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                Methods of Subordination: Part I
            

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                Methods of Subordination: Part I
            

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Subordination is a device for avoiding the use of short, choppy sentences and the overuse of compound sentences. To subordinate an idea, phrase, or clause, you must make it depend upon a main clause or complete sentence.

Verbals are verb forms which are used as some other part of speech. The three verbals are participles, gerunds, and infinitives.

Notice that the original sentence "The long hike tired the tourists" has been subordinated or reduced to a participial phrase. The main verb of the original sentence, "tired" has become a participle describing the subject of the new sentence, tourists.

The participle tired keeps the same past tense form as it did when tired functioned as a main verb. Notice also that "tourists" has replaced "they" as the subject of the sentence.
The sentences below demonstrate the difference between a present tense participial phrase and a past tense participial phrase.

Example:

Tiring from the long hike, the tourists sat down to wait for the bus. (present participial phrase) Tired rom the long hike, the tourists sat down to wait for the bus. (past participial phrase)

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ablative | the case in Latin that expresses separation from, position, motion from, or means by which something is done. Usually translated from, with, in, or by
accusative | the case in Latin and other inflected languages that is used for direct objects; corresponds with objective case in English
dative | in Latin and other inflected languages, the case used for indirect objects
genitive | a case showing possession, source, or origin. Called possessive case in English
inflection | change in the form of a word to indicate case, gender, number, or tense

The term grammar can be used in two ways. In the first sense, grammar can refer to the grammar of language, that is, to its grammatical structure and to the relationships of the words in a sentence.

In the second sense, grammar refers to a set of rules for the use of a language, or to a description of the grammatical structures of a language. This second sense of grammar is called prescriptive grammar when it refers to grammatical usage rather than the description of grammatical structures.
In this unit, grammar will be used in the second sense, as a system of language analysis. No perfect system of grammar study exists. Three different grammars have been developed to describe the structure of modern English. A certain amount of controversy exists concerning the different types of grammars.

Some traditionalists have not considered the merits of any other system. Some supporters of structural grammar or transformational grammar reject the merits of the traditional approach. Structuralists also attack transformational ideas and vice versa.

This section presents the three major types of grammar study, not to promote any one type as a replacement for existing grammars, but simply to acquaint you, the student, with some of the ideas and methods used by American linguists. You will learn how and why each was developed, how they differ, and how they are alike.

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                Parts of Speech Review: Part II
            
        

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                Parts of Speech Review: Part II
            
        

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When it is used to provide the action or state of being of a sentence, the verb is called the simple predicate. The predicate may be one word or a group of words called a verb phrase.

Present tense - action happening now, this minute, today
Past tense - action that happened and was completed in the past
Future tense - action that is expected to happen up ahead
Present perfect tense - past action at any time before now
Past perfect tense - past action completed before another past action
Future perfect tense (seldom used) - action completed before a set time in the future

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          Parts of Speech Review: Part I
        

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          Parts of Speech Review: Part I
        

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Many people use the English language just like they use their cars. They drive their cars, but don't take the time to understand how a car works. Of course, such ignorance comes back to haunt them when the car breaks down. Yet, if a car owner had a basic understanding of how a car operates, he or she would be aware of issues such as the need for routine maintenance, periodic inspection, and sound driving techniques. Such awareness would allow the driver to operate the car more efficiently and possibly perform minor repairs or adjustments, when needed. This kind of preventative maintenance would safeguard against heavy towing and repair bills resulting from the car breaking down on the freeway during rush-hour. Familiarity with his or her car's operations ultimately allows the owner to get the most out of the car.
Language is the car that you drive in the world of communication. As a speaker of English, your knowledge of the structure and function of language increases your ability to use English effectively.

Ignorance of that same structure and function contributes heavily to grammatical "breakdowns." These can be costly--a "D" on a research paper, miscommunication in an important letter, a rejection notice on a manuscript submitted for publishing.

If you know how the language works, that is, its basic structure and functions, you will be able to avoid grammatical "breakdowns." Likewise, you will have the knowledge necessary to perform minor or major editorial "repairs" to your writing so that you can safely reach your intended destination, clear communication.
In this unit you will review the "nuts and bolts" of English grammar; these include the parts of speech: nouns, pronouns (noun substitutes), verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

You will also review a variety of phrase and sentence types, learning to recognize the relationships among the smaller parts and how those combine to contribute the meaning of the larger ones.

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You may have learned earlier that pronouns need to agree with their antecedents in number (singular or plural), in person (first, second, third). They must also agree in gender (masculine, feminine, neuter).

This agreement simply means that if a male is referred to, the masculine pronouns he, him, his would be employed; if a female is the antecedent, the feminine pronouns she, her, hers would be used. If the thing referred to is neither masculine nor feminine, it and its should be used.

Many publications alternate the use of he and she. The frequency of alternation (whether by paragraph or longer sections) varies. Consult a style guide or your teacher for directions in alternating singular pronoun usage. A simpler method is to use a plural antecedent to avoid the singular pronoun altogether.

There are writing contexts where this pluralization is not possible or practical, however. The important considerations are clarity and smoothness of style along with pronoun agreement.

In addition to providing pronouns that agree in person, number, and gender, the writer must establish a clear, easily identifiable relationship between the pronoun and its antecedent.

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Titles of short works are put in quotes. Most poetry, short stories, short plays, and chapter titles in books are placed in quotation marks. For instance, William Golding's Lord of the Flies opens with a chapter entitled "The Sound of the Shell."
Foreign words that not in mainstream use in the English language are italicized. Such words are indicated in many dictionaries with an asterisk (*) For instance, corpus juris means the "body of law," and corrida refers to a bull fight. Such words as these would be italicized.

