wood and Middleton (1975) observed how mothers interacted with their children to build the 3D model. The type of support included:

* General encouragement e.g., 'now you have a go.'

* Specific instructions e.g., 'get four big blocks.'

* Direct demonstration, e.g., showing the child how to place one block on another.

The results of the study showed that no single strategy was best for helping the child to progress. Mothers whose assistance was most effective were those who varied their strategy according to how the child was doing.

When the child was doing well, they became less specific with their help. When the child started to struggle, they gave increasingly specific instructions until the child started to make progress again.

The study illustrates scaffolding and Vygotsky's concept of the ZPD. Scaffolding (i.e., assistance) is most effective when the support is matched to the needs of the learner. This puts them in a position to achieve success in an activity that they would previously not have been able to do alone.

Wood et al. (1976) named certain processes that aid effective scaffolding:

Gaining and maintaining the learner's interest in the task.

Making the task simple.

Emphasizing certain aspects that will help with the solution.

Control the child's level of frustration.

Demonstrate the task.

Intersubjectivity

Intersubjectivity is when two people (i.e., the child and helper) start a task together with a different level of skill and understanding, and both end up with a shared understanding.

As each member of the dyad adjusts to the perspective of the other, the helper has to translate their own insights in a ways that is within the grasp of the child, and the child develops a more complete understanding of the task.

It is essential that they work towards the same goal, otherwise there won't be any collaboration. It is important that they negotiate, or compromise by always working for a shared view.

If you try to force someone to change their mind, then you"ll just get conflict. You need to stay within the boundaries of the other person's zone of proximal development.

Example of Scaffolding

Vygotsky emphasized scaffolding, or providing support to learners to help them reach higher levels of understanding. This can be mapped to progressing through Bloom's taxonomy, where educators scaffold tasks from basic understanding to more complex analysis and creation.

For example, a teacher might start by providing information (Remembering) and then ask questions that require understanding.

As students become more proficient, tasks can be scaffolded to require application, analysis, evaluation, and creation.

Example: In teaching a concept like photosynthesis:

1. Remembering: The teacher provides the basic definition.

2. Understanding: Students explain the process in their own words.

3. Application: They might conduct an experiment on plants.

4. Analysis: Dive deeper into how different variables affect the process.

5. Evaluation: Debate the most critical components of photosynthesis.

6. Creation: Design an optimal environment for plant growth.

Each step can be scaffolded, starting with substantial teacher support and gradually releasing responsibility to the students as they climb Bloom's taxonomy, guiding students from foundational knowledge to higher-order thinking skills.

Scaffolding vs. Discovery Learning

Freund (1990) wanted to investigate if children learn more effectively via Piaget's concept of discovery learning or guided learning via the ZPD.

She asked a group of children between the ages of three and five years to help a puppet decide which furniture should be placed in the various rooms of a doll's house. First, Freund assessed what each child already understood about the placement of furniture (as a baseline measure).

Next, each child worked on a similar task, either alone (re: discovery-based learning) or with their mother (re: scaffolding / guided learning). To assess what each child had learned, they were each given a more complex, furniture sorting task.

The study's results showed that children assisted by their mothers performed better at furniture sorting than the children who worked independently.

More Knowledgeable Other

The more knowledgeable other (MKO) refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level in a particular task, process, or concept than the learner.

It's essential to note that the MKO isn't necessarily an adult or a teacher. It could be a peer, a younger person, or even technology or media, as long as they provide the learner with the knowledge or scaffolding needed to perform a task.

Often, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience.

The relationship between the MKO and the ZPD is vital to Vygotsky's theory. The MKO assists or scaffolds the learning experience to help the learner function within their ZPD.

Through this guidance, the learner can tackle and master tasks they couldn't accomplish independently.

Over time, as the learner internalizes this support and becomes more capable, the scaffolding can be reduced, and the learner can perform the task without assistance. The ZPD moves as learners acquire new skills and knowledge with the help of the MKO.

In educational settings, the concepts of MKO and ZPD have inspired practices like cooperative learning, differentiated instruction, and scaffolded learning experiences.

Teachers aim to identify each student's ZPD and then act as the MKO, or facilitate interactions with other MKOs, to provide the right level of support, allowing students to achieve and learn effectively.

Educational Applications

Vygotsky believes the role of education is to provide children with experiences which are in their ZPD, thereby encouraging and advancing their individual learning. (Berk, & Winsler, (1995).

"From a Vygotskian perspective, the teacher's role is mediating the child's learning activity as they share knowledge through social interaction" (Dixon-Krauss, 1996, p. 18).

