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You can tell when dogs are happy because they wag their tails

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It's commonly believed that dogs wag their tails to convey that they are happy and friendly, but this isn't exactly true.

Dogs do use their tails to communicate, though a wagging tail doesn't always mean, "Come pet me!"

Dogs have a kind of language that's based on the position and motion of their tails. The position of a dog's tail reveals its emotional state. [ 20 Weird Dog and Cat Behaviors Explained by Science]

When a dog is relaxed, its tail will be in its "natural" position, according to the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.

This natural position differs between breeds. The tails of most dogs, for example, hang down near their hocks, or heels. But pugs have tails that curl upward, and greyhounds have tails that rest slightly between their legs.

If a dog is nervous or submissive, it'll hold its tail lower than its natural position, and will tuck its tail under its body if it's scared. On the opposite end of the spectrum, a tail held higher than normal may indicate the dog is aroused by something, while a vertical tail indicates aggression.

A tail held straight out means the dog is curious about something.

Tail wagging reflects a dog's excitement, with more vigorous wagging relating to greater excitement.

In 2007, researchers discovered that the way a dog wags its tail also gives clues about what it's feeling.

Specifically, a tail wagging to the right indicates positive emotions, and a tail wagging to the left indicates negative emotions.

This phenomenon has to do with the fact that the brain's left hemisphere controls the right side of the body, and vice versa. Research on the approach-avoidance behavior of other animals has shown that the left hemisphere is associated with positive-approach feelings, and the right hemisphere is associated with negative-avoidance feelings.

Interestingly, a 2013 study found that dogs understand the asymmetric tail wagging of other dogs - a right-wagging tail relaxes other canines, while a left-wagging tail makes them stressed.
Originally published on Live Science.

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Joseph Castro - Live Science Contributor

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It's commonly believed that dogs wag their tails to convey that they are happy and friendly, but this isn't exactly true. Dogs do use their tails to communicate, though a wagging tail doesn't always mean, "Come pet me!" Dogs have a kind of language that's based on the position and motion of their tails.

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Dogs can learn 1000 words

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Do you ever talk to your dog? Of course, you do! I mean, don't we all? And if you're anything like me then you probably have entire conversations with your pooch. But how much of it does he understand? Some? All? None? Keep reading to find out how many words a dog can actually understand.

The Name Game

When you bring home your new pooch, what's the first thing you do?

Name him, of course.

Although we probably aren't thinking of it in such concrete terms, communication begins here. So, in the beginning, everywhere your pooch goes, it's Fido this and FeFe that. You just keep repeating your pup's name over and over as many times as possible until all of a sudden you say his name and he turns his head to look at you. Isn't that the best feeling? Fido knows his name!

More Words

Then you introduce more words. Many people refer to these as commands, but they're just human words that your pooch will learn to understand. I always start with sit. Then I move on to paw, stay, down, wait, come, fetch, heel, up, and so on. With a little time and a lot of patience, you'll be communicating before you know it.

So ... How Many Words Can A Dog Learn To Understand?

This varies slightly depending on what expert you ask. According to psychologist Stanley Coren, "The average dog can learn 165 words and dogs in the top 20 percent of dog intelligence can learn 250 words."

Coren lists the top 10 most intelligent dogs as:

1. Border collie

2. Poodle

3. German shepherd

4. Golden retriever

5. Doberman pinscher

6. Shetland sheepdog

7. Labrador retriever

8. Papillon

9. Rottweiler

10. Australian cattle dog

But according to psychologist J.Paul Scott, the average canine can understand approximately 200 spoken human words. Some trainers even claim they've taught dogs up to nearly 350 words. This means you can compare the average pooch to your typical two-year-old human kid's language ability.

Meet A Real Super Dog: "Chaser"

Chaser is a border collie who knows over 1000 words. 1022 to be exact. John W. Pilley, a professor of psychology at the Wofford College in Spartanburg, South Carolina, is Chaser's owner. In 2004, he set out to work with Chaser as he taught him the names of two toys a day over a period of three years. Chaser skyrocketed to fame in 2011 after the study was released in Behavioural Processes Journal. In 2013, Pilley wrote the New York Times Bestseller "Chaser."

Although many of us load up on treats when teaching our dogs new tricks, according to Pilley:
"There's only one thing every owner needs to know when teaching their dog: play is key. Play is much more powerful than food. They don't ever get tired of play"
Watch Chaser In Action

Tips To Teach Your Super Dog New Words

1. Be patient and make your learning session fun. Although some dogs will learn faster than others, always provide lots of repetition, reward, and praise.

2. Be consistent. Make sure that everyone in the household uses the same word/words to refer to the object or action. If not it will get confusing and make learning more difficult.

3. Along with your verbal cues use hand gestures. This is especially important if you're teaching your dog safety commands. Dogs respond well to body language and hand gestures. For example: If I am teaching "wait" then I will always put my hand up in clear vision of his/her face so they know I mean stop.

4. Don't give up on senior Fido. Old dogs can definitely learn new words and new tricks and he'll appreciate the extra time and attention he'd get with you.

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How Many Words Can A Dog Understand? - Proud Dog Mom

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Do you ever talk to your dog? Of course, you do! I mean, don't we all? And if you're anything like me then you probably have entire conversations with your pooch. But how much of it does he understand? Some? All? None? Keep reading to find out how many words a dog can actually understand.

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Dogs can sense cancer.

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Canine cancer detection is an approach to cancer screening that relies upon the claimed olfactory ability of dogs to detect, in urine or in breath, very low concentrations of the alkanes and aromatic compounds generated by malignant tumors.

While some research has been promising, no verified studies by secondary research groups have substantiated the validity of positive, conclusive results.

Media coverage

The proposal that dogs can detect cancer attracted widespread coverage in the general media. In 2015 the Huffington Post reported that studies have suggested that dogs may be able to detect lung cancer, melanoma, breast cancer and bladder cancer, and that dogs can be trained to detect cancer in 93% of cases. In 2016, actress Shannen Doherty told Entertainment Tonight in an interview that her dog identified her breast cancer before doctors could diagnose it. National Geographic said that "man's best friend can detect various cancers, including prostate cancer, colorectal cancer and melanoma."

On the other hand, a review by Australian Popular Science found that the more rigorous trials produced less positive results. Another trial reported in Nature World News found disappointing results, but nevertheless "the researchers... believe that one day, dogs can still detect lung cancer."