The names of ships, trains, aircraft, and titles of famous paintings are italicized. The Queen Mary is now used as a restaurant. Air Force One is a supersonic jet that is always at the command of the President of the United States. Mona Lisa is one of the most famous paintings in the world.

Acronyms may be used instead of writing out the entire title of an organization if the acronym is explained the first time it is used. GOP means Grand Old Party but refers to the Republican Party.

In most cases the acronym is actually the first letter in each word of the name of the group as in FEMA for Federal Emergency Management Agency.

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Given the sheer volume of words in the English language, you are bound to come across an unfamiliar word from time to time. You will encounter new words on standardized tests, in the classroom, or even during everyday conversation.

If the dictionary is handy, and you have time, use it; but you can't carry the dictionary everywhere. What do you do in those situations when it isn't available? The tips below (you've been practicing them for years) can save you a great deal of time by helping you determine the meaning of an unknown word without having to stop, stumble, or look the word up in the dictionary.

1. Establish Context. If a sentence is fifteen words long and you are unsure about only one of them, odds are good that you can use the other fourteen to help you out. This is because the words and sentences that surround an unfamiliar word often give clues to its meaning. Therefore, always start by grasping the meaning of the sentence. If the overall gist is clear, you will begin to see how the unfamiliar word fits.

2. dentify the Part of Speech. By determining whether your unknown word functions as a noun, verb, adjective, or adverb, you move a long way toward figuring out its meaning. You can begin to see the word's relationship to other words in the sentence.

3. Pronounce the word. Figuring out a word's pronunciation is a big part of understanding what it might mean. Sometimes, reading the word out loud is enough to make you remember: "I've heard that word before."

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                Word Forms and Meanings: Part II
            

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                Word Forms and Meanings: Part II
            

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Through the knowledge of the meanings of prefixes, suffixes, and roots, you should be able to understand, form, and use hundreds of words not in your current vocabulary. To increase your word comprehension skills, study the following chart. This chart of additional elements will open new worlds of words.

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                Word Forms and Meanings: Part I
            

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                Word Forms and Meanings: Part I
            

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In this unit, you will find the opportunity to increase your word power--to expand it, not arithmetically (4 + 4 = 8), but exponentially (4² = 16). You will learn Latin and Greek roots, prefixes, suffixes, and their meanings.

Since half of the words in the English language come from Latin and Greek, knowing the meanings of Latin and Greek roots, prefixes, and suffixes will be particularly useful in aiding your comprehension of many of the thousands of words used in English.
Later in the unit, you will put your vocabulary to work by composing an expository composition. You will apply your knowledge of grammar to editing and revising that same document.
To use words correctly and effectively, you must understand them. In this section you will study such word elements as prefixes, suffixes, and roots. You will also learn more about certain categories of words that meet specific needs.

You will discover some new terms used by people in various specialized fields including the trades, the sciences, music, literature, and mathematics. Included in the study will be acronyms. Your understanding of many words will increase as a result of the daily application of the information learned in this section.

Word study makes you more aware of word elements you have used for years. Separating these word elements and learning their original meanings will unlock the interpretations of thousands of new words for you. Tying the unknown to things you already know is one of the best ways of learning new words.
For example, you are likely familiar with the term automatic transmission. You at least know that the term refers to a part of a car. Breaking down this term into its parts provides information, not only about the word itself, but also about the part that it names.

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                Word Forms and Meanings: Part I
            

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                Word Forms and Meanings: Part I
            

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To use words correctly and effectively, you must understand them. In this section you will study such word elements as prefixes, suffixes, and roots. You will also learn more about certain categories of words that meet specific needs.

You will discover some new terms used by people in various specialized fields including the trades, the sciences, music, literature, and mathematics. Included in the study will be acronyms. Your understanding of many words will increase as a result of the daily application of the information learned in this section.

Word study makes you more aware of word elements you have used for years. Separating these word elements and learning their original meanings will unlock the interpretations of thousands of new words for you. Tying the unknown to things you already know is one of the best ways of learning new words.
For example, you are likely familiar with the term automatic transmission. You at least know that the term refers to a part of a car. Breaking down this term into its parts provides information, not only about the word itself, but also about the part that it names.
You have seen that many words can be formed from one root by the addition of common prefixes and suffixes. The following word element chart contains more word parts and some examples of words formed from them.

Study this chart and the sample words so that you will be able to use these elements with those you have previously learned to explain some word meanings.

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Language transmits ideas through signs. These signs are words. Words are meaningful only because of meanings given to them by their users. In this sense, language is arbitrary.

A non-English speaker may live next to a pond full of ducks, yet you could approach him, tell him "nice ducks," and he would have no idea what you were talking about. This is because the word duck does not, in itself, resemble the animal it represents.
English speakers have decided that a specific flat-billed semi-aquatic bird is called a duck. Spanish speakers have decided to call that same animal a pato. In this way, language is arbitrary because people determine what signs, or words, are used to represent things in language.
Linguists (people who study language) agree that language is both systematic and arbitrary. The rules that make language systematic are called grammar. Grammar includes syntax (the rules for placing words together to form complete thoughts) and morphology (the rules for forming words). You will also study semantics (word meanings). In this unit, you will study how these three items pertain to the study of languages.

The reality is that there is no hard, fast rule about what constitutes language. The most appropriate definition for our purposes is a systematic means of communication using sounds or conventional symbols. The definition applies to all languages—from English to Japanese to Afrikaans.
Based on our definition, language is not only speech, but conventional symbols, such as writing and sign language, as well. Animal smells and calls, however, are not language because they are not systematic; they are not defined by constructed rules. Language is a set of rules for constructed communication.