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When waking up one morning, seventy year old Maria noted that she could not move her fingers to button up her blouse with her R) hand.  She tried to talk to her daughter however despite being able to speak, she could not arrange the words in a coherent fashion. She sought medical assistance and was diagnosed as having a stroke.

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When waking up one morning, seventy year old Maria noted that she could not move her fingers to button up her blouse with her R) hand.  She tried to talk to her daughter however despite being able to speak, she could not arrange the words in a coherent fashion. She sought medical assistance and was diagnosed as having a stroke.

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Q1. State which major part of the brain has been damaged and name two major functional areas of that part of the brain that have been affected.

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Q1. State which major part of the brain has been damaged and name two major functional areas of that part of the brain that have been affected.

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The cerebrum is damaged.  The association area called Wernicke's area located in the left temporal and parietal lobe. It is responsible for the arrangement of coherent speech.
The motor area called the primary motor area found in the frontal lobe is also affected. It controls voluntary action of skeletal muscles (Tortora et al., 2014).

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Q2. Give a rationale as to why each of the functional areas was chosen by referring to the changes experienced by Maria.

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Q2. Give a rationale as to why each of the functional areas was chosen by referring to the changes experienced by Maria.

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The left cerebrum is responsible for speech and understanding language.  When the cerebrum has been effected by a stroke it will cause a paralysis or lack of ability to move body parts on the right side, just like in Maria's case (Hopkins, 2019). When muscle loses its strength and causes paralysis, the frontal lobe is also responsible and the temporal lobe is responsible for the lose of speech (Effects of Stroke, 2019).

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The National Talent Identification and Development Program administered by the Australian Institute of Sport determined that Ben displayed an aptitude for powerlifting. He decided to pursue this sport and went on to compete at both state and national level.

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The National Talent Identification and Development Program administered by the Australian Institute of Sport determined that Ben displayed an aptitude for powerlifting. He decided to pursue this sport and went on to compete at both state and national level.

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Q1. Identify which muscle fibre type is best suited for this activity and provide rationale for the answer.

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Q1. Identify which muscle fibre type is best suited for this activity and provide rationale for the answer.

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Participants in a powerlifting competition perform 1 Repetition Maximum, 1RM, therefore their maximum muscle contraction may only last up to 6 seconds (Weightlifting, 2019).
Fast glycolytic fibres are activated for this movement. Fast twitch B fibres primary action is used in rapid and fast speed contraction. Creatine phosphate is the first source of energy for this contraction (Tortora et al., 2019).

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Q2. The process by which the muscle fibre produces the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) required to contract the muscles used during a bench press.

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Q2. The process by which the muscle fibre produces the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) required to contract the muscles used during a bench press.

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The Fast-Glycolytic muscle fibres produce the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) energy required to contract the muscle using the Anaerobic Glycolysis process.
- First the process takes glycogen which is stored along with glucose from the blood.
- The process of glycolysis breaks down the glucose to create two molecules of ATP and two molecules of Pyruvic acid.
- The Pyruvic acid is then converted to lactic acid which is released into the blood stream.
This process provides energy for muscles to contract for approximately two minutes (Tortora & Derrickson, 2012).

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Q3. Throughout a powerlifting event , Ben noted that he could not lift as effectively towards the end of a competition. State the fatigue resistance of the previously identified muscle fibre and describe 2 factors that may contribute to a metabolic fatigue specifically when powerlifting.

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Q3. Throughout a powerlifting event , Ben noted that he could not lift as effectively towards the end of a competition. State the fatigue resistance of the previously identified muscle fibre and describe 2 factors that may contribute to a metabolic fatigue specifically when powerlifting.

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Fast glycolytic fatigue is caused by a series of event within the body. Firstly there is an insufficient amount of acetylcholine is released from the motor neurons, which causes a depletion of creatine phosphate, leading to an inhibited release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, resulting in a lack of oxygen or glycogen within the muscle. Lactic acid and ADP contribute to metabolic fatigue which stops an athlete from perform their maximum lift in a powerlifting competition
(Hargreaves, 2019).