NBC reported that Britain's National Health Service is behind the first clinical trial to test the ability of canines to detect cancer.

Although the first suggestion of this approach in a medical journal, , dates back to 1989, there were only occasional publications on the subject in the next decade.

However, two studies (one published in 2004 and one in 2006), involving detection in urine, had promising results, with the 2006 report claiming a 99% accuracy in detecting lung cancer, although both studies were preliminary and involved small numbers of patients.

In a 2011 study, lung cancer was identified with a sensitivity of 71% and a specificity of 93%, using breath samples.

In a May 25, 2012 article, "What to make of Medical Dogs" published by Science-Based Medicine, Peter Lipson reported on his review of the scientific literature regarding these claims and found valid support for positive conclusions to be lacking:

While anecdotes abound, there is scant literature to support this ability. One unimpressive pilot study looked at dogs' potential ability to detect bladder cancers from urine samples. The idea behind cancer dogs is that there may be volatile compounds produced in cancer patients that dogs can detect by scent. In these studies, the compounds are not identified, not tested for, not named. There are many confounders, for example, in the few samples used, there may be other differences being detected by the dogs.

In the other study (I found very few) dogs were "trained" to detect lung and breast cancers in humans. The methodology of breath sampling is not validated as far as I can see, and once again, the putative compounds in breath are not identified. Statistically, the efficacy is marginal at best... I don't doubt the social and emotional value of dogs as companions, and as active helpers in many circumstances. But beyond this, the evidence is wanting.

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Canine cancer detection is an approach to cancer screening that relies upon the claimed olfactory ability of dogs to detect, in urine or in breath, very low concentrations of the alkanes and aromatic compounds generated by malignant tumors. While some research has been promising, no verified studies by secondary research groups have substantiated the validity of positive, conclusive results.

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Dogs have a better sense of smell

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Which of America's favorite pets is top dog (or the cat's meow) when it comes to smarts and skills?

We turned to science to put the age-old rivalry to the test.

If you disagree with the results, join the debate at our special Dogs vs. Cats celebration site.

May the best pet win!

Which Have More Stamina?

The sled dogs that compete in Alaska's annual Iditarod run about 1,100 miles in less than two weeks, often in temperatures as low as -40 degrees F. "They use fat as their primary energy source-far better than any other athletic species that's been studied," says exercise physiologist Michael Davis, who notes that a 55-pound husky can burn as many as 12,000 calories a day. Davis's research has also shown that sled dogs have an enormous capacity to process oxygen. Cats are more like sprinters: They're capable of short bursts of energy but lack the aerobic endurance of ultra-runners like huskies.

Which Are More Agile?

"Cats are very nimble, with great balance," says New York City veterinarian Michael Garvey. "When a cat falls off a bookshelf, it usually lands on its feet." And when cats take a longer plunge, their body control is even more on display. "Cats that fall large distances typically don't land on their feet, but given enough time, they are able to right themselves. They contort their bodies so they are falling flat, which allows them to land on their chest and belly, reducing their injuries," says Garvey. He should know: He's the former director of an animal hospital in Manhattan that treated up to 250 falling felines each summer. He and his colleagues cataloged the injuries and discovered a surprising trend: Cats that fell from higher than 10 stories up actually fared better than those that fell from between five and nine stories. Garvey believes the added height gives cats the time to position themselves for a perfectly splayed-out landing. "I've seen cats that have fallen more than 32 stories and didn't have serious fractures," says Garvey, who conducted a follow-up study on dogs. "Sadly, most dogs that fall even four stories don't survive, because they lack the ability to compose their bodies midair."

Which Are Better Hunters?

Many kinds of dogs have been meticulously bred to assist humans in hunting, but cats are arguably more effective as independent assassins. "Some dogs will chase squirrels all day long, but if they do get one cornered, they often won't know what to do with it," says animal behaviorist Monique Udell, who has worked with both cats and dogs. "Cats will almost always go in for the kill." Cats' superior close-range and nighttime vision contributes to their hunting prowess, as does their ability to focus intensely on the task at hand. In fact, their skill as hunters has been documented: A 2010 University of Nebraska report found that feral and stray cats kill as many as 480 million birds in the U.S. each year-that's approximately eight Tweeties for each Sylvester.

Which Are Hardest Working?

Both cats and dogs were originally brought into the human fold for practical reasons (cats to kill vermin, dogs to hunt and to herd). But these days, dogs have by far the more diverse résumé. Their job skills are almost as wide-ranging as humans': Dogs guide the blind, chase down criminals, and sniff out illegal drugs. They're called in to detect termites, to identify gas leaks, and even to help schoolchildren with ADHD concentrate. (They're still pretty good at herding cows and sheep, too!) Meanwhile, though cats are sometimes recruited to control rodents, in general they lack dogs' versatility-and drive. According to a recent study, the average house cat spends 80 percent of the day in repose.

Which Live the Longest?

Cats have an average life span of 13 or 14 years, as opposed to just shy of 11 years for their canine rivals. "For dogs, there's a huge difference depending on the size of the animal-the really large dogs tend to have considerably shorter lives," explains Stanley Coren, an animal behaviorist. "A Newfoundland is quite old by the time he's 8 or 9. A miniature poodle might live for 14 or 15 years." For cats, the main age variable is environment-outdoor cats don't live nearly as long as indoor cats, which have been known to survive for more than two decades.

Which Are the Fastest?

Greyhounds are capable of running 40 miles per hour-making them by far the speediest pet of either species. (The Greyhound Project, Adopt-a-Greyhound.org, works to ensure that retired racers find good homes.) "In general, the fastest animals tend to have fairly small guts, slender heads, and light limbs," says Jim Usherwood, a British researcher who studies animal locomotion. And while some cats in the wild-like cheetahs, which can reach a top speed of 65 miles per hour-meet these physical criteria, house cats do not. Among Usherwood's most interesting findings is that, unlike human runners, greyhounds don't slow down at all as they round a bend. The motion of their legs is similar to that of a bicycle wheel, which keeps a constant speed through a turn. Studies haven't proved whether domestic cats employ a similar running style, in part because they generally can't be cajoled into galloping around a track. But when they are motivated to take off, cats run a (relatively) close second-they've been clocked at up to 30 miles per hour.

Which Are the Most Independent?

