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The National Talent Identification and Development Program administered by the Australian Institute of Sport determined that Ben displayed an aptitude for powerlifting. He decided to pursue this sport and  went on to compete at both state and national level.

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1. Identify which muscle fibre type is best suited for this activity and provide rationale for the answer.  

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1. Identify which muscle fibre type is best suited for this activity and provide rationale for the answer.  

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(According to Tortora 2014)…The muscle fibre type which is best suited for Ben's activity is fast glycolytic (FG) fibres. This is because they are fast-twitch fibres which are adapted for intense anaerobic movements of short duration.  They appear white in colour and contain large amounts of glycogen and generate ATP mainly by glycolysis. FG fibres contract strongly and quickly, due to their ability to hydrolyse ATP rapidly.

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When waking up one morning, seventy year old Maria noted that she could not move her fingers to button up her blouse with her R) hand.  She tried to talk to her daughter however despite being able to speak, she could not arrange the words in a coherent fashion. She sought medical assistance and was diagnosed as having a stroke

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When waking up one morning, seventy year old Maria noted that she could not move her fingers to button up her blouse with her R) hand.  She tried to talk to her daughter however despite being able to speak, she could not arrange the words in a coherent fashion. She sought medical assistance and was diagnosed as having a stroke

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2. Describe the process by which the identified muscle fibre produces the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) required to contract the muscles used during a bench press. 

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2. Describe the process by which the identified muscle fibre produces the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) required to contract the muscles used during a bench press. 

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(According to Tortora 2014)…Anaerobic glycolysis  occurs when muscles are worked hard and creatine phosphate is diminished. glucose is then catabolised to generate ATP. glucose passes easily from the blood into contracting muscle fibres via facilitated diffusion and it is also produced by the break down of glycogen with muscle fibres. then a series of reactions known as glycolysis quickly breaks down each glucose molecule into two molecules of pyruvic acid. glycolysis occurs in the cytosol and produces a net gain of two molecules of ATP because glycolysis does not require oxygen it can occur when oxygen is absent which is anaerobic

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3. Throughout a powerlifting event, Ben noted that he could not lift as effectively towards the end of a competition. State the fatigue resistance of the previously identified muscle fibre and describe TWO (2) factors that may contribute to metabolic fatigue specifically when powerlifting. 

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3. Throughout a powerlifting event, Ben noted that he could not lift as effectively towards the end of a competition. State the fatigue resistance of the previously identified muscle fibre and describe TWO (2) factors that may contribute to metabolic fatigue specifically when powerlifting. 

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(According to Tortora 2014)…Towards the end of the competition Ben’s body was affected by his Fast Glycolytic muscle fibres being low resistant to fatigue, the contributing factors to this are caused by Ben's ability to generate the ATP needed to lift the kilograms required to proceed and once the body had generated a high volume of ATP multiple times within a short time frame the mitochondria decreased in their production rate, with fewer blood vessels and lower myoglobin.

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4. A brief contraction generated by a single action potential within a motor unit is called a twitch contraction. A single muscle twitch has THREE (3) main periods. Name and describe at least ONE (1) event that occurs during each of the periods.  

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4. A brief contraction generated by a single action potential within a motor unit is called a twitch contraction. A single muscle twitch has THREE (3) main periods. Name and describe at least ONE (1) event that occurs during each of the periods.  

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(According to Tortora 2014)…The first “latent” period is a 2 msec delay between the stimulus application and contraction, where the action potential moves across the sarcolemma and releases calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). The “contraction” period is where  the released calcium binds to tropomyosin, opening the myosin binding sites where cross bridges are formed and peak tension exists, lasting for 10-100 msec, Lastly the “relaxation" period, also lasting 10-100 msec, where calcium is released back into the SR, causing the myosin heads to detach from actin and tension within the fibre decreases.

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Skeletal system (TOTAL max. 350 WORDS) Tom is a 15 year old soccer player that fell over during training. An X-ray revealed a Type II fracture of the L) proximal femoral growth plate. It required closed reduction and plaster cast immobilisation to heal.

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Question 1 -  Name (in the correct order) the zones of the epiphyseal plate and describe the structure of thecells contained in each zone. 

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Question 1 -  Name (in the correct order) the zones of the epiphyseal plate and describe the structure of thecells contained in each zone. 