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Samantha (50 years old) has a family history of diabetes type 2, is morbidly obese and suffers from high blood pressure. At a routine medical visit, it was recommended that she make an appointment for diabetes screening. Her initial glucose levels indicated the presence of higher than normal blood glucose levels.

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Samantha (50 years old) has a family history of diabetes type 2, is morbidly obese and suffers from high blood pressure. At a routine medical visit, it was recommended that she make an appointment for diabetes screening. Her initial glucose levels indicated the presence of higher than normal blood glucose levels.

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Q1. Name the endocrine gland and associated relevant tissue that contribute to blood glucose regulation. Name and describe the function of two cells located within this organ that participate in glucose homeostasis.

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Q1. Name the endocrine gland and associated relevant tissue that contribute to blood glucose regulation. Name and describe the function of two cells located within this organ that participate in glucose homeostasis.

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The pancreas, made up of glandular epithelium tissue, contributes to blood glucose regulation.  Alpha cells secrete glucagon to raise blood sugar levels and beta cells secrete insulin to lower blood sugar levels (Tortora & Anagnostakos, 1990).  Glucose homeostasis is accomplished by opposing and balancing actions of glucagon and insulin.

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Q2. Samantha's blood sugar levels are high. Describe the negative feedback regulation of the hormone involved in hyperglycaemia. 

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Q2. Samantha's blood sugar levels are high. Describe the negative feedback regulation of the hormone involved in hyperglycaemia. 

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Hyperglycemia stimulates the  hypothalamus to release a hormone called growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH) and suppresses the release of  growth hormone -releasing hormone (GHRH).
GHIH travel through the portal blood system into the anterior pituitary and inhibits the release of human growth hormone (HGH). Insulinlike growth factors (IGFs) and small levels of HGH slow the breakdown of glycogen that occurs in the liver and glucose is slowly secreted into the blood. Blood glucose levels return to normal (Tortora et al., 2014).

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Q3. Samantha has commenced pharmaceuticals as a treatment for her prediabetes. After taking the medication for a few weeks she experiences a hypoglycaemic episode where her blood glucose level falls below the recommended level. Describe the negative feedback regulation of the hormone involved in hypoglycaemia. 

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Q3. Samantha has commenced pharmaceuticals as a treatment for her prediabetes. After taking the medication for a few weeks she experiences a hypoglycaemic episode where her blood glucose level falls below the recommended level. Describe the negative feedback regulation of the hormone involved in hypoglycaemia. 

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When the body becomes hypoglycaemic it releases a hormone called epinephrine. This hormone is released from the adrenal glands in order to stimulate the release of more glucose into the blood. However, if this is unsuccessful and blood sugar drops to dangerous levels, the adrenal glands will release cortisol. The pancreas will release glucagon and the pituitary gland will release growth hormone (Brutsaert, E.F 2019). In Samantha's case the recommendations from Brutsaerts  (2019) would be to cease taking the medication. Samantha's blood glucose should be recorded over time to determine if the medication is the cause.

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Q3. Can neurogenesis occur to replace damaged/destroyed neurons in the central nervous system (CNS)?

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Q3. Can neurogenesis occur to replace damaged/destroyed neurons in the central nervous system (CNS)?

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Neurogenesis is the generating of new neurons formed in the brain.  Neurogenesis has little or no effect on damaged or destroyed neurons within the CNS. The first factor that inhibits this process is the blocking influences from neuroglia especially the oligodendrocytes. The second factor is the missing growth stimulating signals that were in attendance during fetal development. Axons in the CNS are myelinated by oligodendrocytes and myelin is one of the factors stopping the regenerating of neurons (Tortora & Derrickson, 2012).

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Q4 Hormones within the body (other than those identified in 2 & 3 above) can contribute to an elevation in blood glucose. Choose one hormone and describe the mechanism by which it raises blood sugar levels.