Most domestic dogs need lots of human attention, relying on their two-legged masters to regulate their meals, supervise their exercise, keep them clean, and generally shower them with love and affection. Cats, on the other hand, are happy to be left on their own. "Dogs were domesticated to interact with people-to live with people, to hunt with people, to protect people, to herd with people," says Udell. "Cats were domesticated to chase around rats-no supervision required." As a result, "many of a house cat's ancestral behavioral patterns related to hunting, cleaning, and even burying their waste are still intact," she says. However, for many breeds of pet dogs, similar survival mechanisms-like the instinct to chase and kill other animals-have been bred out.

Which Have the Better Sense of Smell?

The human nose has about 5 million olfactory receptors, microscopic proteins that allow us to detect odors. With 45 million to 80 million receptors, cats have a far better sense of smell-but they can't measure up to the average dog, whose snout holds between 149 million and 300 million receptors. The canine sense of smell may be a thousand times better than ours, and so discerning that dogs can not only track a missing person but distinguish whether he recently had a meal or smoked a cigarette. Historically, dogs relied on their superior snouts to find prey and avoid predators. These days, dogs are trained to sniff out everything from bedbug infestations to the chemical changes that indicate early-stage cancer.

Which Are Smarter?

There are many ways of sizing up what's going on inside our pets' furry heads; scientists have tried to assess such areas as communication, trainability, and complexity of thought. Sorry, cat lovers, but in just about every measure, dogs come out on top. "The average dog can learn 165 words; that's equivalent to the vocabulary of a 2-year-old child," says Coren, whose surveys have found that border collies, poodles, German shepherds, and golden retrievers are the brainiest breeds. "Cats can learn something in the vicinity of 35 words." (The smartest feline may be the Maine coon.) Dogs are also far easier to train and have a greater capacity for complex thought. A recent study found that pet dogs observe and learn from human behavior to such an extent that they won't bother to beg for food while their owner is reading a book. Earlier work has shown that dogs understand the concept of "object permanence" (when a ball rolls underneath a sofa, for instance, dogs know that it still exists-it's just hidden from view). Cats also have this ability but aren't able to predict where the rolling ball will reappear, for example, as well as dogs can. And while Coren concedes that more research needs to be done on cats, he notes that cats evolved as loners, a factor that doesn't favor intelligence. "Generally speaking, animals [like dogs] that have a complex social life and work in groups tend to be brighter."

The Verdict:

Looks like dogs are ahead by a nose, but as our experts have shown, each animal has its own special talents. Disagree with the results? Join the debate at our special Dogs vs. Cats celebration site.

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Which of America's favorite pets is top dog (or the cat's meow) when it comes to smarts and skills? We turned to science to put the age-old rivalry to the test. If you disagree with the results, join the debate at our special Dogs vs. Cats celebration site.

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Cats are more aggressive against their owners

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Aggression is the second most common feline behavior problem seen by animal behaviorists. Although cat aggression is sometimes taken less seriously than dog aggression-perhaps because cats are smaller and don't pursue people to bite them-aggressive cats can be formidable. They have five potential weapons (their teeth and all four clawed paws) compared to a dogs' sole weapon of his or her mouth. Cats can bite and inflict severe lacerations, which are painful and can easily become infected. They can also cause cat scratch fever, a usually benign but potentially serious infectious disease that causes flu-like symptoms. Fights between cats rarely result in fatalities, but they can lead to infections and result in considerable veterinary expenses for cat parents. Aggressive cats can be risky to have at home and can pose a real danger to family and visitors.

What Is Aggression?

Aggression is threatening or harmful behavior directed toward a person, another cat or other animals. Virtually all wild animals display aggression to guard their territories, defend their offspring and protect themselves if attacked. Aggression refers to a wide variety of complex behaviors that occur for different reasons under various circumstances. In pet cats, aggressive behavior can range from cats who hiss and avoid the target of their aggression to cats who attack.
Understanding Cat Body Language
Understanding what cats are communicating through their body language is essential for cat parents. It enables them to more accurately "read" their cats and understand their feelings and motivations for doing what they do. It also helps them respond more effectively to behavior issues like aggression.

Body language is made up of cats' body postures, facial expressions, and the position and carriage of certain body parts, like ears, tail and even whiskers. Cat body language is more subtle than dog body language and can be harder for people to interpret. Knowing the basic postures and what they mean can help cat parents deal with problems more effectively and enjoy their cat's company more fully because they can understand a common language.

Threats and aggression can be either offensive or defensive. An offensively aggressive cat tries to make himself look bigger and more intimidating, whereas a defensively aggressive cat adopts a self-protective posture and tries to make himself look smaller. The following are typical postures seen in feline aggression. A rule of thumb is to not touch, attempt to reassure, or punish cats showing these postures!
Offensive postures include:

A stiff, straight-legged upright stance

Stiffened rear legs, with the rear end raised and the back sloped downward toward the head

Tail is stiff and lowered or held straight down to the ground

Direct stare

Upright ears, with the backs rotated slightly forward

Piloerection (hackles up), including fur on the tail

Constricted pupils

Directly facing opponent, possibly moving toward him

Might be growling, howling or yowling

Defensive postures include:

Crouching

Head tucked in

Tail curved around the body and tucked in

Eyes wide open with pupils partially or fully dilated

Ears flattened sideways or backward on the head

Piloerection (hackles up)

In an anxious cat, whiskers might be retracted. In a fearful cat, whiskers might pan out and forward to assess distance between himself and the danger

Turning sideways to the opponent, not straight on

Open-mouthed hissing or spitting

Might deliver quick strikes with front paws, claws out

Overt aggression, whether defensive or offensive, includes:

Swatting, striking with paws

Biting

Fighting

Growling, shrieking

Scratching

Preparing for an all-out attack by rolling onto side or back and exposing all weapons: teeth and claws

In this position, your cat might attempt to grab your hand and bring it to his mouth to bite it

Classification of Aggressive Behavior

If your cat has been aggressive in the past or you suspect he could become aggressive, take time to evaluate the situations that got him upset. Who did he aggress toward? When and where did it happen? What was going on during the half-hour or so leading up to the incident? What was about to happen to your cat? Determining the answers to these questions can clarify the circumstances that trigger your cat's aggressive reaction and provide insight into why he's behaving this way. You need to understand the cause of your cat's aggression and his motivation for it before you can help him.

Keep in mind that a number of medical conditions can cause or contribute to your cat's aggression, including toxoplasmosis, hyperthyroidism, epilepsy, abscesses, arthritis, dental disease, rabies, trauma, and sensory decline or cognitive dysfunction in older cats. The first step in resolving your cat's aggression problem is to have a complete veterinary exam to assess his physical health.

