# data[].attributes.headline
How to cheat with essays: Copy and paste the same words, but recolour them the same colour as the page. Higher word count, win-win

# data[].attributes.subject
How to cheat with essays: Copy and paste the same words, but recolour them the same colour as the page. Higher word count, win-win

# data[].attributes.body
do not copy and paste as it is my personal work, all you gotta do is re-word it and you should pass at least, i got a merit last year on this.

http://tyronesassignment1.weebly.com

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Home : Technical Terms : Sample Rate Definition

Sample Rate

In audio production, a sample rate (or "sampling rate") defines how many times per second a sound is sampled. Technically speaking, it is the frequency of samples used in a digital recording.

The standard sample rate used for audio CDsis 44.1 kilohertz (44,100 hertz). That means each second of a song on a CD contains 44,100 individual samples. When an analogsound, such as a vocal performance, is sampled at a rate of tens of thousands of times per second, the digital recording may be nearly indistinguishable from the original analog sound.

CDs use a sample rate of 44.1 KHz because it allows for a maximum audio frequency of 22.05 kilohertz. The human ear can detect sounds from roughly 20 hertz to 20 kilohertz, so there is little reason to record at higher sample rates. However, because digital audio recordings are estimations of analog audio, a smoother sound can be gained by increasing the sample rate above 44.1 KHz. Examples of high sample rates include 48 KHz (used for DVD video), 88.2 KHz (2x the rate of CD audio), and 96 KHz (used for DVD-Audio and other high definition audio formats).

While audio aficionados may appreciate higher sample rates, it is difficult for most people to perceive an improvement in audio quality when the sample rate is higher than 44.1 Khz. A more effective way to improve the quality of digital audio is to increase the bit depth, which determines amplitude range of each sample. 16-bit audio, used in audio CDs, provides 2¹⁶ or 65,536 possible amplitude values. 24-bit audio, used in high definition formats, can store 2²⁴ or 16,777,216 possible amplitude values – 256 times more than 16-bit audio.

NOTE: Many DAW programs support sample rates up to 192 KHz. Recording at extremely high sample rates allows sound engineers to preserve the audio quality during the mixing and editing process. This can improve the end result of a song or audio clip even if the final version is saved with a sample rate of 44.1 Hz.

Updated: August 22, 2015

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This page contains a technical definiton of Sample Rate. It explains in computing terminology what Sample Rate means and is one of many technical terms in the TechTerms dictionary.

All definitions on the TechTerms website are written to be technically accurate but also easy to understand. If you find this Sample Rate definition to be helpful, you can reference it using the citation links above. If you think a term should be updated or added to the TechTerms dictionary, please email TechTerms!

‹ Sample | Sampling ›

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Related Terms

1. Sample

2. Sampling

3. Frequency

4. Digital

5. Analog

6. Digitize

7. CD

8. DVD

9. DAW

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# data[].attributes.headline
n digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample.n digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample.n digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample.n digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample.

# data[].attributes.subject
n digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample.n digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample.n digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample.n digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample.

# data[].attributes.headline
n digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample.

# data[].attributes.subject
n digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample.

# data[].attributes.headline
n digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample.

# data[].attributes.subject
n digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample.

# data[].attributes.headline
n digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample.

# data[].attributes.subject
n digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample.

# data[].attributes.body
It's the number of times per second that the sound level is sampled.
normally, you have 16-bit 44.1kHz sound. Pros use 24-bit 48kHz sound (moden equipment also does 96 and 192kHz).
The bits is the amplitude of the signal, which is measured 44.1 or 48 thousand times per second.
In normal 16-bit audio, you can have 2^16 (65536) different amplitude levels. The pros need more precision, so they use 24 bits to get 16.7 million different sound pressure levels

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Sampling Basics

At the most basic level, computers operate one step at a time by turning a succession of switches on or off at very high speed. Since computers “think” in discrete steps, in order to convert analog audio signals to the digital domain, it’s necessary to describe the continuous analog waveform mathematically as a succession of discrete amplitude values.

In an analog-to-digital converter, this is accomplished by capturing, at a fixed rate, a rapid series of short “snapshots”—samples —of a specified size. Each audio sample contains data that provides the information necessary to accurately reproduce the original analog waveform. Things like dynamic range, frequency content, and so on are all contained within this datastream. The instantaneous amplitude level in each sample is given the value of the nearest measuring increment—a process called quantization. By reproducing these values and playing them back in the same order and at the same rate at which they were captured, a digital-to-analog converter produces a practically identical (in theory) copy of the original waveform.

The rate of capture and playback is called the sample rate. The sample size—more accurately, the number of bits used to describe each sample—is called the bit depth or word length. The number of bits transmitted per second is the bit rate. Let’s take a look at this as it applies to digital audio.

# data[].attributes.body
sample rate - the number of audio samples captured every second

bit depth - the number of bits available for each clip

bit rate - the number of bits used per second of audio

# data[].attributes.body
In digital audio , bit depth describes the potential accuracy of a particular piece of hardware or software that processes audio data. In general, the more bits that are available, the more accurate the resulting output from the data being processed.
Bit depth is frequently encountered in specifications for analog-to-digital converters ( ADC s) and digital-to-analog converters ( DACs), when reading about software plug-in , and when recording audio using a professional medium such as a digital audio workstation or a Digital Audio Tape machine
.

Bit depth is the number of bit s you have in which to describe something. Each additional bit in a binary number doubles the number of possibilities. By the time you have a 16-bit sequence, there are 65,536 possible levels. Add one more bit, and you double the possible accuracy (to 131,072 levels). When you have a 24-bit process or piece of 24-bit hardware, there are 16,777,216 available levels of audio.