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Q4 Hormones within the body (other than those identified in 2 & 3 above) can contribute to an elevation in blood glucose. Choose one hormone and describe the mechanism by which it raises blood sugar levels.

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When blood sugar levels are too low (hypoglycemia) encourages alpha cells from the pancreas to secrete the hormone glucagon. Glucagon acts on the liver cells (hepatocytes) to  increase the rate of conversions of glycogen into glucose.  Glucose is then released into the blood stream at a rapid rate promoting the rise in blood levels. If the blood levels rise too high (hyperglycemia) this then stops the release of the hormone glucagon
(Tortora & Derrickson, 2012).

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Q5. For the hormone identified in 4. above, name the location and specific cell type from where it is secreted and identify the hormone that stimulates its secretion. Describe where the hormone that stimulates the secretion is synthesised. 

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Q5. For the hormone identified in 4. above, name the location and specific cell type from where it is secreted and identify the hormone that stimulates its secretion. Describe where the hormone that stimulates the secretion is synthesised. 

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The pancreas consists of millions of islets of Langerhans that secrete glucagon via the alpha cells and is stimulated for secretion by insulin.  Insulin is produced in the pancreas and is secreted via the pancreatic islet beta cells and works in with glucagon to balance blood sugar levels (Tortora & Anagnostakos, 1990).

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Evaluation of type 2 diabetes prevention through diet modification in people with impaired glucose regulation_ A population-based study

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Q4. The damage to Maria’s brain has resulted in her inability to move her R) arm. Which specific neuron in the neural circuits that make up the somatic motor pathways has been affected in this case? Give a rationale for the answer. 

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Q4. The damage to Maria’s brain has resulted in her inability to move her R) arm. Which specific neuron in the neural circuits that make up the somatic motor pathways has been affected in this case? Give a rationale for the answer. 

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The interneurons in the cerebral cortex are damaged and not stimulating the upper motor neuron in Maria’s case which is not synapsing with a lower motor neuron in the central nervous system in order to contract the skeletal muscle and has resulted in her inability to move her right arm (Tortora & Derrickson, 2019).

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Q5. The axons of the neuron identified above extend from the brain via two pathways. Which specific pathway (within either one or the other of these  pathways) is affected? Using this pathway as an example, explain why damage to the L) side of Maria's brain has affected the movements in Maria's R) hand.

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Q5. The axons of the neuron identified above extend from the brain via two pathways. Which specific pathway (within either one or the other of these  pathways) is affected? Using this pathway as an example, explain why damage to the L) side of Maria's brain has affected the movements in Maria's R) hand.

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The direct motor pathway, specifically the Lateral Corticospinal, is affected. The left side of Maria's brain sends somatic sensory signals from the cerebrum.These signals descend and cross over to the right side in  the Pyramids of the Medulla Oblongata. They continue to descend into the spinal cord through the Lateral Corticospinal tract and into the Lower Motor Neuron, which then conveys the nerve impulses that control the muscles on the right side of  Maria's body (Tortora et al., 2014).

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Q4. Name and describe at least one event that occurs during each period of a muscle twitch.

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Q4. Name and describe at least one event that occurs during each period of a muscle twitch.

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Three stages occur in a twitch contraction.
Stage 1 -  Latent period
Nerve stimulus occurs via a  motor neuron firing and Ach is released.
Calcium is released.
Stage 2 - Contraction period
Ach binds to receptors that open sodium ion channels. Calcium binds to troponin, the myosin binding site is revealed and the shortening of the sarcomere occurs.
Stage 3- Relaxation period
Active transport takes place. calcium  goes back to the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Process begins again on demand
(Marieb & Hoehn, 2010).

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Q5. Name and describe each of the contractions in relation to muscle and length.

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Q5. Name and describe each of the contractions in relation to muscle and length.