Aggressive behavior problems in cats can be classified in different ways. A good way to understand why your cat is aggressive is to think about the function or purpose of the aggression. If you consider all the reasons why cats behave aggressively, you can determine what motivates your cat to do so and identify what he might gain from his behavior.
Between Cats
The most obvious and easily understood type of aggression between cats occurs between unneutered males. As males reach adulthood, they often begin to challenge each other for access to mates and territory. Tom cats who roam will get into threatening stand-offs and actual fights. They sit or stand stiffly, their hackles up, and stare at each other. Their ears are swiveled backward, and they often growl, hiss and howl loudly. One cat might eventually slowly leave, or one or both of them might attack.

Aggression between household cats is more subtle and complex than the conflicts between two outdoor toms. It can be so subtle, in fact, that cat parents don't notice it. The aggressor cat postures, and the recipient makes himself look smaller and may break away to avoid the aggressor. The aggression can occur between females or between females and males. It can be related to physical size and activity (large cats often intimidate smaller or less active cats), to a lack of pleasant social experiences with other cats, to an accidentally learned association between the other cat and something unpleasant (like fireworks or thunder), or to a simple personality clash. Please see our article, Aggression Between Cats in Your Household, for more information about this problem.
Fearful or Defensive
Fear aggression can occur when a cat perceives a threat, and it escalates if he can't escape. The more threatening the person, animal, object or sound seems to the cat, the more heightened his fear reaction will be. Typical body postures associated with fearful or defensive aggression are a combination of defensive signals (such as crouching, flattening the ears, tucking the tail, leaning away or rolling onto the side, and pupil dilation) and aggressive signals (such as hissing and spitting, piloerection, growling, swatting, biting and scratching). Aggressive signals are especially likely to be displayed if a cat can't escape the thing he fears. Often the best way to deal with a defensively aggressive cat is to simply avoid him until he calms down.
Territorial
Animals of many species strive to expel or keep out other individuals from their territory, and cats are no exception. Both male and female cats are territorial, but males may defend larger territories than females. Cats' territorial aggression is usually directly toward other cats, but it can be directed toward dogs and people, too. A cat can show territorial aggression toward some family members and not others and toward some cats but not others. Cats mark their turf by patrolling, chin rubbing and urine spraying. They may stalk, chase and ambush a targeted intruder while displaying offensive body postures, including hissing, swatting and growling. Some cats take a slow and steady approach in their stalking, while others immediately and aggressively give chase. A cat's perceived territory could be the entire house or part of it, the yard, the block or the neighborhood.

Some of the most common situations that trigger territoriality are:

A kitten in the household reaches sexual maturity

A new cat is introduced into the family and household

Major changes are made in the cat's family or environment (for example, moving or someone moving in)

Stray or roaming cats in the neighborhood enter a cat's territory

Play
Rough play is common and natural among kittens and young cats less than two years of age. Despite the playful intentions of a cat, however, when such play is directed toward people or becomes overly rambunctious, it can cause injury to people or damage household items. Play aggression is the most common type of aggressive behavior that cats direct toward their owners. It involves typical predatory and play behaviors, including stalking, chasing, attacking, running, ambushing, pouncing, leaping, batting, swatting, grasping, fighting and biting. It's believed that through play with each other, young cats learn to inhibit their bites and sheathe their claws when swatting. The degree to which individual cats learn to inhibit their rough play varies, and those who were orphaned or weaned early might never have learned to temper their play behavior. Other factors that can contribute to play aggression are long hours spent alone without opportunities to play, and if pet parents encourage their cats to chase and attack people's hands and feet in play.
Redirected
Redirected aggression is probably the most dangerous type of cat aggression because the bites are uninhibited and the attacks can be frightening and damaging. Unfortunately, it's also a very common type of feline aggression. Redirected aggression occurs when a cat is aggressively aroused and agitated by an animal or person he can't get at (because there's a window between them, for example). Unable to get to the trigger of his agitation, he turns and lashes out at someone-person, dog or cat-who is nearby or who approaches him. There can be considerable delay between the initial arousal and the redirected aggression, as long as hours. This is why cat parents sometimes describe this kind of aggression as unprovoked or "out of the blue." They weren't even aware of the initial trigger (for example, a cat outside who passed by 30 minutes before the attack). A redirected attack occurs only if an agitated cat is approached or there's someone close by. The cat won't go looking for someone to attack! It's not a malicious or even intentional type of aggression. It's almost like a reflex, done automatically without thought. This is why it's never a good idea to break up a cat fight or approach an agitated cat showing defensive or offensive aggression postures.

Some common triggers for redirected aggression are:

Watching another cat through a door or window

Watching or stalking birds, squirrels or other prey animals

Smelling another cat's odor on a family member, a visitor or clothing

Coming indoors after getting outside if the cat usually lives only indoors

Hearing high-pitched noises

Being frightened or harassed by a dog

Having a person intervene in a cat fight

Being in an animal shelter, surrounded by the sight, smell and sounds of other cats

Petting-Induced
Some cats enjoy being petted, held, carried and even hugged. Some merely tolerate these activities with their owners, or they like being petted but not carried. And a few don't like being petted at all. Petting-induced aggression occurs when a cat suddenly feels irritated by being petted, nips or lightly bites the person petting him, and then jumps up and runs off. This type of aggression isn't well understood, but behaviorists think that physical contact, like stroking, can quickly become unpleasant if it's repeated over and over. Repetitive contact can cause arousal, excitement, pain and even static electricity in a cat's fur. Imagine if someone rubbed your back but, instead of moving his hand all over your back, he rubbed in just one spot, over and over. That could quickly become unpleasant. Your cat might feel the same way: what started out feeling good is now irritating, and he wants you to stop. This type of aggression is more common in males than females. When your cat signals you to stop petting, the best response is simply to stop.