# data[].attributes.headline
l the values that Silicon Valley professes are the values of the 60s. The big tech companies present themselves as platforms for personal liberation. Everyone has the right to speak their mind on social media, to fulfil their intellectual and democratic potential, to express their individuality. Where television had been a passive medium that rendered citizens inert, Facebook is participatory and empowering. It allows users to read widely, think for themselves and form their own opinions.We can’t entirely dismiss this rhetoric. There are parts of the world, even in the US, where Facebook emboldens citizens and enables them to organise themselves in opposition to power. But we shouldn’t accept Facebook’s self-conception as sincere, either. Facebook is a carefully managed top-down system, not a robust public square. It mimics some of the patterns of conversation, but that’s a surface trait.Sign up to the Media Briefing: news for the news-makers Read moreIn reality, Facebook is a tangle of rules and procedures for sorting information, rules devised by the corporation for the ultimate benefit of the corporation. Facebook is always surveilling users, always auditing them, using them as lab rats in its behavioural experiments. While it creates the impression that it offers choice, in truth Facebook paternalistically nudges users in the direction it deems best for them, which also happens to be the direction that gets them thoroughly addicted. It’s a phoniness that is most obvious in the compressed, historic career of Facebook’s mastermind.Mark Zuckerberg is a good boy, but he wanted to be bad, or maybe just a little bit naughty. The heroes of his adolescence were the original hackers. These weren’t malevolent data thieves or cyberterrorists. Zuckerberg’s hacker heroes were disrespectful of authority. They were technically virtuosic, infinitely resourceful nerd cowboys, unbound by conventional thinking. In the labs of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) during the 60s and 70s, they broke any rule that interfered with building the stuff of early computing, such marvels as the first video games and word processors. With their free time, they played epic pranks, which happened to draw further attention to their own cleverness – installing a living cow on the roof of a Cambridge dorm; launching a weather balloon, which miraculously emerged from beneath the turf, emblazoned with “MIT”, in the middle of a Harvard-Yale football game.AdvertisementThe hackers’ archenemies were the bureaucrats who ran universities, corporations and governments. Bureaucrats talked about making the world more efficient, just like the hackers. But they were really small-minded paper-pushers who fiercely guarded the information they held, even when that information yearned to be shared. When hackers clearly engineered better ways of doing things – a box that enabled free long-distance calls, an instruction that might improve an operating system – the bureaucrats stood in their way, wagging an unbending finger. The hackers took aesthetic and comic pleasure in outwitting the men in suits.When Zuckerberg arrived at Harvard in the fall of 2002, the heyday of the hackers had long passed. They were older guys now, the stuff of good tales, some stuck in twilight struggles against The Man. But Zuckerberg wanted to hack, too, and with that old-time indifference to norms. In high school he picked the lock that prevented outsiders from fiddling with AOL’s code and added his own improvements to its instant messaging program. As a college sophomore he hatched a site called Facemash – with the high-minded purpose of determining the hottest kid on campus. Zuckerberg asked users to compare images of two students and then determine the better-looking of the two. The winner of each pairing advanced to the next round of his hormonal tournament. To cobble this site together, Zuckerberg needed photos. He purloined those from the servers of the various Harvard houses. “One thing is certain,” he wrote on a blog as he put the finishing touches on his creation, “and it’s that I’m a jerk for making this site. Oh well.”His brief experimentation with rebellion ended with his apologising to a Harvard disciplinary panel, as well as to campus women’s groups, and mulling strategies to redeem his soiled reputation. In the years since, he has shown that defiance really wasn’t his natural inclination. His distrust of authority was such that he sought out Don Graham, then the venerable chairman of the Washington Post company, as his mentor. After he started Facebook, he shadowed various giants of corporate America so that he could study their managerial styles up close.AdvertisementStill, Zuckerberg’s juvenile fascination with hackers never died – or rather, he carried it forward into his new, more mature incarnation. When he finally had a corporate campus of his own, he procured a vanity address for it: One Hacker Way. He designed a plaza with the word “HACK” inlaid into the concrete. In the centre of his office park, he created an open meeting space called Hacker Square. This is, of course, the venue where his employees join for all-night Hackathons. As he told a group of would-be entrepreneurs, “We’ve got this whole ethos that we want to build a hacker culture.”Plenty of companies have similarly appropriated hacker culture – hackers are the ur-disrupters – but none have gone as far as Facebook. By the time Zuckerberg began extolling the virtues of hacking, he had stripped the name of most of its original meaning and distilled it into a managerial philosophy that contains barely a hint of rebelliousness. Hackers, he told one interviewer, were “just this group of computer scientists who were trying to quickly prototype and see what was possible. That’s what I try to encourage our engineers to do here.” To hack is to be a good worker, a responsible Facebook citizen – a microcosm of the way in which the company has taken the language of radical individualism and deployed it in the service of conformism.Zuckerberg claimed to have distilled that hacker spirit into a motivational motto: “Move fast and break things.” The truth is that Facebook moved faster than Zuckerberg could ever have imagined. His company was, as we all know, a dorm-room lark, a thing he ginned up in a Red Bull–induced fit of sleeplessness. As his creation grew, it needed to justify its new scale to its investors, to its users, to the world. It needed to grow up fast. Over the span of its short life, the company has caromed from self-description to self-description. It has called itself a tool, a utility and a platform. It has talked about openness and connectedness. And in all these attempts at defining itself, it has managed to clarify its int