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When Ben performs a bench press the first action is the lowering of the bar to his chest. This is called the Eccentric phase.  This occurs when the load is greater than the force that the muscle can generate. In this contraction the muscles lengthen and the angle at the joint increases. Phase two is the concentric phase. This occurs in the pushing action, when the muscle is pushing against gravity or the load.  In this contraction the muscles shorten and the angle at the joint is decreased (Powerlifting Australia, 2019).

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Chat Room

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1. Keep the post on topic. Do not ask irrelevant questions.
2. Keep post confidential. Remember we are online. Respect group members privacy at all times.
3. Be tolerant and respectful of our peers time and work.
4. Do not use abusive language.
5. Complete task within the time frame and to the best of our ability.
6. Respect group members ideas.
7. Remember your ethics at all times & treat your fellow group members as you would wish to be treated.
(Verywellmind, 2019).

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Tom is a 15 year old soccer player that fell over during training.  An X-ray revealed a Type II fracture of the L) proximal femoral growth plate.  It required closed reduction and plaster cast immobilisation to heal.

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Tom is a 15 year old soccer player that fell over during training.  An X-ray revealed a Type II fracture of the L) proximal femoral growth plate.  It required closed reduction and plaster cast immobilisation to heal.

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Q1. Zones and structure of the cells of the epiphyseal plate.

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Q1. Zones and structure of the cells of the epiphyseal plate.

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Zone 1. Resting Cartilage - located nearest to the epiphysis consisting of small chondrocytes.
Zone 2. Proliferating Cartilage - slightly larger chondrocytes arranged like a stack of coins.
Zone 3. Hypertrophic Cartilage - large (mature age) chondrocytes displayed in columns.
Zone 4. Calcified Cartilage - calcium laid down and mature chondrocytes die.
(Tortora & Derreckson, 2012).

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Q2. Describe the process of growth in length of a long bone.

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Q2. Describe the process of growth in length of a long bone.

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Cartilage is formed on the epiphyseal side of the plate by mitosis.  Chondrocytes multiply, replacing cartilage with bone on the diaphyseal side of the plate.  Calcified cartilage is dissolved by Osteoclasts.  Osteoblasts invade to build bone, lengthening the diaphysis.  At the end of adolescence, the growth plate closes and is replaced with the epiphyseal line (Tortora & Anagnostakos, 1990).

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Q3. Name (in the correct order) & briefly outline (include cells) the phases of bone  fracture repair.

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Q3. Name (in the correct order) & briefly outline (include cells) the phases of bone  fracture repair.

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Bone fracture repair is a slow procedure. It occurs in four stages.
Phase 1- Reactive Blood vessels in the bone and Periosteum are torn, this causes a blood clot to accumulate at the site of  the damage. The bone cells die off, inflammation occurs, osteoclasts and phagocytes dispose of impaired tissue.
Phase 2a- Reparative
Fibrocartilaginous callus  forms and new blood vessels are created. Fibroblasts create collagen fibres, chondroblasts deliver fibrocartilage, soft callus attaches across the fracture.
Phase 2b- Reparative
Bony callus forms, osteoprogenitor cells evolve into osteoblasts, spongy bone trabeculae is formed, hard callus is produced.
Phase 3 - Remodelling
Osteoclasts resorb deceased fragment portions, spongy bone is replaced by compact bone, fracture is healed (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010).

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Q4. Name 1 possible consequence of damage to the epiphyseal plate in Tom's L) femur and outline why this occurs.

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Q4. Name 1 possible consequence of damage to the epiphyseal plate in Tom's L) femur and outline why this occurs.

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In most cases of type 11 fractures to the growth plate, the epiphysis separates from the metaphysics on an angle which causes a tear in the periosteum. These injures are commonly reduced but the torn periosteum can get trapped in the fracture site and prevent the full reduction to occur. If this ccurs, an operation may be needed to realign the fracture and growth plate. Failure to do so may leave the bone deformed or disturb growth by the injury developing a bony bar and subsequent growth arrest (The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne).

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Q5. Three factors that influence the growth and repair of Tom's bones during his teenage years.

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Q5. Three factors that influence the growth and repair of Tom's bones during his teenage years.