With careful observation of your cat's communication signals, you'll usually see warning signs, such as:

Quickly turning his head toward a person's hand

Twitching or flipping his tail

Flattening his ears or rotating them forward and back

Restlessness

Dilating pupils

Pain-Induced and Irritable
Pain-induced and irritable aggression are triggered by pain, frustration or deprivation, and they can be directed toward people, animals and objects. Any animal-including humans-can aggress when in pain. So even a well-socialized, normally docile cat can lash out when he's hurt, when someone tries to touch a painful part of him (for example, to medicate his infected ears), or when he's in pain and he anticipates being handled because someone is approaching him. Cats with aggression problems should always be examined for underlying medical problems, especially painful diseases such as arthritis, dental pain and abscesses from fighting. Painful punishment is not only ineffective for changing cat behavior, it can also trigger pain-induced aggression and worsen other types of aggression, like fear and territorial aggression. Body postures will usually be defensive.
Maternal
All mothers have instincts to protect their offspring from potential danger. Maternal aggression can occur when a mother cat (called the queen) with her kittens is approached by people or other animals whom she perceives as a threat. It's more often directed and other cats, but it can be directed toward people, too. Queens can be quite aggressive when defending their young, especially in the first few days after birth. For this reason, it's a good idea to avoid handling kittens during the first few days of their lives.
Idiopathic
The classification of idiopathic aggression includes any type of aggression whose cause can't be determined or explained through behavior history or medical exam. Cats with this type of aggression can attack their owners violently. They may bite repeatedly and remain in an aroused state for long periods of time. Redirected aggression must be closely considered and ruled out as a possible cause before a diagnosis of idiopathic aggression is made. These cats are dangerous, and pet parents of such cats should carefully assess their quality of life, as well as the safety of those around them.
Predatory
Cats are predators, and predatory behaviors are completely natural and highly motivated behaviors for them. Many experts don't classify predation as aggression because its purpose is to obtain food-unlike other types of aggression, which are responses to conflict. Cats are superb hunters. They use their acute vision and sensitivity to high-pitched sounds to locate their prey. They hunt insects, reptiles, rodents, young rabbits and birds. Most cats specialize in rodents, such as mice and voles, but a few become good at killing birds. When a cat detects potential prey, his predatory sequence of behaviors starts with silent stalking, watching and waiting for the perfect moment to strike (his rear end might wobble from side to side and his tail might twitch). Then he'll finally sprint toward the prey and strike it with his front paws. If he's successful, he'll deliver a killing bite that all cat species use-he'll bite the prey at the back of the neck to sever the spinal cord. If your cat likes to watch out the windows, you may have seen him become focused, twitch the end of his tail and move his mouth to make a strange chattering sound. When cats do this, it's because they've detected prey that they'd like to hunt.

Always Work with Your Veterinarian

A medical workup is essential for all aggressive cats. Some cats behave aggressively because of a medical condition or complication. In addition to acute painful conditions, cats with orthopedic problems, thyroid abnormality, adrenal dysfunction, cognitive dysfunction, neurological disorders and sensory deficits can show increased irritability and aggression. Geriatric cats can suffer from confusion and insecurity, which could prompt aggressive behavior. Certain medications can alter mood and affect your cat's susceptibility to aggression. Even diet has been implicated as a potential contributing factor. If a medical problem is detected, it's crucial to work closely with your veterinarian to give your cat the best chance at improving.

Always Work with a Professional

Aggression can be a dangerous behavior problem. It is complex to diagnose and can be tricky to treat. Many behavior modification techniques have detrimental effects if misapplied. Even highly experienced professionals get bitten from time to time, so living with and treating an aggressive cat is inherently risky. A qualified professional can take a complete behavior history, develop a treatment plan customized for your cat and coach you through its implementation. She can monitor your cat's progress and make alterations to the plan as required. If appropriate, she can also help you decide when your cat's quality of life is too poor or when the risks of living with your cat are too high and euthanasia is warranted. Please see our article, Finding Professional Behavior Help, to locate a Certified Applied Animal Behaviorist (CAAB or ACAAB) or board-certified veterinary behaviorist (Dip ACVB) in your area for guidance.
Hetts, Suzanne. (1999). Pet Behavior Protocols. Lakewood, CO: AAHA Press.

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Aggression is the second most common feline behavior problem seen by animal behaviorists. Although cat aggression is sometimes taken less seriously than dog aggression-perhaps because cats are smaller and don't pursue people to bite them-aggressive cats can be formidable.

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Since dogs poop outside your house will not smell like the litter box inside of your house.

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Dogs might be loud, but they do that when they think someones in trouble

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Barking, along with whining, howling and growling, is a dog's natural means of communication.

A dog may bark for a number of reasons: to induce play, discipline young, warn of danger, threaten intruders, or it may bark because it's curious. None of these reasons tend to result in excessive or annoying barking - barking is short-lived and specific to an occasion.

Barking for companionship or for reward (food, freedom, etc.) is the most likely to develop into problem barking.

A barking problem is much easier to prevent than to cure!

Causes of Problem Barking
In order to retrain a problem barker it is necessary to determine what factors may be triggering the behavior.

1. Genetics
Some breeds are more prone to barking (e.g. terriers) although almost any breed can exhibit excessive barking.

2. Physical Need
The dog is hot, cold, hungry or thirsty. This is the dog's way of requesting that you accommodate one of its needs. A dog may become a problem barker due to insufficient exercise - the dog's pent-up energy is released through barking.

3. Emotional Need
The dog is bored, excited or anxious. This can be the dog's way of requesting attention, or may be a compulsive behavior resulting from a frustrated need for social and/or mental stimulation.

4. Environment
Improper confinement (restrictive tethering, being locked in a pen alone for long periods, lack of shelter) can all lead to a dog that barks excessively. Additionally, excessive barking may be triggered by environmental cues (other dogs barking, passing cars, sirens, storms, etc.).

Solutions
Once you have determined the situation(s) that cause your dog to bark excessively, there are steps that can be taken that may control or curb the problem barking.

Give both negative and positive reinforcements. If the dog barks, use an appropriate correction and make sure you correct while the barking is occurring.

DO NOT reinforce the barking behavior by giving in to the dog's demand for attention. Reward the dog when it is quiet and well behaved.

Increasing level of severity:

Make sure your dog's physical needs are met.

Do not leave your dog alone in the back yard longer than necessary - dogs are social animals and like to be with their "pack".

If a dog is to be an outdoor dog, increase its activity level. Ensure the dog has bones or chew toys. Consider getting the dog a companion.

Move the run or pen to an area where the dog can't see or hear whatever may stimulate the barking (e.g. children, pets, neighbours, etc.).

Turn on a radio (low volume) to cover noises that may induce barking and to keep the dog company.

Place hand tightly around muzzle and growl a "Quiet" or "No". Do not shout as this may encourage the dog to bark more. Be consistent.