# data[].attributes.subject
l the values that Silicon Valley professes are the values of the 60s. The big tech companies present themselves as platforms for personal liberation. Everyone has the right to speak their mind on social media, to fulfil their intellectual and democratic potential, to express their individuality. Where television had been a passive medium that rendered citizens inert, Facebook is participatory and empowering. It allows users to read widely, think for themselves and form their own opinions.We can’t entirely dismiss this rhetoric. There are parts of the world, even in the US, where Facebook emboldens citizens and enables them to organise themselves in opposition to power. But we shouldn’t accept Facebook’s self-conception as sincere, either. Facebook is a carefully managed top-down system, not a robust public square. It mimics some of the patterns of conversation, but that’s a surface trait.Sign up to the Media Briefing: news for the news-makers Read moreIn reality, Facebook is a tangle of rules and procedures for sorting information, rules devised by the corporation for the ultimate benefit of the corporation. Facebook is always surveilling users, always auditing them, using them as lab rats in its behavioural experiments. While it creates the impression that it offers choice, in truth Facebook paternalistically nudges users in the direction it deems best for them, which also happens to be the direction that gets them thoroughly addicted. It’s a phoniness that is most obvious in the compressed, historic career of Facebook’s mastermind.Mark Zuckerberg is a good boy, but he wanted to be bad, or maybe just a little bit naughty. The heroes of his adolescence were the original hackers. These weren’t malevolent data thieves or cyberterrorists. Zuckerberg’s hacker heroes were disrespectful of authority. They were technically virtuosic, infinitely resourceful nerd cowboys, unbound by conventional thinking. In the labs of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) during the 60s and 70s, they broke any rule that interfered with building the stuff of early computing, such marvels as the first video games and word processors. With their free time, they played epic pranks, which happened to draw further attention to their own cleverness – installing a living cow on the roof of a Cambridge dorm; launching a weather balloon, which miraculously emerged from beneath the turf, emblazoned with “MIT”, in the middle of a Harvard-Yale football game.AdvertisementThe hackers’ archenemies were the bureaucrats who ran universities, corporations and governments. Bureaucrats talked about making the world more efficient, just like the hackers. But they were really small-minded paper-pushers who fiercely guarded the information they held, even when that information yearned to be shared. When hackers clearly engineered better ways of doing things – a box that enabled free long-distance calls, an instruction that might improve an operating system – the bureaucrats stood in their way, wagging an unbending finger. The hackers took aesthetic and comic pleasure in outwitting the men in suits.When Zuckerberg arrived at Harvard in the fall of 2002, the heyday of the hackers had long passed. They were older guys now, the stuff of good tales, some stuck in twilight struggles against The Man. But Zuckerberg wanted to hack, too, and with that old-time indifference to norms. In high school he picked the lock that prevented outsiders from fiddling with AOL’s code and added his own improvements to its instant messaging program. As a college sophomore he hatched a site called Facemash – with the high-minded purpose of determining the hottest kid on campus. Zuckerberg asked users to compare images of two students and then determine the better-looking of the two. The winner of each pairing advanced to the next round of his hormonal tournament. To cobble this site together, Zuckerberg needed photos. He purloined those from the servers of the various Harvard houses. “One thing is certain,” he wrote on a blog as he put the finishing touches on his creation, “and it’s that I’m a jerk for making this site. Oh well.”His brief experimentation with rebellion ended with his apologising to a Harvard disciplinary panel, as well as to campus women’s groups, and mulling strategies to redeem his soiled reputation. In the years since, he has shown that defiance really wasn’t his natural inclination. His distrust of authority was such that he sought out Don Graham, then the venerable chairman of the Washington Post company, as his mentor. After he started Facebook, he shadowed various giants of corporate America so that he could study their managerial styles up close.AdvertisementStill, Zuckerberg’s juvenile fascination with hackers never died – or rather, he carried it forward into his new, more mature incarnation. When he finally had a corporate campus of his own, he procured a vanity address for it: One Hacker Way. He designed a plaza with the word “HACK” inlaid into the concrete. In the centre of his office park, he created an open meeting space called Hacker Square. This is, of course, the venue where his employees join for all-night Hackathons. As he told a group of would-be entrepreneurs, “We’ve got this whole ethos that we want to build a hacker culture.”Plenty of companies have similarly appropriated hacker culture – hackers are the ur-disrupters – but none have gone as far as Facebook. By the time Zuckerberg began extolling the virtues of hacking, he had stripped the name of most of its original meaning and distilled it into a managerial philosophy that contains barely a hint of rebelliousness. Hackers, he told one interviewer, were “just this group of computer scientists who were trying to quickly prototype and see what was possible. That’s what I try to encourage our engineers to do here.” To hack is to be a good worker, a responsible Facebook citizen – a microcosm of the way in which the company has taken the language of radical individualism and deployed it in the service of conformism.Zuckerberg claimed to have distilled that hacker spirit into a motivational motto: “Move fast and break things.” The truth is that Facebook moved faster than Zuckerberg could ever have imagined. His company was, as we all know, a dorm-room lark, a thing he ginned up in a Red Bull–induced fit of sleeplessness. As his creation grew, it needed to justify its new scale to its investors, to its users, to the world. It needed to grow up fast. Over the span of its short life, the company has caromed from self-description to self-description. It has called itself a tool, a utility and a platform. It has talked about openness and connectedness. And in all these attempts at defining itself, it has managed to clarify its int

# data[].attributes.body
A train is a form of rail transport consisting of a series of connected vehicles that usually runs along a rail track to transport cargoor passengers. Motive power is provided by a separate locomotive or individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Although historically steam propulsion dominated, the most common modern forms are diesel and electric locomotives, the latter supplied by overhead wires or additional rails. Other energy sources include horses, engine or water-driven rope or wire winch, gravity, pneumatics, batteries, and gas turbines. Train tracks usually consist of two running rails, sometimes supplemented by additional rails such as electric conducting rails and rack rails, with a limited number of monorails and maglev guideways in the mix.[1] The word 'train' comes from the Old French trahiner, from the Latin trahere 'pull, draw'.[2]

There are various types of trains that are designed for particular purposes. A train may consist of a combination of one or more locomotives and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit (or occasionally a single or articulated powered coach, called a railcar). The first trains were rope-hauled, gravity powered or pulled by horses. From the early 19th century almost all were powered by steam locomotives. From the 1910s onwards the steam locomotives began to be replaced by less labor-intensive and cleaner (but more complex and expensive) diesel locomotives and electric locomotives, while at about the same time self-propelled multiple unit vehicles of either power system became much more common in passenger service.

A passenger train is one which includes passenger-carrying vehicles which can often be very long and fast. One notable and growing long-distance train category is high-speed rail. In order to achieve much faster operation over 500 km/h (310 mph), innovative maglev technology has been researched for years. In most countries, such as the United Kingdom, the distinction between a tramway and a railway is precise and defined in law. The term light rail is sometimes used for a modern tram system, but it may also mean an intermediate form between a tram and a train, similar to a heavy rail rapid transit system except that it may have level crossings.

A freight train (also known as a goods train) uses freight cars (also known as wagons or trucks) to transport goods or materials (cargo). Freight and passengers may be carried in the same train in a mixed consist.

Rail cars and machinery used for maintenance and repair of tracks, etc., are termed maintenance of way equipment; these may be assembled into maintenance of way trains. Similarly, dedicated trains may be used to provide support services to stations along a train line, such as garbage or revenue collection.

