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Humanistic therapies is the strive to self-actualize and the beliefs that people are innately good. Client centered therapy where the therapist provides unconditional positive regard, gestalt therapies where the present is stressed to importance, and existential therapies help clients achieve a meaningful perception of their lives

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Psychoanalytic theories include Freuds psychoanalysis of the subconscious. Other therapies lead to symptom substitution after being treated for one disorder. Hypnosis makes patients less likely to repress thoughts and free association is supposed to elude the egos defenses so that the patient may speak freely his/her mind.

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Social loafing is the reduced effort people invest in a task when they are working with other people. Diffusion is when a person does not feel as responsible for working on a task if several others are also present, since responsibility is distributed among all those present.

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Conformity is the process of giving in to real or imagined pressure from a group. Psychologist Solomon Asch did a famous study that demonstrated that people often conform. Factors that influence conformity are group size and group unanimity.

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Obedience is compliance with commands given by an authority figure.  Stanley Milgram did a famous study called the obedience research case study. It showed that people have a strong tendency to comply with authority figures.

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Attributions are inferences that people make about the causes of events and behavior. Attribution theory proposes that the attributions people make about events and behavior can be classed as either internal or external. In an internal attribution, people infer that an event or a person’s behavior is due to personal factors such as traits, abilities, or feelings. In an external, attribution, people infer that a person’s behavior is due to situational factors.

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People’s social identities depend on the groups they belong to. From a person’s perspective, any group he belongs to is an ingroup, and any group he doesn’t belong to is an outgroup.  According to the contact hypothesis, prejudice declines when people in an ingroup become more familiar with the customs, norms, food, music, and attitudes of people in an outgroup.

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A prejudice is a negative belief or feeling about a particular group of individuals. Prejudices are often passed on from one generation to the next. People may often have implicit unconscious prejudices even when they do not have explicit prejudices.

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Stereotypes are beliefs about people based on their membership in a particular group. Stereotypes based on gender, ethnicity, or occupation are common in many societies.

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People use cognitive schemas to organize information about the world. Cognitive schemas help to access information quickly and easily. Social schemas are mental models that represent and categorize social events and people.

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Physical appearance has a strong effect on how people are perceived by others.Evolutionary theorists believe the qualities attributed to baby-faced people reflect an evolved tendency to see babies as helpless and needing nurture.

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In culture and personality individualism and collectivism are very important words to understand. Also remember the big 5 traits:

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The biological perspective involves Hans Eysenck's theory which is that "Personality is determined in larger by a persons genes".

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Abraham Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

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Roger's person centered theory includes:
1. Self-concept - collectionf of belief about one's own nature.
2. Incongruence- Degree of disparity between's one self concept and one's actual experience.
3. Congruence - when self concept is very similar to actual experience and has less anxiety.

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Allport stated that trait theories emphasize that personalities consist of traits and that these traits produce consistent behavior in different situations. A big personality theory is the Five-Factor Theory

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Humanism is the theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans. The Phenomenological approach explains how one has to appreciate individuals personal, subjective experiences to truly understand their behavior.

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The psycho-dynamic perspective was invented by Sigmund Freud which focused on unconscious mental forces. Structure of personality including the ID, Ego, and Superego. There is also his theory of levels of awareness including the Conscious, Pre-conscious, and Subconscious.

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The chemical senses of taste and smell enable us to detect and process chemicals in the environment.

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The skins has senses which include temperature, touch, and pain.
Touch information travels through the spinal cord, brain stem, and thalamus.

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Information about sound waves from the hair cells to the auditory nerve, which carries info to the brains auditory areas.

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The trichomatric theory of color perception holds that three types of color receptors in the retina allows us to percieve three colors green, red, blue

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Light is the stimulus that is sensed by the visual system. In sensation light passes through the cornea and lens to the retina.

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Perception is influenced by attention, beliefs, and expectations.

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Collectivism is utting Group Goals before Individual Goals and Defying one’s Identity in Terms of the Groups one Belongs to.

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psychologist have explored the limits of our abilities to detect stimuli.

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Individualism Involves putting Personal Goals ahead of Group Goals and Defining one’s Identity in Terms of Personal Attributes Rather than Group Membership.
The Big 5 Traits are Similar across Cultures.

1. Self-Enhancement – Focusing on Positive Feedback from Others.

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Sensation is the process of feeling. Perception is the way you retrieve information.

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Stress is the body's response to change in the environment.

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A fourth reason for retrieval failure is amnesia, the physiologically based loss of memory.