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(According to Tortora 2014)...The zones of the epiphyseal plate in order - the zone of resting cartilage, zone of proliferating cartilage, zone of hypertrophic cartilage and zone of calcified cartilage. Chondrocytes, roundly structured cells are present in the extracellular matrix (ECM) of cartilage and in each zone. In the last zone of calcification, immature bone cells surrounded by ECM called osteoblast are present, and large fusions of monocytes containing lysosomal enzymes and acids called osteoclasts.

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 2. Describe the process of growth in length of a long bone. 

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 2. Describe the process of growth in length of a long bone. 

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(According to Tortora 2014)… Growth in length occurs in; zone of resting cartilage, zone of proliferating cartilage, zone of hypertrophic cartilage and zone of calcified cartilage. Chondrocytes die in zone 4 due to calcification, osteoblasts invade and lay down bone extracellular matrix. Endochondral ossification replaces calcified cartilage and zone 4 becomes the new diaphysis.

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 3. Name (in the correct order) and briefly outline (including the cells involved) the phases of bone fracture repair.

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 3. Name (in the correct order) and briefly outline (including the cells involved) the phases of bone fracture repair.

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(According to Tortora 2014)… The repair of a bone fracture can be outlined in three main phases; the reactive phase; the reparative phase; and the bone remodelling phase.

the reactive phase, which is an early inflammatory phase, occurs when a mass of blood known as a fracture haematoma, forms 6 to 8 hours after the injury. Swelling and inflammation occur, producing cellular debris. phagocytes and osteoclasts begin to remove dead or damaged tissue around the fracture haematoma.

The reparative phase is outlined in two parts, the first part is where fibrocartilaginous callus formation occurs, as blood vessels grow into the fracture haematoma and phagocytes clean up dead bone cells. In the second part of the reparative phase, the bony callus formation, osteoprogenitor cells develop into osteoblasts, these produce spongy bone trabeculae, and in time the fibrocartilage is converted to spongy bone.

In the bone remodelling phase, compact bone replaces spongy bone on the periphery of the fracture, a thickened area on the surface of the bone remains as evidence of a healed fracture.

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4. Name ONE (1) possible consequence of damage to the epiphyseal plate in Tom’s L) femur and outline why this occurs. 

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4. Name ONE (1) possible consequence of damage to the epiphyseal plate in Tom’s L) femur and outline why this occurs. 

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(According to Tortora 2014)…During the fractures first occurrence, the nerve cells are affected within the bone and throughout
the surrounded muscles as a consequence of the impact, the epiphyseal growth plate starts to
repair the regrowth of the fracture although the original growth rate of Tom’s Femur could be
affected after it has healed

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 5. Describe THREE (3) factors that influence the growth and repair of Tom’s bones during his teenage years. 

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 5. Describe THREE (3) factors that influence the growth and repair of Tom’s bones during his teenage years. 

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(According to Tortora 2014)…
In the growth and repair of toms bones there are many factors to consider which include his mineral intake, large amounts of calcium and phosphorus are needed while growing and also healing. another important factor is vitamins which include vitamin A which help the activity of osteoblasts. vitamin C is needed for synthesis of collagen the main bone protein along with vitamin D which helps build the bones through absorption of calcium.
lastly hormones are a big factor in bone growth, insulinlike growth factors help stimulate osteoblasts, promote cell division at the epiphyseal plate and in the periosteum and enhance synthesis of protiens needed to grow and build teenage bones.

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5. Muscle contractions are described based on TWO (2) variables: force (tension) and length (shortening). Throughout the process of Ben performing a bench press, different types of contractions are employed. Name and describe each of the types in relation to muscle and length.

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5. Muscle contractions are described based on TWO (2) variables: force (tension) and length (shortening). Throughout the process of Ben performing a bench press, different types of contractions are employed. Name and describe each of the types in relation to muscle and length.

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(According to Tortora 2014)…During this isotonic exercise the bench press forces muscles to contract both eccentrically and concentrically.
Isometric contraction happens when the weight of the load is not moved and the muscles remain in the same position (when weight is held away from body and held just above chest).
Lowering weight towards chest being an eccentric contraction (muscle lengthening) and raising weight away from chest is a concentric contraction (muscle shortening).