# data[].attributes.headline
l the values that Silicon Valley professes are the values of the 60s. The big tech companies present themselves as platforms for personal liberation. Everyone has the right to speak their mind on social media, to fulfil their intellectual and democratic potential, to express their individuality. Where television had been a passive medium that rendered citizens inert, Facebook is participatory and empowering. It allows users to read widely, think for themselves and form their own opinions.We can’t entirely dismiss this rhetoric. There are parts of the world, even in the US, where Facebook emboldens citizens and enables them to organise themselves in opposition to power. But we shouldn’t accept Facebook’s self-conception as sincere, either. Facebook is a carefully managed top-down system, not a robust public square. It mimics some of the patterns of conversation, but that’s a surface trait.Sign up to the Media Briefing: news for the news-makers Read moreIn reality, Facebook is a tangle of rules and procedures for sorting information, rules devised by the corporation for the ultimate benefit of the corporation. Facebook is always surveilling users, always auditing them, using them as lab rats in its behavioural experiments. While it creates the impression that it offers choice, in truth Facebook paternalistically nudges users in the direction it deems best for them, which also happens to be the direction that gets them thoroughly addicted. It’s a phoniness that is most obvious in the compressed, historic career of Facebook’s mastermind.Mark Zuckerberg is a good boy, but he wanted to be bad, or maybe just a little bit naughty. The heroes of his adolescence were the original hackers. These weren’t malevolent data thieves or cyberterrorists. Zuckerberg’s hacker heroes were disrespectful of authority. They were technically virtuosic, infinitely resourceful nerd cowboys, unbound by conventional thinking. In the labs of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) during the 60s and 70s, they broke any rule that interfered with building the stuff of early computing, such marvels as the first video games and word processors. With their free time, they played epic pranks, which happened to draw further attention to their own cleverness – installing a living cow on the roof of a Cambridge dorm; launching a weather balloon, which miraculously emerged from beneath the turf, emblazoned with “MIT”, in the middle of a Harvard-Yale football game.AdvertisementThe hackers’ archenemies were the bureaucrats who ran universities, corporations and governments. Bureaucrats talked about making the world more efficient, just like the hackers. But they were really small-minded paper-pushers who fiercely guarded the information they held, even when that information yearned to be shared. When hackers clearly engineered better ways of doing things – a box that enabled free long-distance calls, an instruction that might improve an operating system – the bureaucrats stood in their way, wagging an unbending finger. The hackers took aesthetic and comic pleasure in outwitting the men in suits.When Zuckerberg arrived at Harvard in the fall of 2002, the heyday of the hackers had long passed. They were older guys now, the stuff of good tales, some stuck in twilight struggles against The Man. But Zuckerberg wanted to hack, too, and with that old-time indifference to norms. In high school he picked the lock that prevented outsiders from fiddling with AOL’s code and added his own improvements to its instant messaging program. As a college sophomore he hatched a site called Facemash – with the high-minded purpose of determining the hottest kid on campus. Zuckerberg asked users to compare images of two students and then determine the better-looking of the two. The winner of each pairing advanced to the next round of his hormonal tournament. To cobble this site together, Zuckerberg needed photos. He purloined those from the servers of the various Harvard houses. “One thing is certain,” he wrote on a blog as he put the finishing touches on his creation, “and it’s that I’m a jerk for making this site. Oh well.”His brief experimentation with rebellion ended with his apologising to a Harvard disciplinary panel, as well as to campus women’s groups, and mulling strategies to redeem his soiled reputation. In the years since, he has shown that defiance really wasn’t his natural inclination. His distrust of authority was such that he sought out Don Graham, then the venerable chairman of the Washington Post company, as his mentor. After he started Facebook, he shadowed various giants of corporate America so that he could study their managerial styles up close.AdvertisementStill, Zuckerberg’s juvenile fascination with hackers never died – or rather, he carried it forward into his new, more mature incarnation. When he finally had a corporate campus of his own, he procured a vanity address for it: One Hacker Way. He designed a plaza with the word “HACK” inlaid into the concrete. In the centre of his office park, he created an open meeting space called Hacker Square. This is, of course, the venue where his employees join for all-night Hackathons. As he told a group of would-be entrepreneurs, “We’ve got this whole ethos that we want to build a hacker culture.”Plenty of companies have similarly appropriated hacker culture – hackers are the ur-disrupters – but none have gone as far as Facebook. By the time Zuckerberg began extolling the virtues of hacking, he had stripped the name of most of its original meaning and distilled it into a managerial philosophy that contains barely a hint of rebelliousness. Hackers, he told one interviewer, were “just this group of computer scientists who were trying to quickly prototype and see what was possible. That’s what I try to encourage our engineers to do here.” To hack is to be a good worker, a responsible Facebook citizen – a microcosm of the way in which the company has taken the language of radical individualism and deployed it in the service of conformism.Zuckerberg claimed to have distilled that hacker spirit into a motivational motto: “Move fast and break things.” The truth is that Facebook moved faster than Zuckerberg could ever have imagined. His company was, as we all know, a dorm-room lark, a thing he ginned up in a Red Bull–induced fit of sleeplessness. As his creation grew, it needed to justify its new scale to its investors, to its users, to the world. It needed to grow up fast. Over the span of its short life, the company has caromed from self-description to self-description. It has called itself a tool, a utility and a platform. It has talked about openness and connectedness. And in all these attempts at defining itself, it has managed to clarify its int