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Third, motivated forgetting occurs when we want to forget something. This is common when a memory becomes painful or anxiety-laden, as in the case of emotional traumas such as rape and physical abuse.

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The second reason for retrieval failure is explained by decay theory, which states that when we learn something new, a neurochemical memory trace forms, but over time this chemical trail disintegrates.

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First, interference theory stresses that we forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what we want to remember.

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Autobiographical memories, particularly self-defining memories, provide a unique source of identity, and sharing those memories with others plays a role in social bonding.
Taking on challenging cognitive tasks throughout life can stave off the effects of age on memory and lessen the effects of Alzheimer disease.
Engaging in everyday life means living memorably. Mindfulness to life events provides a rich reservoir of experiences upon which to build a storehouse of autobiographical memories.

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Two important concepts in the study of genetics are the genotype and phenotype. A phenotype is the observable characteristics of the person.

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Effective encoding strategies when studying include paying attention and minimizing distraction, understanding the material rather than relying on rote memorization, asking yourself questions, and taking good notes. Research on memory suggests that the best way to remember course material is to relate it to many different aspects of your life.

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Encoding failure is forgetting information that was never entered into long-term memory. Retrieval failure can occur for at least four reasons:

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Memory retrieval takes place when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage. Retrieval is easier when effective cues are present. Another factor in effective retrieval is the nature of the retrieval task.

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We remember some information for less than a second, some for half a minute, and some for minutes, hours, years or even a lifetime. Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin formulated an early popular theory of memory that acknowledged the varying life span of memories. The Atkinson-Shiffrin thoery states the memory storage involves three separate systems:
Sensory memory: time frames of a fraction of a second to several seconds
Short-term memory: frames up to 30 seconds
Long-term memory: time frames up to a lifetime

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The first step in memory encoding, the process by which information gets into memory storage. Encoding requires attention, but the attention must be selective. Memory is negatively influenced by divided attention. Information is processed on a continuum from shallow to intermediate to deep. Deeper processing produces better memory. The extensiveness of processing at any given level of memory encoding, improves memory.

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Psychologists define memory as the retention of information of information or experience over time. Memory occurs through three important processes; encoding, storage, and retrieval.

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Other parts of the endocrine system would be the pancreas, the ovaries and testes.

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Research using rats and other animals has demonstrated four important variables involved in the human stress response: predictability, perceived control, perceptions of improvement, and outlets for frustration.

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Both Biological and cultural factors contribute to learning. Biological Constraints The structure of an organisms body permits certain kinds of learning and inhibits others. Instinctive Drift, the tendency for animals to revert to instinctive behavior that influences learning, illustrates biological influences on learning.The difficulty for animals to learn readily in one situation but have difficulty learning in slightly different circumstances might result not from some aspect of the learning situation but from the organisms biological predisposition. Preparedness is the species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others. Culture can influence the degree to which these learning processes, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning, are used.- Culture can also influence the content of learning. Carol Dweck (2006) uses the term mindset to describe the way our beliefs about ability to dictate what goals we set for ourselves, what we think we can learn, and ultimately what we do learn. Individuals have one of two mindsets: a fixed mindset, in which they believe that their qualities are carved in stone and cannot change; or a growth mindset in which they believe their qualities can change and improve their effort.

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The Endocrine system contains endocrine glands release hormones directly into the bloodstream for distribution throughout the body.

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-E.C Tolman (1932) emphasized the purposiveness of behavior- the idea that much of behavior is goal directed. Tolman believed that it is necessary to study entire behavioral sequences in order to understand why people engage in particular actions.

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- Many contemporary psychologists, including some behaviorists, recognize the importance of cognition and believe that learning involves more than environment-behavior connections.

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-Albert Bandura's observational learning, also called imitation or modeling, is learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior.
-Bandura described four main processes that are involved in observational learning:attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement.

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Main techniques used to study the brain are brain lesioning, electrical recording and brain imaging. Parts of the brain include hind brain, midbrain, and forebrain.

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Neuron has different parts dendrites, myelin sheath , axon and cell body.

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Neurons make up the communication network of the nervous system

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The brains has two main parts central and peripheral. The CNS is best remembered by its parts (the brain and spine) which are the center of the head and body.

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The nervous system is the body's electrochemical communication circuitry. The four important characteristics of the brain include integration, adaptability, and electrochemical transmission.

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Operant Conditioning or instrumentals conditioning is a form of associative learning in which the consequences of behavior change the probability of the behaviors occurence.
American psychologist B.F Skinner (1938) chose the term operant to describe the behaviors of the organism. E.L. Thorndike established the power of consequences in determining voluntary behavior. His resulting Law of Effect states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behavior should followed by negative outcome such are weakened.