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1. State which major part of the brain has been damaged and name the TWO (2) major functional areas of that part of the brain that have been affected. (3 marks) (max. 50 words) 

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1. State which major part of the brain has been damaged and name the TWO (2) major functional areas of that part of the brain that have been affected. (3 marks) (max. 50 words) 

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(According to Tortora 2014).. The Basal Nuclei (playing the major role in motor function), interconnected to the cerebral cortex and part of the cerebrum, is the major brain part affected by Maria's stroke. The two major functional areas affected are located within the motor areas - firstly, the primary motor area, responsible for contraction of skeletal muscle. Secondly, the Broca’s Speech area, which enables the ability to form words, in conjunction with the primary motor area.

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2. Give a rationale as to why each of the functional areas was chosen by referring to the changes experienced by Maria. (3 marks)  (max. 100 words) 

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2. Give a rationale as to why each of the functional areas was chosen by referring to the changes experienced by Maria. (3 marks)  (max. 100 words) 

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(According to Tortora 2014).. Maria could not move her fingers as explained in question 1, due to an issue in her primary motor area. In this functional area, different muscles and muscle groups are controlled, specifically when maria attempts to execute a voluntary contraction with her right hand. When affecting the muscle map of the body, its called motor homunculus, in depth the cortical region; which is in control of the muscles that move her fingers- reflective of why its the functional area.chosen. the brocas speech area was chosen due to Marias speaking difficulty. Due to impulses that spread to the primary motor area and where impulses control and regulate airflow through the vocal cords, therefore speech is affected.

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3. Can neurogenesis occur to replace damaged/destroyed neurons in the central nervous system (CNS)? Give rationale for answer.  (3 marks) (max. 75 words) 

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3. Can neurogenesis occur to replace damaged/destroyed neurons in the central nervous system (CNS)? Give rationale for answer.  (3 marks) (max. 75 words) 

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(According to Jason 2005) Present in the Central Nervous System of an adult is stem cells and other molecules that have potential to produce the required needs to repair damaged neurotransmitter in the brain, even though the production of new neurotransmitters being created by the damaged section of the brain is incapable of happening. Neurogenesis is leading researchers to experiment in manipulating its key functions to recreate a stronger neurological connection to gain more control between the CNS and PNS.

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4. The damage to Maria’s brain has resulted in her inability to move her R) arm. Which specific neuron in the neural circuits that make up the somatic motor pathways has been affected in this case?  Give a rationale for the answer. (3 marks)  (max. 50 words)  

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4. The damage to Maria’s brain has resulted in her inability to move her R) arm. Which specific neuron in the neural circuits that make up the somatic motor pathways has been affected in this case?  Give a rationale for the answer. (3 marks)  (max. 50 words)  

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the primary motor cortex is in control when your body executes a task or movement voluntarily. when these certain messages intersect in the spinal cord, they activate lower motor neurons and then next muscles in the skeleton contract. from the following information described I believe it is Marias left primary motor cortex when has been damaged

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Samantha (50 years old) has a family history of diabetes type 2, is morbidly obese and suffers from high blood pressure. At a routine medical visit, it was been recommended that she make an appointment for diabetes screening.  Her initial blood glucose levels indicated the presence of higher than normal blood glucose levels. 

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Samantha (50 years old) has a family history of diabetes type 2, is morbidly obese and suffers from high blood pressure. At a routine medical visit, it was been recommended that she make an appointment for diabetes screening.  Her initial blood glucose levels indicated the presence of higher than normal blood glucose levels. 

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1. Name the endocrine gland and associated relevant tissue that contribute to blood glucose regulation.  Name and describe the function of TWO (2) cells located within this organ that participate in glucose homeostasis.  (50words)

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1. Name the endocrine gland and associated relevant tissue that contribute to blood glucose regulation.  Name and describe the function of TWO (2) cells located within this organ that participate in glucose homeostasis.  (50words)

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(According to Tortora 2014)..The pancreas both an exocrine gland and endocrine gland. The endocrine gland’s beta cells are in charge of producing the hormone insulin. The hormone glucagon produced by alpha cells raises the blood glucose levels, lowing insulin. This is stimulated by negative feedback mechanisms.