# data[].attributes.subject
l the values that Silicon Valley professes are the values of the 60s. The big tech companies present themselves as platforms for personal liberation. Everyone has the right to speak their mind on social media, to fulfil their intellectual and democratic potential, to express their individuality. Where television had been a passive medium that rendered citizens inert, Facebook is participatory and empowering. It allows users to read widely, think for themselves and form their own opinions.We can’t entirely dismiss this rhetoric. There are parts of the world, even in the US, where Facebook emboldens citizens and enables them to organise themselves in opposition to power. But we shouldn’t accept Facebook’s self-conception as sincere, either. Facebook is a carefully managed top-down system, not a robust public square. It mimics some of the patterns of conversation, but that’s a surface trait.Sign up to the Media Briefing: news for the news-makers Read moreIn reality, Facebook is a tangle of rules and procedures for sorting information, rules devised by the corporation for the ultimate benefit of the corporation. Facebook is always surveilling users, always auditing them, using them as lab rats in its behavioural experiments. While it creates the impression that it offers choice, in truth Facebook paternalistically nudges users in the direction it deems best for them, which also happens to be the direction that gets them thoroughly addicted. It’s a phoniness that is most obvious in the compressed, historic career of Facebook’s mastermind.Mark Zuckerberg is a good boy, but he wanted to be bad, or maybe just a little bit naughty. The heroes of his adolescence were the original hackers. These weren’t malevolent data thieves or cyberterrorists. Zuckerberg’s hacker heroes were disrespectful of authority. They were technically virtuosic, infinitely resourceful nerd cowboys, unbound by conventional thinking. In the labs of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) during the 60s and 70s, they broke any rule that interfered with building the stuff of early computing, such marvels as the first video games and word processors. With their free time, they played epic pranks, which happened to draw further attention to their own cleverness – installing a living cow on the roof of a Cambridge dorm; launching a weather balloon, which miraculously emerged from beneath the turf, emblazoned with “MIT”, in the middle of a Harvard-Yale football game.AdvertisementThe hackers’ archenemies were the bureaucrats who ran universities, corporations and governments. Bureaucrats talked about making the world more efficient, just like the hackers. But they were really small-minded paper-pushers who fiercely guarded the information they held, even when that information yearned to be shared. When hackers clearly engineered better ways of doing things – a box that enabled free long-distance calls, an instruction that might improve an operating system – the bureaucrats stood in their way, wagging an unbending finger. The hackers took aesthetic and comic pleasure in outwitting the men in suits.When Zuckerberg arrived at Harvard in the fall of 2002, the heyday of the hackers had long passed. They were older guys now, the stuff of good tales, some stuck in twilight struggles against The Man. But Zuckerberg wanted to hack, too, and with that old-time indifference to norms. In high school he picked the lock that prevented outsiders from fiddling with AOL’s code and added his own improvements to its instant messaging program. As a college sophomore he hatched a site called Facemash – with the high-minded purpose of determining the hottest kid on campus. Zuckerberg asked users to compare images of two students and then determine the better-looking of the two. The winner of each pairing advanced to the next round of his hormonal tournament. To cobble this site together, Zuckerberg needed photos. He purloined those from the servers of the various Harvard houses. “One thing is certain,” he wrote on a blog as he put the finishing touches on his creation, “and it’s that I’m a jerk for making this site. Oh well.”His brief experimentation with rebellion ended with his apologising to a Harvard disciplinary panel, as well as to campus women’s groups, and mulling strategies to redeem his soiled reputation. In the years since, he has shown that defiance really wasn’t his natural inclination. His distrust of authority was such that he sought out Don Graham, then the venerable chairman of the Washington Post company, as his mentor. After he started Facebook, he shadowed various giants of corporate America so that he could study their managerial styles up close.AdvertisementStill, Zuckerberg’s juvenile fascination with hackers never died – or rather, he carried it forward into his new, more mature incarnation. When he finally had a corporate campus of his own, he procured a vanity address for it: One Hacker Way. He designed a plaza with the word “HACK” inlaid into the concrete. In the centre of his office park, he created an open meeting space called Hacker Square. This is, of course, the venue where his employees join for all-night Hackathons. As he told a group of would-be entrepreneurs, “We’ve got this whole ethos that we want to build a hacker culture.”Plenty of companies have similarly appropriated hacker culture – hackers are the ur-disrupters – but none have gone as far as Facebook. By the time Zuckerberg began extolling the virtues of hacking, he had stripped the name of most of its original meaning and distilled it into a managerial philosophy that contains barely a hint of rebelliousness. Hackers, he told one interviewer, were “just this group of computer scientists who were trying to quickly prototype and see what was possible. That’s what I try to encourage our engineers to do here.” To hack is to be a good worker, a responsible Facebook citizen – a microcosm of the way in which the company has taken the language of radical individualism and deployed it in the service of conformism.Zuckerberg claimed to have distilled that hacker spirit into a motivational motto: “Move fast and break things.” The truth is that Facebook moved faster than Zuckerberg could ever have imagined. His company was, as we all know, a dorm-room lark, a thing he ginned up in a Red Bull–induced fit of sleeplessness. As his creation grew, it needed to justify its new scale to its investors, to its users, to the world. It needed to grow up fast. Over the span of its short life, the company has caromed from self-description to self-description. It has called itself a tool, a utility and a platform. It has talked about openness and connectedness. And in all these attempts at defining itself, it has managed to clarify its int