Cooperative Learning

According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for the child.

Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or collaborative dialogue.

The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the parent or teacher) and then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance.

Lev Vygotsky views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of proximal development.

Scaffolding is a key feature of effective teaching, where the adult continually adjusts the level of his or her help in response to the learner's level of performance.

In the classroom, scaffolding can include modeling a skill, providing hints or cues, and adapting material or activity (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

Consider these guidelines for scaffolding instruction (Silver, 2011).

Assess the learner's current knowledge and experience with the academic content.

Relate content to what students already understand or can do.

Break a task into small, more manageable tasks with opportunities for intermittent feedback.

Use verbal cues and prompts to assist students.

Scaffolding not only produces immediate results, but also instills the skills necessary for independent problem-solving in the future.

A contemporary application of Vygotsky's theories is "reciprocal teaching," used to improve students" ability to learn from text.

In this method, teachers and students collaborate in learning and practicing four key skills: summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher's role in the process is reduced over time.

Vygotsky's theories also feed into current interest in collaborative learning, suggesting that group members should have different levels of ability so more advanced peers can help less advanced members operate within their zone of proximal development.

Examples of ZPD

Example 1

Maria just entered college this semester and decided to take an introductory tennis course. Her class spends each week learning and practicing a different shot. Weeks go by, and they learn how to properly serve and hit a backhand.

During the week of learning the forehand, the instructor noticed that Maria was very frustrated because she kept hitting her forehand shots either into the net or far past the baseline.

He examines her preparation and swing. He notices that her stance is perfect, she prepares early, she turns her torso appropriately, and she hits the ball at precisely the right height.

However, he notices that she is still gripping her racquet the same way she hits her backhand, so he goes over to her and shows her how to reposition her hand to hit a proper forehand, stressing that she should keep her index finger parallel to the racquet.

He models a good forehand for her, and then assists her in changing her grip. With a little practice, Maria's forehand turns into a formidable weapon for her!

In this case, Maria was in the zone of proximal development for successfully hitting a forehand shot. She was doing everything else correctly, but just needed a little coaching and scaffolding from a "More Knowledgeable Other" to help her succeed in this task.

When that assistance was given, she was able to achieve her goal. Provided with appropriate support at the right moments, students in classrooms will be able to achieve tasks that would otherwise be too difficult for them.

Example 2

Clinical psychology trainees at the Center for Children and Families at Florida International University are trained using approaches aligned with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (Hong & del Busto, 2020).

Trainees are paired with more senior trainees (e.g., a first-year student with a second or third-year student) for co-therapy sessions. The senior trainee scaffolds the junior trainee's learning by initially taking the lead and modeling skills, then gradually encouraging the junior trainee to become more independent in leading sessions as they demonstrate competence.

This allows trainees to be involved in clinical care early in their training, with support and coaching from a more experienced peer. It meets them in their zone of proximal development - what they can do with guidance vs what they cannot yet do independently.

Supervisors assign trainees different roles based on experience level. More senior trainees are given opportunities to develop supervisory skills by training junior peers. Junior trainees are supported in gaining clinical skills.

The zone of proximal development concept is applied not just for patients in case conceptualization but also for trainees' own professional development. Supervisors provide individualized support and scaffolding to help each trainee progress.

Example 3

Social interaction, aided by cultural tools, supports teachers in developing new aspects of their practice and identity. The interpersonal activity facilitates the transformation of their teaching expertise.

This demonstrates the value of mediation through the ZPD (Shabani et al., 2010).

Collaborative peers and mentors: Observing and discussing teaching practices with experienced colleagues helps teachers learn new instructional approaches and strategies. This social exchange facilitates development within their ZPD.

Action research: By studying their own teaching through classroom inquiry, teachers can gain insights into improving their methods. The self-reflection shifts their ZPD forward.

Diaries: Writing reflectively about teaching experiences enables teachers to analyze their development and assumptions. This metacognition expands their ZPD.

Technology: Using digital tools and platforms introduces teachers to innovative teaching techniques. The technology mediates new pedagogical capabilities.

TESOL discourse: Engaging with academic research and theory opens teachers to alternative perspectives on teaching and learning. This discourse stretches their ZPD.

Coursework: Formal professional development courses scaffold teachers' learning of new knowledge and competencies. The instruction targets their ZPD.

Student data: Responses and achievement metrics provide feedback to teachers on areas needing growth. This evidence shifts teachers' self-perception.

References

Berk, L., & Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children's learning: Vygotsky and early childhood learning. Washington, DC: National Association for Education of Young Children.

Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Dixon-Krauss, L. (1996). Vygotsky in the classroom. Mediated literacy instruction and assessment. White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers.

Freund, L. S. (1990). Maternal Regulation of Children's Problem-solving behavior and Its Impact on Children's Performance. Child Development, 61, 113-126.

Hong, N., & del Busto, C. T. (2020). Collaboration, scaffolding, and successive approximations: A developmental science approach to training in clinical psychology. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 14(3), 228.

Shabani, K., Khatib, M., & Ebadi, S. (2010). Vygotsky's zone of proximal development: Instructional implications and teachers' professional development. English Language Teaching, 3(4), 237-248.

Silver, D. (2011). Using the 'Zone'Help Reach Every Learner. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 47(sup1), 28-31.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wass, R., & Golding, C. (2014). Sharpening a tool for teaching: the zone of proximal development. Teaching in Higher Education, 19(6), 671-684.

Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psychiatry, 17, 89−100.

Wood, D., & Middleton, D. (1975). A study of assisted problem-solving. British Journal of Psychology, 66(2), 181−191.

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Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development & Scaffolding Theory In Psychology

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The zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.

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McMillan, J., & Hearn, J. (2008). Student Self-Assessment: The Key to Stronger Student Motivation and Higher Achievement. Educational Horizons, 87(1), 40-49. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.uleth.ca/stable/42923742

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Using Technology for Formative Assessment to Improve Students’ Learning.

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Using Technology for Formative Assessment to Improve Students’ Learning.

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Elmahdi et al.'s article is on a study that found the immediate feedback of Plickers improves students, participation, saves learning time, guarantees equal participation opportunities, and creates a fun and exciting learning environment (Elmahdi, 20018). Thus, the findings encourage teachers to incorporate a technology based program for formative assessment, such as Plickers, to provide students with engaging and immediate feedback.

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An efficient, easy to use digital method of collecting student responses to questions, in order to know if they understand the content. Create your questions, scan the classroom, and instantly view students results!

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Formative assessment is the repeated measurement of student understanding through various types of assessment. The goal is to monitor students and provide instructor's feedback for moving forward and improvement in lesson planning.

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Formative Assessment in Seven Good Moves

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Formative Assessment in Seven Good Moves

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According to Duckor, teachers can practice the seven basic moves outlined in the article to become better formative assessors.  These 7 basic moves “topped the list of the most influential practices that improve student outcomes”.  The relationships and connections made through this practice between teachers, students and principals can also become stronger. (Duckor, 2014).

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Fun, engaging and effective

Efficient in class use

Immediate feedback for students and teacher

Free to use, just print or buy student cards

Can be used at any grade level

Helps teachers know their effectiveness

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Cost. Some tech programs require students have a device.

Programs can take extensive prep time to set up or explain to students how they work. However, once set up these programs are extremely quick and easy to use.

Teachers must know how to create effective questions.

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iclicker

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Student Response Systems & Classroom Engagement Tools

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iClicker is the market-leader in student and audience response systems for Higher Education, recognized for ease-of-use, reliability, and focus on pedagogy.

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Socrative

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Kahoot!

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Kahoot! app | Free study app for iOS and Android

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Play learning games at home and in class, study, and review content. Download the Kahoot! app for free for iOS, Android and Chromebooks.

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recaP

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Super Teacher Worksheets provides resources that include a number of activities for student learning.  It is also a place where teachers can use and add their ideas and lessons to share with other educators.

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Super Teacher Worksheets - Thousands of Printable Activities

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Printable worksheets & activities for teachers, parents, and homeschool families. Math, reading, writing, science, social studies, phonics, & spelling.

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"The ZPD referes to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner. Thus, the term “proximal” refers those skills that the learner is “close” to mastering." (McLeod, 2018)

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Introduced by introduced by Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976).
Scaffolding consists of the activities provided by the educator, or more competent peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the zone of proximal development.

Support is tappered off (i.e. withdrawn) as it becomes unnecessary, much as a scaffold is removed from a building during construction. The student will then be able to complete the task again on his own processes that aid effective scaffolding:

Gaining and Maintaining the learners interest in the task

Making the task simple

Emphasizing certain aspects that will help with solution

Control the child level of fusteration

Demonstrate the task

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Teachers become better at formative assessment through practice of the 7 moves.

Builds relationships for students, teachers, and principals.

Teachers save time by using this online content rather than creating their own assessments

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Formative assessments are not limited to only the 7 moves outlined.

Knowing how students are progressing based on prior experiences and progression on different topics.

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Student Self Regulation through consistent confirmation of learning.