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2. Samantha’s blood sugar levels are high. Describe the negative feedback regulation of the hormone involved in hyperglycaemia. (75words)

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2. Samantha’s blood sugar levels are high. Describe the negative feedback regulation of the hormone involved in hyperglycaemia. (75words)

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(According to Tortora 2014).. When blood glucose elevates hyperglycaemia prevents glucagon being released, next because of the high blood glucose levels this encourages beta cells to release insulin this has an effect on the bodies cells which can:
- Speed up facilitated diffusion
- Helps to when glucose is turned into glycogen
This causes a drop in blood glucose levels and when they fall it prevents the secretion of insulin

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3. Samantha has been commenced on pharmaceuticals as a treatment for her prediabetes. After taking the medication for a few weeks she experiences a hypoglycaemic episode where her blood glucose level falls below the recommended level. Describe the negative feedback                            involved in hypoglycaemia. (75words) 

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3. Samantha has been commenced on pharmaceuticals as a treatment for her prediabetes. After taking the medication for a few weeks she experiences a hypoglycaemic episode where her blood glucose level falls below the recommended level. Describe the negative feedback                            involved in hypoglycaemia. (75words) 

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(According to Tortora 2014).. Glucagon is the hormone which takes place in hypoglycaemia this occurs when alpha cells in the pancreatic islets release glucagon, glycogenolysis occurs also. When the blood glucose levels speed up this is called hyperglycaemia occurs usually when not enough insulin is possessed by the body to turn glucose into fuel.

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4.  Hormones within the body (other than those identified in 2 & 3 above) can contribute to an elevation in blood glucose. Choose ONE (1) hormone and describe the mechanism by which it raises blood sugar levels.  (75words)

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4.  Hormones within the body (other than those identified in 2 & 3 above) can contribute to an elevation in blood glucose. Choose ONE (1) hormone and describe the mechanism by which it raises blood sugar levels.  (75words)

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(According to Tortora 2014)..The hormone cortisol which is a steroid is released via the adrenal gland. it helps muscle and fat to make it more defiant to insulin and also assists with glucose production. while stressed cortisol levels rise and makes you insulin resistant. This is common in type 1 diabetes then more insulin is presribed to keep blood sugar levels stable.

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5. For the hormone identified in 4. above, name the location and specific cell type from where it is secreted and identify the hormone that stimulates its secretion.  Describe where the hormone that stimulates the secretion is synthesised. (50words)  

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5. For the hormone identified in 4. above, name the location and specific cell type from where it is secreted and identify the hormone that stimulates its secretion.  Describe where the hormone that stimulates the secretion is synthesised. (50words)  

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(According to Tortora 2014).. Cortisol as described before is produced in the adrenal glands and a large amount of the bodies cells have cortisol receptors. secretion is from the pituitary gland and hypothalamus. stress is known to secrete cortisol in the body and is known as a stress response.

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5. The axons of the neuron identified above extend from the brain via two types of somatic motor pathways -   the direct and indirect motor pathways. Which specific pathway (within either one or the other of these pathways) is affected? Using this pathway as an example, explain why damage to the L) side of Maria’s brain has affected the movements in Maria’s R) hand. (3 marks) (max. 75 words)  

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5. The axons of the neuron identified above extend from the brain via two types of somatic motor pathways -   the direct and indirect motor pathways. Which specific pathway (within either one or the other of these pathways) is affected? Using this pathway as an example, explain why damage to the L) side of Maria’s brain has affected the movements in Maria’s R) hand. (3 marks) (max. 75 words)  

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The somatic direct pathway is affected due to Maria’s stroke (corticospinal pathway).
This pathway is responsible for movement and is located in the medulla oblongata.
The left side of the cerebral cortex is responsible for controlling muscles on the right side of the body. This has in turn
affected Marias' right side of body and her ability to voluntarily move, and also converse words due to the damaged brain being incapable of transmitting
the message.

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Jason G. Emsley, Bartley D. Mitchell, Gerd Kempermann, Jeffrey D. Macklis (2005) Progress in Neurobiology: Adult neurogenesis and repair of the adult CNS with neural progenitors, precursors and stem cells 75(5), Pages 321-341, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.04.002

Principles of Anatomy and physiology text book 14th edition - written by Gerard J. Tortora / Bryan Derrickson

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These are the rules and agreements that everyone will uphold while in the group:
- Everyone puts in a shared workload to the assignment
- Everyone  upholds there work duties in the group  does their work to the best of their abilities
-Reply to messages and attend group meetings

- Steve Berkley agrees to these rules

- Tarek agrees to these rules

- Charlotte agrees to these rules

- Jessica agrees to these rules