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1. Minerals - an adequate dietary intake of calcium and phosphorous are required while bones are healing. Small amounts of magnesium, fluoride and manganese are also necessary for bone remodelling.
2. Vitamins - good levels of vitamin A is required to stimulate the activity of the osteoblasts to build new bone. A good level of vitamin C is needed for the synthesis of the main bone protein collagen.
3. Hormones - very important for bone growth, activating the osteoblasts and helping with cell division at the epiphyseal plate. Hormones also contribute to the synthesis of the proteins required to build new bone (Torora & Derrickson, 2012).

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I, Kellie Morley, agree to abide by the group Netiquette rules.

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I, Blanche Pols, agree to abide by the group Netiquette rules.

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I, Charlene Suchting, agree to abide by the group Netiquette rules.

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I, Karen Patman, agree to abide by the group Netiquette rules.

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Brutsaert, E. F. (2019). Hypolycemia. Retrieved May 23, 2019 from https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/hormonal-and-metabolic-disorders/diabetes-mellitus-dm-and-disorders-of-blood-sugar-metabolism/hypoglycemia

Castro-Abril, H. A., & Gutiérrez, M. L., Garzón-Alvarado, D. A. (2016).
Proximal femoral growth plate mechanical behavior: Comparison between different developmental stages. Computers in Biology and Medicine, 76, 192-201. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.endeavour.edu.au/eds/detail/detail?vid=2&sid=ef59f8c1-ac6c-44fa-a6a4-06b3b863b951%40sessionmgr103&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=S0010482516301883&db=edselp

Golas, A., & Maszczyk, A., & Pietraszewski, P., & Stastny, P., & Tufano J. J., & Zajac, A. (2017). Effects of pre-exhaustion on the patterns of muscular activity in the flat bench press. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 31(7), 1919-1924. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27984499

Hargreaves, M. (2019). Metabolic factors in fatigue. Retrieved from https://sites.uni.ed/doigener/Advanced_Sport_Nutrition/Metabolic_Factors_in_Fatigue.pdf

Hartney, E. (2019). Ten basic rules of netiquette or internet etiquette. Very Well Mind. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/ten-rules-of-netiquette-22285

Hopkins, J. (2019). Effects of stroke. Retrieved from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and.../-/effects-of-stroke

Khalangot, M. D., & Kortun, V. A., & Gurianov, V. G., & Pysarenko, Y. M., & Kravchenko, V. I. (2018). Evaluation of type 2 diabetes prevention through diet modification in people with impaired glucose regulation: A population based study. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcd.2019.03.011

Marieb, E N., & Hoehn, K (2010). Human anatomy & physiology: Eighth Edition. Pearson Benjammin Cummings

Powerlifting Australia. (2019). World Powerlifting Rules. Retrieved from https://powerliftingaustralia.com/wp-rules/

The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne: Physical growth plate injuries. Retrieved from  https://www.rch.org.au/fracture-education/growth_plate_injuries/Physeal_growth_plate_injuries/

Tortora, G. J., & Anagnostakos, N. P. (1990). Principles of anatomy and physiology: Sixth Edition. New York, NY: Harper & Row

Tortora G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2012). Principles of anatomy & physiology: 13th Edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2014). Principles of anatomy & physiology: 14th Edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B., & Burkett, B., & Peoples, G., & Dye, D., Cooke, J., & Diversi, T., & McKean, M., & Samalia, L., & Mellifont, R. (2019). Principles of anatomy & physiology: Second Edition. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.

Wang, Q., & Mejia-Guevara, I., & Rist, P. M., & Watler, S., & Capistrant, B. D., & Glymour, M. M. (2014). Changes in memory before and after stroke differ by age and sex, but not by race. Cerebrovascular Diseases, 37(4), 235-243. Retrieved from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.endeavour.edu.au/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=4&sid=839b7da9-3d48-47cb-83e3-3b9ec06dd14b%40sdc-v-sessmgr02