# data[].attributes.headline
l the values that Silicon Valley professes are the values of the 60s. The big tech companies present themselves as platforms for personal liberation. Everyone has the right to speak their mind on social media, to fulfil their intellectual and democratic potential, to express their individuality. Where television had been a passive medium that rendered citizens inert, Facebook is participatory and empowering. It allows users to read widely, think for themselves and form their own opinions.We can’t entirely dismiss this rhetoric. There are parts of the world, even in the US, where Facebook emboldens citizens and enables them to organise themselves in opposition to power. But we shouldn’t accept Facebook’s self-conception as sincere, either. Facebook is a carefully managed top-down system, not a robust public square. It mimics some of the patterns of conversation, but that’s a surface trait.Sign up to the Media Briefing: news for the news-makers Read moreIn reality, Facebook is a tangle of rules and procedures for sorting information, rules devised by the corporation for the ultimate benefit of the corporation. Facebook is always surveilling users, always auditing them, using them as lab rats in its behavioural experiments. While it creates the impression that it offers choice, in truth Facebook paternalistically nudges users in the direction it deems best for them, which also happens to be the direction that gets them thoroughly addicted. It’s a phoniness that is most obvious in the compressed, historic career of Facebook’s mastermind.Mark Zuckerberg is a good boy, but he wanted to be bad, or maybe just a little bit naughty. The heroes of his adolescence were the original hackers. These weren’t malevolent data thieves or cyberterrorists. Zuckerberg’s hacker heroes were disrespectful of authority. They were technically virtuosic, infinitely resourceful nerd cowboys, unbound by conventional thinking. In the labs of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) during the 60s and 70s, they broke any rule that interfered with building the stuff of early computing, such marvels as the first video games and word processors. With their free time, they played epic pranks, which happened to draw further attention to their own cleverness – installing a living cow on the roof of a Cambridge dorm; launching a weather balloon, which miraculously emerged from beneath the turf, emblazoned with “MIT”, in the middle of a Harvard-Yale football game.AdvertisementThe hackers’ archenemies were the bureaucrats who ran universities, corporations and governments. Bureaucrats talked about making the world more efficient, just like the hackers. But they were really small-minded paper-pushers who fiercely guarded the information they held, even when that information yearned to be shared. When hackers clearly engineered better ways of doing things – a box that enabled free long-distance calls, an instruction that might improve an operating system – the bureaucrats stood in their way, wagging an unbending finger. The hackers took aesthetic and comic pleasure in outwitting the men in suits.When Zuckerberg arrived at Harvard in the fall of 2002, the heyday of the hackers had long passed. They were older guys now, the stuff of good tales, some stuck in twilight struggles against The Man. But Zuckerberg wanted to hack, too, and with that old-time indifference to norms. In high school he picked the lock that prevented outsiders from fiddling with AOL’s code and added his own improvements to its instant messaging program. As a college sophomore he hatched a site called Facemash – with the high-minded purpose of determining the hottest kid on campus. Zuckerberg asked users to compare images of two students and then determine the better-looking of the two. The winner of each pairing advanced to the next round of his hormonal tournament. To cobble this site together, Zuckerberg needed photos. He purloined those from the servers of the various Harvard houses. “One thing is certain,” he wrote on a blog as he put the finishing touches on his creation, “and it’s that I’m a jerk for making this site. Oh well.”His brief experimentation with rebellion ended with his apologising to a Harvard disciplinary panel, as well as to campus women’s groups, and mulling strategies to redeem his soiled reputation. In the years since, he has shown that defiance really wasn’t his natural inclination. His distrust of authority was such that he sought out Don Graham, then the venerable chairman of the Washington Post company, as his mentor. After he started Facebook, he shadowed various giants of corporate America so that he could study their managerial styles up close.AdvertisementStill, Zuckerberg’s juvenile fascination with hackers never died – or rather, he carried it forward into his new, more mature incarnation. When he finally had a corporate campus of his own, he procured a vanity address for it: One Hacker Way. He designed a plaza with the word “HACK” inlaid into the concrete. In the centre of his office park, he created an open meeting space called Hacker Square. This is, of course, the venue where his employees join for all-night Hackathons. As he told a group of would-be entrepreneurs, “We’ve got this whole ethos that we want to build a hacker culture.”Plenty of companies have similarly appropriated hacker culture – hackers are the ur-disrupters – but none have gone as far as Facebook. By the time Zuckerberg began extolling the virtues of hacking, he had stripped the name of most of its original meaning and distilled it into a managerial philosophy that contains barely a hint of rebelliousness. Hackers, he told one interviewer, were “just this group of computer scientists who were trying to quickly prototype and see what was possible. That’s what I try to encourage our engineers to do here.” To hack is to be a good worker, a responsible Facebook citizen – a microcosm of the way in which the company has taken the language of radical individualism and deployed it in the service of conformism.Zuckerberg claimed to have distilled that hacker spirit into a motivational motto: “Move fast and break things.” The truth is that Facebook moved faster than Zuckerberg could ever have imagined. His company was, as we all know, a dorm-room lark, a thing he ginned up in a Red Bull–induced fit of sleeplessness. As his creation grew, it needed to justify its new scale to its investors, to its users, to the world. It needed to grow up fast. Over the span of its short life, the company has caromed from self-description to self-description. It has called itself a tool, a utility and a platform. It has talked about openness and connectedness. And in all these attempts at defining itself, it has managed to clarify its int

# data[].attributes.subject
l the values that Silicon Valley professes are the values of the 60s. The big tech companies present themselves as platforms for personal liberation. Everyone has the right to speak their mind on social media, to fulfil their intellectual and democratic potential, to express their individuality. Where television had been a passive medium that rendered citizens inert, Facebook is participatory and empowering. It allows users to read widely, think for themselves and form their own opinions.We can’t entirely dismiss this rhetoric. There are parts of the world, even in the US, where Facebook emboldens citizens and enables them to organise themselves in opposition to power. But we shouldn’t accept Facebook’s self-conception as sincere, either. Facebook is a carefully managed top-down system, not a robust public square. It mimics some of the patterns of conversation, but that’s a surface trait.Sign up to the Media Briefing: news for the news-makers Read moreIn reality, Facebook is a tangle of rules and procedures for sorting information, rules devised by the corporation for the ultimate benefit of the corporation. Facebook is always surveilling users, always auditing them, using them as lab rats in its behavioural experiments. While it creates the impression that it offers choice, in truth Facebook paternalistically nudges users in the direction it deems best for them, which also happens to be the direction that gets them thoroughly addicted. It’s a phoniness that is most obvious in the compressed, historic career of Facebook’s mastermind.Mark Zuckerberg is a good boy, but he wanted to be bad, or maybe just a little bit naughty. The heroes of his adolescence were the original hackers. These weren’t malevolent data thieves or cyberterrorists. Zuckerberg’s hacker heroes were disrespectful of authority. They were technically virtuosic, infinitely resourceful nerd cowboys, unbound by conventional thinking. In the labs of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) during the 60s and 70s, they broke any rule that interfered with building the stuff of early computing, such marvels as the first video games and word processors. With their free time, they played epic pranks, which happened to draw further attention to their own cleverness – installing a living cow on the roof of a Cambridge dorm; launching a weather balloon, which miraculously emerged from beneath the turf, emblazoned with “MIT”, in the middle of a Harvard-Yale football game.AdvertisementThe hackers’ archenemies were the bureaucrats who ran universities, corporations and governments. Bureaucrats talked about making the world more efficient, just like the hackers. But they were really small-minded paper-pushers who fiercely guarded the information they held, even when that information yearned to be shared. When hackers clearly engineered better ways of doing things – a box that enabled free long-distance calls, an instruction that might improve an operating system – the bureaucrats stood in their way, wagging an unbending finger. The hackers took aesthetic and comic pleasure in outwitting the men in suits.When Zuckerberg arrived at Harvard in the fall of 2002, the heyday of the hackers had long passed. They were older guys now, the stuff of good tales, some stuck in twilight struggles against The Man. But Zuckerberg wanted to hack, too, and with that old-time indifference to norms. In high school he picked the lock that prevented outsiders from fiddling with AOL’s code and added his own improvements to its instant messaging program. As a college sophomore he hatched a site called Facemash – with the high-minded purpose of determining the hottest kid on campus. Zuckerberg asked users to compare images of two students and then determine the better-looking of the two. The winner of each pairing advanced to the next round of his hormonal tournament. To cobble this site together, Zuckerberg needed photos. He purloined those from the servers of the various Harvard houses. “One thing is certain,” he wrote on a blog as he put the finishing touches on his creation, “and it’s that I’m a jerk for making this site. Oh well.”His brief experimentation with rebellion ended with his apologising to a Harvard disciplinary panel, as well as to campus women’s groups, and mulling strategies to redeem his soiled reputation. In the years since, he has shown that defiance really wasn’t his natural inclination. His distrust of authority was such that he sought out Don Graham, then the venerable chairman of the Washington Post company, as his mentor. After he started Facebook, he shadowed various giants of corporate America so that he could study their managerial styles up close.AdvertisementStill, Zuckerberg’s juvenile fascination with hackers never died – or rather, he carried it forward into his new, more mature incarnation. When he finally had a corporate campus of his own, he procured a vanity address for it: One Hacker Way. He designed a plaza with the word “HACK” inlaid into the concrete. In the centre of his office park, he created an open meeting space called Hacker Square. This is, of course, the venue where his employees join for all-night Hackathons. As he told a group of would-be entrepreneurs, “We’ve got this whole ethos that we want to build a hacker culture.”Plenty of companies have similarly appropriated hacker culture – hackers are the ur-disrupters – but none have gone as far as Facebook. By the time Zuckerberg began extolling the virtues of hacking, he had stripped the name of most of its original meaning and distilled it into a managerial philosophy that contains barely a hint of rebelliousness. Hackers, he told one interviewer, were “just this group of computer scientists who were trying to quickly prototype and see what was possible. That’s what I try to encourage our engineers to do here.” To hack is to be a good worker, a responsible Facebook citizen – a microcosm of the way in which the company has taken the language of radical individualism and deployed it in the service of conformism.Zuckerberg claimed to have distilled that hacker spirit into a motivational motto: “Move fast and break things.” The truth is that Facebook moved faster than Zuckerberg could ever have imagined. His company was, as we all know, a dorm-room lark, a thing he ginned up in a Red Bull–induced fit of sleeplessness. As his creation grew, it needed to justify its new scale to its investors, to its users, to the world. It needed to grow up fast. Over the span of its short life, the company has caromed from self-description to self-description. It has called itself a tool, a utility and a platform. It has talked about openness and connectedness. And in all these attempts at defining itself, it has managed to clarify its int