Throw something on the ground near the dog (not at it) which will make a loud startling clatter (penny tin, chain).

Squirt lemon juice in the mouth (good for whiners).

If your dog only barks when you're not home you may want to consider "setting up" your dog. Set up a departure - make sure your dog sees you drive away. Return silently to make the necessary corrections. This procedure may have to be repeated several times.

If you trust your neighbours, consider enlisting their help in applying necessary corrections when you're not home. But remember, THEY need to be consistent.

Enroll in a training class. A well trained dog is seldom a problem barker and training will increase your dog's confidence and control.

Bark collars - there are several types available:

1. Citronella Collar - releases a spray of citronella when the dog barks. Sensitivity is variable and it may be possible to rent a collar.

2. "The Husher" - muzzle type device that applies resistance. Dog is still able to drink, etc. but becomes fatigued when he attempts to bark excessively.

3. Ultrasonic "beeping" Collar - may be bark activated or remote activated. Should only be used with proper knowledge and restraint.

4. "Shock" Collar - may be bark activated or remote activated. A last resort option and should only be used by a professional trainer.

The surgical removal of the larynx (debarking) is costly and not guaranteed.

DO NOT USE BB GUNS OR SLINGSHOTS
All dogs have different personalities. Some may require a heavy correction while others will respond well to a simple verbal reprimand. So match the correction to the temperament of the dog.
Most Important:
Have patience and be consistent.
Questions?
Give us a shout!

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Barking, along with whining, howling and growling, is a dog's natural means of communication. A dog may bark for a number of reasons: to induce play, discipline young, warn of danger, threaten intruders, or it may bark because it's curious.

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7 things dogs can prove to u that they do to show u that they love u.

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Some dogs jump all over everyone they meet, and some reserve their slobbery kisses for only a few very select humans. Here are some simple ways to tell for sure whether your dog truly loves you - or if he's just happy to have someone around to pour his kibble.

1. Your dog likes sleeping with you at night.

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7 Things Dogs Do That Prove They Really, Really Love You

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Some dogs jump all over everyone they meet, and some reserve their slobbery kisses for only a few very select humans. Here are some simple ways to tell for sure whether your dog truly loves you - or if he's just happy to have someone around to pour his kibble.

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Dogs love to be clean and dirty but they most likely like to be clean.

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(Image: © Nuli | Dreamstime)

Throw Fido in a lake and he'll take to it like, well, a duck to water, but Fluffy the cat will balk at the prospect, right?

Sort of.

While most dogs do enjoy swimming and most cats don't, it isn't a hard and fast rule that divides the species.

"Not all cats hate the water and not all dogs love it, but generally speaking, the domestic cat doesn't seem to like to swim," said Kelley Bollen, the director of behavior programs for the College of Veterinary Medicine at Cornell University.

There could be a number of reasons for that, Bollen told Life's Little Mysteries.

"One contributing factor could be that their hair coat doesn't dry quickly and it's simply uncomfortable to be soaking wet. I also think because cats are ' control freaks' and like four feet on a solid surface, they do not appreciate the sensation of floating in the water," said Bollen, who also runs the Animal Alliances behavior practice in Massachusetts.

Some dogs , on the other hand, are specifically bred to 'work' in the water, such as the aptly-named Portuguese Water Dog, the Duck Trolling Retriever and the Irish Water Spaniel, Bollen said. These breeds are great swimmers, unlike heavy-set breeds such as bulldogs and dogs with short legs, such as daschunds.

Besides some genetic factors, dogs are also much more likely to be introduced to water in a pleasant way from an early age than cats are, said Suzanne Hetts, a wildlife biologist with Animal Behavior Associates in Colorado.

There are plenty of exceptions, however, Hetts said.

"All of have to do is go on YouTube and watch all kinds of home videos of cats playing with water coming out of the faucet," she said. How Did Dogs Get to Be Dogs?
Got a question? Email it to Life's Little Mysteries and we'll try to answer it. Due to the volume of questions, we unfortunately can't reply individually, but we will publish answers to the most intriguing questions, so check back soon.

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Why Do Dogs Love Water But Cats Hate It?

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(Image: © Nuli | Dreamstime) Throw Fido in a lake and he'll take to it like, well, a duck to water, but Fluffy the cat will balk at the prospect, right? Sort of. While most dogs do enjoy swimming and most cats don't, it isn't a hard and fast rule that divides the species.

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Cats scratch furniture for a number of reasons. Scratching is a good form of exercise for them. They get to stretch out their bodies and extend and retract their nails. When they scratch, the movements help remove the outer nail sheaths.

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Cat tearing up your favorite loveseat? You might want to invest in a nice scratching post.

Cats scratch furniture for a number of reasons. Scratching is a good form of exercise for them. They get to stretch out their bodies and extend and retract their nails. When they scratch, the movements help remove the outer nail sheaths. Cats also scratch to leave visual and olfactory (scent) markers. Their interdigital glands, which are located between the pads of their paws, leave odors behind so that other cats know that the "marker" cat has been in the area. When cats scratch objects, they also leave small gouges, which are visual signals to other cats that there is a cat in the area.

Some cats also may scratch furniture because they are not provided with adequate scratching posts. Other cats have developed a preference for particular materials, such as the expensive fabrics that our couches and armchairs are made from! The location of certain furniture may make it a great place for cats to provide a visual signal or get a good scratch in after waking from a nap. In the wild, scratching sites are usually located in areas where the cats spend a fair portion of their time.

What to Do?

1. Place a scratching post right next to the furniture the cat is currently scratching.

2. Deter the cat from scratching furniture by placing double-sided sticky tape on it. Many cats find the stickiness of the tape unpleasant.

3. Praise and offer food rewards whenever your cat scratches her scratching post. You can use clicker training to capture the cat as she is engaging in appropriate scratching behavior to teach her to scratch on the preferred objects.

4. Offer a variety of scratching substrates; don't offer just one carpeted scratching post. For example, also offer one of the inexpensive cardboard scratching posts or one made from sisal rope. I often recommend an untreated wooden log, which is what many cats scratch in the wild. However, you need to make sure this "au naturel" scratching post is secure, so it can't tip over and injure your cat. Sometimes, I have the owner buy fabric similar to the furniture the cat likes to scratch and make their own scratching posts. Then I have the owner leave a deterrent, like sticky tape, on the actual furniture and place the new scratching post next to the furniture. As the cat starts to scratch the new scratching post, the owner can slowly move the post to a more desirable location.