Motivation enhancement for  students

Teacher awareness of their effectiveness and decision making on moving forward

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Creativity beyond content may be limited

Inaccurate if multiple types of assessment are not used

Time consuming to come up with repeated assessments

Narrowed student learning to right/wrong instead of practical use if not used effectively

Teachers should use results to move their lessons forward, otherwise the formative assessment is a waste

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Help educator plan more targeted instructions

Align classroom teaching strategies

Help educators effectively guide students

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task outside the learners skill falls out of the ZPD

ZPD cannot accurately picture a child's learning style, teacher must find this.

Ability level and motivation is hard to determine

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The amount of time that is involved to teach/learn

Inefficient when used to asses lower-level skills

Depending on to the subject, reliability tends to be lower

Students of lower abilities may experience much frustration when using this form of assessment

Students may not interpret the criteria correctly

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BONUS: a technology based self-evaluation resource

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BONUS: a technology based self-evaluation resource

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Quizlet

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BONUS: another practical formative assessment tool

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BONUS: another practical formative assessment tool

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Teachers Pay Teachers

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Shabani, K. (Dec 2010). Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development: Instructional Implications
and Teachers' Professional Development. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1081990.pdf

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BONUS: go to this link and scroll to the written part about "Lev Vygotsky" for a simple clarification and example on ZPD and Scaffolding. 

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BONUS: go to this link and scroll to the written part about "Lev Vygotsky" for a simple clarification and example on ZPD and Scaffolding. 

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All of these guys did a lot more work than what is mentioned in this graphic. I just tried to pull out what was most relevant to teachers. The cool thing is, you probably recognize a lot of these practices as thing you're already doing.

Lev Vygotsky - How do you decide the level at which to instruct your students? Vygotsky says to determine their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). This means the skills that are just a little bit beyond their reach. When you are working with a small reading group, don't pick books that kids can read perfectly. Pick ones that are just a little bit challenging, that students will need some support to read. Eventually a student's ZPD bumps up higher because they have mastered the skills you were supporting them with.

Scaffolding is not a term that Vygotsky actually used but it's a concept that developed based on his work. When you scaffold a student, you give them support to complete a task that they can't quite do on their own. For example, at first, students need to be walked through every step of long division. Gradually the scaffolding can be reduced. Maybe they just need a couple of reminders at tricky spots. Eventually the scaffolding can be removed because the student can complete the task on their own.

Jean Piaget - Piaget was a constructivist which means he believed that kids learn by manipulating, modifying, and otherwise working with concepts. They construct their own learning rather than just being told something. Piaget worked with the idea that the things people know are organized into schemas. When a child learns something new, they either assimilate it into an existing schema, change their schema, or develop a new schema. Do you activate background knowledge before a lesson? You're helping students tap into their existing schema!

B.F. Skinner - When I taught second grade and my class was on the wrong track, I would look for the one kid doing the right thing and say, "Wow, I love how Jesse is standing with his hands to his side and his voice turned off." As I positively reinforced this behavior with praise, other students would jump on board, too. This is the heart of behaviorism. It's the idea that praise and rewards positively reinforce a behavior and encourage kids to continue with it. Punishments discourage students from a behavior. Beyond following rules, there are learning actions we can reinforce. If you display quality student work, praise students for using strategies, let students publish on cool paper when they have their writing perfect, etc. you are using behaviorism to guide students toward the behaviors and actions of successful adults.

Jerome Bruner - If you have decent curriculum to use, you've probably seen Bruner's idea of spiral curriculum at work. Elementary students can't design roads and bridges but they can begin to learn about the physics of how the slope of a ramp affects the speed of a ball rolling down that ramp. Each year they can revisit and build on their previous learning.

Benjamin Bloom - You may have heard of Bloom's Taxonomy. It's a hierarchy of intellectual behaviors. The lowest level is remembering facts. The highest level is using your knowledge to create something new. With the new Common Core standards we've heard a lot about increasing rigor for our students. One way to do this is to make sure we're involving our students in higher order thinking activities at the top of Bloom's Taxonomy, not just in memorizing facts.

Howard Gardner - Gardner found that people have more than one way of processing information and that a typical IQ score doesn't completely measure intelligence. He created the theory of Multiple Intelligences. In the classroom we can engage multiple intelligences by singing educational songs, allowing students to work through concepts verbally, through art, through writing, with partners, and through movement.

I bet a lot of these theories already guide your teaching and now you know the researchers to connect them to. Pin the image above for handy reference!

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The 6 Education Theorists That All Teachers Should Know

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A cheat sheet of education theorists and their research based teaching practices.