# data[].attributes.body
l the values that Silicon Valley professes are the values of the 60s. The big tech companies present themselves as platforms for personal liberation. Everyone has the right to speak their mind on social media, to fulfil their intellectual and democratic potential, to express their individuality. Where television had been a passive medium that rendered citizens inert, Facebook is participatory and empowering. It allows users to read widely, think for themselves and form their own opinions.

We can’t entirely dismiss this rhetoric. There are parts of the world, even in the US, where Facebook emboldens citizens and enables them to organise themselves in opposition to power. But we shouldn’t accept Facebook’s self-conception as sincere, either. Facebook is a carefully managed top-down system, not a robust public square. It mimics some of the patterns of conversation, but that’s a surface trait.

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In reality, Facebook is a tangle of rules and procedures for sorting information, rules devised by the corporation for the ultimate benefit of the corporation. Facebook is always surveilling users, always auditing them, using them as lab rats in its behavioural experiments. While it creates the impression that it offers choice, in truth Facebook paternalistically nudges users in the direction it deems best for them, which also happens to be the direction that gets them thoroughly addicted. It’s a phoniness that is most obvious in the compressed, historic career of Facebook’s mastermind.

Mark Zuckerberg is a good boy, but he wanted to be bad, or maybe just a little bit naughty. The heroes of his adolescence were the original hackers. These weren’t malevolent data thieves or cyberterrorists. Zuckerberg’s hacker heroes were disrespectful of authority. They were technically virtuosic, infinitely resourceful nerd cowboys, unbound by conventional thinking. In the labs of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) during the 60s and 70s, they broke any rule that interfered with building the stuff of early computing, such marvels as the first video games and word processors. With their free time, they played epic pranks, which happened to draw further attention to their own cleverness – installing a living cow on the roof of a Cambridge dorm; launching a weather balloon, which miraculously emerged from beneath the turf, emblazoned with “MIT”, in the middle of a Harvard-Yale football game.

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The hackers’ archenemies were the bureaucrats who ran universities, corporations and governments. Bureaucrats talked about making the world more efficient, just like the hackers. But they were really small-minded paper-pushers who fiercely guarded the information they held, even when that information yearned to be shared. When hackers clearly engineered better ways of doing things – a box that enabled free long-distance calls, an instruction that might improve an operating system – the bureaucrats stood in their way, wagging an unbending finger. The hackers took aesthetic and comic pleasure in outwitting the men in suits.

When Zuckerberg arrived at Harvard in the fall of 2002, the heyday of the hackers had long passed. They were older guys now, the stuff of good tales, some stuck in twilight struggles against The Man. But Zuckerberg wanted to hack, too, and with that old-time indifference to norms. In high school he picked the lock that prevented outsiders from fiddling with AOL’s code and added his own improvements to its instant messaging program. As a college sophomore he hatched a site called Facemash – with the high-minded purpose of determining the hottest kid on campus. Zuckerberg asked users to compare images of two students and then determine the better-looking of the two. The winner of each pairing advanced to the next round of his hormonal tournament. To cobble this site together, Zuckerberg needed photos. He purloined those from the servers of the various Harvard houses. “One thing is certain,” he wrote on a blog as he put the finishing touches on his creation, “and it’s that I’m a jerk for making this site. Oh well.”

His brief experimentation with rebellion ended with his apologising to a Harvard disciplinary panel, as well as to campus women’s groups, and mulling strategies to redeem his soiled reputation. In the years since, he has shown that defiance really wasn’t his natural inclination. His distrust of authority was such that he sought out Don Graham, then the venerable chairman of the Washington Post company, as his mentor. After he started Facebook, he shadowed various giants of corporate America so that he could study their managerial styles up close.

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Still, Zuckerberg’s juvenile fascination with hackers never died – or rather, he carried it forward into his new, more mature incarnation. When he finally had a corporate campus of his own, he procured a vanity address for it: One Hacker Way. He designed a plaza with the word “HACK” inlaid into the concrete. In the centre of his office park, he created an open meeting space called Hacker Square. This is, of course, the venue where his employees join for all-night Hackathons. As he told a group of would-be entrepreneurs, “We’ve got this whole ethos that we want to build a hacker culture.”