And remember, if you've tried all these recommendations and your cat is still "redecorating" the furniture, seek professional help from your veterinarian.

More on Vetstreet.com:

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how to stop a cat from scratching furniture

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Cat tearing up your favorite loveseat? You might want to invest in a nice scratching post. Cats scratch furniture for a number of reasons. Scratching is a good form of exercise for them. They get to stretch out their bodies and extend and retract their nails.

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Dogs are bigger than cats, on average, and are likely to run up higher food bills as a result. They also tend to require more toys, supplies, and services than cats, including crates, leashes, collars, and training classes. Routine veterinary expenses tend to be higher for dogs than for cats.

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In the age-old battle between cat lovers and dog lovers, there may never be a clear winner.

Science demonstrates that both cats and dogs can provide health and social benefits to humans - and both cat owners and dog owners are quick to tell you how much their preferred pet improves their happiness and quality of life.

But science tells us there are some unique benefits that come with cats. Here's some validation for the cat people out there:

1. Cat people are more intelligent than dog people.

Last year, researchers from Carroll University in Wisconsin completed a study on the personality differences between people who identified as "cat people" versus "dog people." One of the study's most provocative findings was that cat people scored higher on intelligence than dog people.

This doesn't mean that going out and getting a cat will magically make you smarter. It simply suggests that the kind of people who have personalities that are attracted to cats are more likely to score higher on intelligence. This result could be related to the study's other findings, which indicated that cat people are more introverted, more open-minded, and more likely to be nonconformists rather than rule-followers.

2. Cats have a smaller carbon footprint than dogs.

In 2009, The New Scientist reported on a new book by Robert and Brenda Vale titled "Time to Eat the Dog: The Real Guide to Sustainable Living," in which the authors estimated the carbon footprints of a variety of popular household pets.

They argued that a medium-sized dog has a carbon footprint twice that of your standard SUV, just based on the amount of meat the dog would consume in an average year. Meat requires a notoriously large amount of resources to produce, including both land and energy.

Cats, being smaller and therefore eating less, have a carbon footprint equal to a small Volkswagen, the authors argued - still a hefty amount, but much better than that of your average dog.

It's true that cats can hurt the environment in other ways. Recent research suggests that outdoor cats kill billions of birds and other small animals every year. But one could also argue that this is another reason to adopt cats and get them off the street - provided you pledge to keep them indoors.

3. Cats are less slobbery than dogs.

No, really - there's a scientific reason for this one. A study conducted by researchers at Princeton University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology found that cats are much more efficient than dogs when it comes to drinking water.

Dogs smash their tongues into the water's surface with a force up to eight times that of gravity, splashing and causing a mass. But cats delicately dip their tongues into the water with a force up to twice that of gravity, neatly pulling up a column of liquid to swallow.

4. Owning a cat may reduce your risk of dying from a heart attack.

A study conducted by researchers from the University of Minnesota showed that people who owned cats were nearly 40% less likely to die of a heart attack than those who had never owned a cat.

Numerous studies have suggested that pets, including cats, dogs, and other animals, are capable of reducing stress in their human companions. In fact, pet therapy is now a popular treatment for the sick and the elderly. Research has shown that both cats and dogs can lower blood pressure in people suffering from hypertension.

But while cats and dogs share all kinds of similar health benefits for their humans, in this particular study dog owners did not seem to enjoy the same benefit as cat owners.

5. Cats are cheaper than dogs.

According to the ASPCA, owning a cat instead of a dog could save you a minimum of $300 to $800 a year - probably more.

Dogs are bigger than cats, on average, and are likely to run up higher food bills as a result. They also tend to require more toys, supplies, and services than cats, including crates, leashes, collars, and training classes. Routine veterinary expenses tend to be higher for dogs than for cats.

And the ASPCA tally doesn't even factor in expenses such as boarding or dog-walking when the pet owners are away, expenses which are often bigger for dogs than for cats.

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In the age-old battle between cat lovers and dog lovers, there may never be a clear winner. Science demonstrates that both cats and dogs can provide health and social benefits to humans - and both cat owners and dog owners are quick to tell you how much their preferred pet improves their happiness and quality of life.

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Cats are better than dogs because they do not make a lot of noise.

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Cats and dogs are both cute and lovely, no doubt about that. But there always has been a discussion about which animal is the overall better pet. We, as cat people, clearly stand on the side of cat owners and lovers! This is why we have gathered the ultimate, undisputable reasons why cats are better than dogs (at least from our perspective...). While this is highly subjective, the following article contains some facts that even the craziest dog lovers can barely argument against. Please keep in mind that this article is not meant to be taken 100% seriosly and was written for the sole purpose of fun. This being said, here are the top 7 reasons why cats are better than dogs!

1. Cats are cleaner than dogs

It doesn't matter whether your cat is going outdoors regularly or likes to stay inside: Cats take care about their hygiene. In fact, while most of the dogs require regular cleaning by their human, cats are basically self-cleaning. On top of that, if your cat is not particularly a fighter, you don't even have to bother with its claws, as they scratch them from time to time to stop them from growing too much.

However, when it comes to dogs, you should seriosly prepare yourself for quite some work! Without a helping hand of their humans, dogs never reach the hygiene of cats. Be it fleas, bacteria or just some mud: Because dogs almost never clean themselves by licking their furr, they are highly susceptible to these aspects of dirt.

In conclusion: Cat owners barely have to spend any time to clean their cats, because these cute fluffballs do it all on their own. When comparing the hygiene of dogs and cats, there really isn't any argument in favor of the dogs....Sorry dog owners!

2. Cats are more independent than dogs

Planing for a vacation? That's great! But wait...did you consider your dog? Prepare yourself for some serios dog-sitter costs if you don't have a really (reeeaaally) good friend who is willing to spend a few hours a day just on taking care of your dog. If you don't want your dog to do its busines in your house and become depressed, you need somebody to look after him at least 3 times a day for half an hour.

Cats on the other hand are way easier to handle when it comes to going on a vacation. They never do their business within their territory, so you won't have to worry about poo-poo on your floor or even your garden when returning from your trip. Furthermore, with a simple kitty door installed in your house, your cat can roam around the streets and go fetch some mice or birds as it pleases - no problem! Oh and don't worry about feeding your little cutie: There are numerous automatic food dispensers out there that solve this issue for you in a cheap, clean and comfortable way! So the only thing you really need to worry about, is that your cat may miss you while you are gone.