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Shaping is the process of rewarding approximations of desired behavior in order to shorten the learning process. Principles of reinforcement include the distinction between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.

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A large amount of psychological research has relevance to health and wellness.

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Some guiding principles for ethical research in psychology include informed consent, confidentially, debriefing, and explaining the use of the study.

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Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability of the behaviors occurrence. Skinner describes the behavior of the organism as operant: The behavior operates on the environment, and the environment in turn operates on the organism.

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Two types of statistics are used are central tendency and measures of variability. Measures of variability include the range and standard deviation

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Statistics are a big part of research. They are used to summarize samples of data.

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Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and comes to elicit a similar response. In humans, classical conditioning has ben applied to eliminating fears, treating addiction, understanding taste aversion, and explaining such different experiences as pleasant emotions and drug overdose.

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Learning is a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience through associative learning, observational learning, and conditioning.

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In research the whole point is to come to a conclusion after coming up with a hypothesis. So the most important decisions that must be made for psychological research is where to study and whom to study.

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Meditation refers to a state of quiet reflection; the practice has benefits for a wide range of psychological and physical illnesses, and also benefit the body's immune system.

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There are three types of research which are commonly used in psychology descriptive (describing) research ,correctional (correct answers in surveys) research and experimental (experiment)research .

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Hilgards divided consciousness view, hypnosis involves a divided state of consciousness, a splitting of consciousness into separate components. In the social cognitive behavior view, hypnotized individuals behave the way they believe hypnotized individuals are expected to behave.

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Hypnosis is a psychological state or possibly altered attention and awareness in which the individual is unusually receptive to suggestions.

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psychoactive drugs act on the nervous system to alter states of consciousness, modify perceptions, and change moods. Addictive drugs activate te brains reward system by increasing dopamine concentration. Depressants slow down mental and physical activity, stimulants increase the central nervous system's activity, and hallucinogens modify a persons perceptual experiences.

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Cognitive theory attempts to explain dreaming in terms of the same concepts that are used in studying the waking mind. According to activation-synthesis theory, dreaming occurs when the cerebral cortex synthesizes neural signals emanating from activity in the lower part of the brain.

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The sleep stages are associated with distinct patterns of neurotransmitter activity. Levels of the neurotransmitters serotonin, norepinephrine, and acetylcholine decreases as the sleep cycle progresses from stage 1 through stage 4. Stage 5, REM sleep, begins with the reticular formation raises the level of acetylcholine.

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Humans go through four stages of non-REM sleep and one stage pf REM sleep. Most dreaming occurs during REM sleep. A sleep cycle of five stages lasts about 90 to 100 minutes and recurs several times during the night.

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The biological rhythm that regulates the daily sleep sleep/wake cycle is the circadian rhythm. the part of the brain that keeps our biological clocks synchronized is the suprachiasmatic nucleus.

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William ames described the mind as a stream of consciousness. Consciousness occurs at several different levels of awareness that include higher-level awareness, lower-level awareness, altered states of consciousness, subconscious awareness, and no awareness.

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Consciousness is the awareness of external events and internal sensations, including awareness of the self and thoughts about experiences.

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Psychologist use the scientific method to address research questions. The steps of the scientific theory is to first make observations , then formulate hypothesis and test them through research and finally draw conclusions and evaluate the theory

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The psychodynamic approach unconcious behavior.Humanistic approach is best describes as a persons ability to grow mentally. The cognitive approach describes the mental process of knowing something.Evolutionary approach is easier to memorize if you think about the definition of evolutionary , adaptation and reproduction. Last but not least sociocultural is basically the influence of those around you or society. Peers, parents , teachers etc.

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The biological approach is easier to remember with the name in the word. Biology the science of life and body. In this case the brain. The Behavioral also helps by using the word behavior. This method is used to study the behavior of someone.

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psychologist believe that a persons mind and boy intertwine. In the way that the mind influences the body.

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Psychology became a science from the fields of philosophy and physiology. There are different approaches to psychology include biological, behavioral, psycho dynamic, humanistic, cognitive,evolutionary, and social cultural.

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psychology addresses all sides of human experience positive. Along with strengths and weaknesses. Scientist in this field question each others views

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The goals of this science are to describe , predict, and explain behavior.

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what is psychology ? Its a mixture of the study of behavior and mental processes. It is considered a science and it uses systematic methods to draw conclusions about peoples behavior.