3. Dogs are rarely accepted by landlords

Have you ever looked for apartements to rent on the internet? If you have, I am sure you found that at least half of the landlords don't accept dogs. While this is not easy for dog owners to handle, we can understand the landlord's perspective: Although cute and lovely, dogs are also noisy, dirty and smelly. If you are out of town for 6 months and want to rent your place to make some money, would you want the apartment to be smelly afterwards? That's right, we thought so.

In contrast, cats are way more often accepted by landlords. Their silent and hygienic nature makes them the perfect renter!

4. Cats are quiet

Look at these tiny kittens, do you think they could wake you up in the night? Alright, when they grow up, they actually can...point given. But we don't think that there is much room for argument when it comes to how noisy dogs can be compared to cats. Have you ever witnissed how loud dogs can bark or even howl? Well if not, consider yourself lucky because it's not a fun experience. While cats also can meow pretty loudly, it's not just a random noise they make. In fact, your cat meowing loudly over and over again is a pretty good indicator that there is something seriosly wrong with it! So instead of dogs randomly barking because the postman is coming, your cat will only meow loudly if it is in serios need for help!

5. Dogs can't purr

Cat owners can all agree on one thing: Hearing a warm, heartful purr of your cat can make your heart melt. Here at KittySensations, we go even further and say: The purr of a cat is the most beautiful, calming sound in the whole animal kingdom! Do you want to argue with that? If yes, then you are propably not a cat owner...

We know dogs can also make beautiful sounds and maybe our stance on purrs is a bit exaggerated but that's just how we cat lovers see things.

6. Cats are fancier than dogs

When it comes to being fancy, cats are the absolute masters! If cats were humans, they probably would be extremely rich. Jokes aside, if one were to describe how cats walk and behave with one word, we don't think it would be false to say: Graceful.

Dogs on the other hand don't act or walk gracefully at all. In fact, when thinking about our metaphor, we would like to add that dogs would probably serve cats their drinks...

7. Cats have their own opinion

Dogs come across like they are happy all the time. This can be super beautiful and we love dog smiles just like everybody else! However, we value that cats have their own, independent opinion on things. They are not puppets who laugh and smile at everyone and everything. Cats feel free to like and dislike whatever they want. Ever tried to change your cats' diet? The second you are pouring that food into the food bowl your cat will stare at you like: 'Human... I am not having that'.

By the way, when it comes to cats liking stuff: Our cat themed jewelry has been tested and approved not only by hundreds of cat lovers, but also by our fluffy furr-friends themselves!

Thank you Zappa the cat, we love seeing you happy with the bracelet. By the way, if you like this feline accessory aswell, you can take a look at it here and save $20 for the next 24 hours!

This wraps up our article for today. T o be honest, we don't really think any animal is superior to any other animal, we just wanted to fool around with our love for cats a bit...

We hope you had fun reading the article and if you want, you can check out our other articles for more cat related stories!

Until next time.

Credit to Pierre Vorpuni for the first picture!

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Cats vs. Dogs - 7 Reasons Why Cats Are Better Than Dogs

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Cats and dogs are both cute and lovely, no doubt about that. But there always has been a discussion about which animal is the overall better pet. We, as cat people, clearly stand on the side of cat owners and lovers!

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Dogs are good for practicing the members of ur family and ur home.

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Dogs Protecting Their Owners - Dogs that are better than guns! [ Dog Training ]

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Dogs are a mans best friend

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Researchers concluded that when it comes to a number of criteria including intelligence, bonding and obedience, dogs narrowly beat their feline adversaries.

Out of 11 categories selected by the magazine New Scientist, dogs won six compared with five for cats.

Despite cats deemed overall to have a more powerful brains, dogs showed greater ability to understand commands, problem solve and were generally more helpful, it was said.

Cats on the other hand had better acute senses, a smaller carbon footprint and their miaowing and purring was considered less intrusive than dogs barking and whining.

While dogs were thought to bond better with their owners especially as they appeared to offer unconditional love, cats were more independent and needed less care.

This was all down to evolution said the scientists that pointed out that cats were generally loners and dogs pack animals.

However the study admitted that despite the dog advantages, cats remained the most popular domestic animals in the world.

The top 10 cat owning countries in the world had an estimated 204 million felines, compared the top 10 dog owing countries having fewer than 173 million canines.

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Dogs are better than cats - at least scientifically speaking

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Researchers concluded that when it comes to a number of criteria including intelligence, bonding and obedience, dogs narrowly beat their feline adversaries. Out of 11 categories selected by the magazine New Scientist, dogs won six compared with five for cats.

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Dogs work with some of the police offers. Also, they are good for identifying people or things.

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While many dogs are simply companions, other dogs have serious jobs. Working dogs generally have natural instincts that are carefully honed with intensive training to perform a specific task. Kennel clubs and dog breed organizations categorize certain breeds into a "working group." While those breeds traditionally worked (such as herding or guarding), today those dogs may or may not perform those functions. In fact, many canine jobs can be done by multiple dog breeds as well as by mixed breed dogs.

Here are some types of working dogs and the jobs they are specially trained to perform.

Service dogs or assistance dogs are working dogs that have been trained to assist people with disabilities. The Americans with Disabilities Act has special guidelines regarding service dogs and their treatment in public places. A true service dog is trained to behave well in all types of situations, so the dog can accompany the handler anywhere. Therapy dogs and emotional support dogs are not service dogs.

Some examples of service dogs include:

Guide dogs for people with visual impairments

Mobility-assistance dogs

Seizure dogs and other medical-assistance dogs

Hearing dogs for people with hearing impairments

Dog breeds commonly used include the golden retriever, Labrador retriever, standard poodle, and German shepherd.

Military Working Dogs

Similar to police dogs, military working dogs assist members of the military with their operations. These dogs may be used as detectors, trackers, sentries, and scouts. And they can take part in search and rescue.

Most of the military working dogs are German shepherds, Dutch shepherds, and Belgian Malinois.

Watch Now: 12 Giant Dog Breeds and What Makes Them Special

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7 Types of Working Dogs and the Jobs They Do

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While many dogs are simply companions, other dogs have serious jobs. Working dogs generally have natural instincts that are carefully honed with intensive training to perform a specific task. Kennel clubs and dog breed organizations categorize certain breeds into a "working group."