Plenty of companies have similarly appropriated hacker culture – hackers are the ur-disrupters – but none have gone as far as Facebook. By the time Zuckerberg began extolling the virtues of hacking, he had stripped the name of most of its original meaning and distilled it into a managerial philosophy that contains barely a hint of rebelliousness. Hackers, he told one interviewer, were “just this group of computer scientists who were trying to quickly prototype and see what was possible. That’s what I try to encourage our engineers to do here.” To hack is to be a good worker, a responsible Facebook citizen – a microcosm of the way in which the company has taken the language of radical individualism and deployed it in the service of conformism.

Zuckerberg claimed to have distilled that hacker spirit into a motivational motto: “Move fast and break things.” The truth is that Facebook moved faster than Zuckerberg could ever have imagined. His company was, as we all know, a dorm-room lark, a thing he ginned up in a Red Bull–induced fit of sleeplessness. As his creation grew, it needed to justify its new scale to its investors, to its users, to the world. It needed to grow up fast. Over the span of its short life, the company has caromed from self-description to self-description. It has called itself a tool, a utility and a platform. It has talked about openness and connectedness. And in all these attempts at defining itself, it has managed to clarify its int

# data[].attributes.headline
l the values that Silicon Valley professes are the values of the 60s. The big tech companies present themselves as platforms for personal liberation. Everyone has the right to speak their mind on social media, to fulfil their intellectual and democratic potential, to express their individuality. Where television had been a passive medium that rendered citizens inert, Facebook is participatory and empowering. It allows users to read widely, think for themselves and form their own opinions.We can’t entirely dismiss this rhetoric. There are parts of the world, even in the US, where Facebook emboldens citizens and enables them to organise themselves in opposition to power. But we shouldn’t accept Facebook’s self-conception as sincere, either. Facebook is a carefully managed top-down system, not a robust public square. It mimics some of the patterns of conversation, but that’s a surface trait.Sign up to the Media Briefing: news for the news-makers Read moreIn reality, Facebook is a tangle of rules and procedures for sorting information, rules devised by the corporation for the ultimate benefit of the corporation. Facebook is always surveilling users, always auditing them, using them as lab rats in its behavioural experiments. While it creates the impression that it offers choice, in truth Facebook paternalistically nudges users in the direction it deems best for them, which also happens to be the direction that gets them thoroughly addicted. It’s a phoniness that is most obvious in the compressed, historic career of Facebook’s mastermind.Mark Zuckerberg is a good boy, but he wanted to be bad, or maybe just a little bit naughty. The heroes of his adolescence were the original hackers. These weren’t malevolent data thieves or cyberterrorists. Zuckerberg’s hacker heroes were disrespectful of authority. They were technically virtuosic, infinitely resourceful nerd cowboys, unbound by conventional thinking. In the labs of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) during the 60s and 70s, they broke any rule that interfered with building the stuff of early computing, such marvels as the first video games and word processors. With their free time, they played epic pranks, which happened to draw further attention to their own cleverness – installing a living cow on the roof of a Cambridge dorm; launching a weather balloon, which miraculously emerged from beneath the turf, emblazoned with “MIT”, in the middle of a Harvard-Yale football game.AdvertisementThe hackers’ archenemies were the bureaucrats who ran universities, corporations and governments. Bureaucrats talked about making the world more efficient, just like the hackers. But they were really small-minded paper-pushers who fiercely guarded the information they held, even when that information yearned to be shared. When hackers clearly engineered better ways of doing things – a box that enabled free long-distance calls, an instruction that might improve an operating system – the bureaucrats stood in their way, wagging an unbending finger. The hackers took aesthetic and comic pleasure in outwitting the men in suits.When Zuckerberg arrived at Harvard in the fall of 2002, the heyday of the hackers had long passed. They were older guys now, the stuff of good tales, some stuck in twilight struggles against The Man. But Zuckerberg wanted to hack, too, and with that old-time indifference to norms. In high school he picked the lock that prevented outsiders from fiddling with AOL’s code and added his own improvements to its instant messaging program. As a college sophomore he hatched a site called Facemash – with the high-minded purpose of determining the hottest kid on campus. Zuckerberg asked users to compare images of two students and then determine the better-looking of the two. The winner of each pairing advanced to the next round of his hormonal tournament. To cobble this site together, Zuckerberg needed photos. He purloined those from the servers of the various Harvard houses. “One thing is certain,” he wrote on a blog as he put the finishing touches on his creation, “and it’s that I’m a jerk for making this site. Oh well.”His brief experimentation with rebellion ended with his apologising to a Harvard disciplinary panel, as well as to campus women’s groups, and mulling strategies to redeem his soiled reputation. In the years since, he has shown that defiance really wasn’t his natural inclination. His distrust of authority was such that he sought out Don Graham, then the venerable chairman of the Washington Post company, as his mentor. After he started Facebook, he shadowed various giants of corporate America so that he could study their managerial styles up close.AdvertisementStill, Zuckerberg’s juvenile fascination with hackers never died – or rather, he carried it forward into his new, more mature incarnation. When he finally had a corporate campus of his own, he procured a vanity address for it: One Hacker Way. He designed a plaza with the word “HACK” inlaid into the concrete. In the centre of his office park, he created an open meeting space called Hacker Square. This is, of course, the venue where his employees join for all-night Hackathons. As he told a group of would-be entrepreneurs, “We’ve got this whole ethos that we want to build a hacker culture.”Plenty of companies have similarly appropriated hacker culture – hackers are the ur-disrupters – but none have gone as far as Facebook. By the time Zuckerberg began extolling the virtues of hacking, he had stripped the name of most of its original meaning and distilled it into a managerial philosophy that contains barely a hint of rebelliousness. Hackers, he told one interviewer, were “just this group of computer scientists who were trying to quickly prototype and see what was possible. That’s what I try to encourage our engineers to do here.” To hack is to be a good worker, a responsible Facebook citizen – a microcosm of the way in which the company has taken the language of radical individualism and deployed it in the service of conformism.Zuckerberg claimed to have distilled that hacker spirit into a motivational motto: “Move fast and break things.” The truth is that Facebook moved faster than Zuckerberg could ever have imagined. His company was, as we all know, a dorm-room lark, a thing he ginned up in a Red Bull–induced fit of sleeplessness. As his creation grew, it needed to justify its new scale to its investors, to its users, to the world. It needed to grow up fast. Over the span of its short life, the company has caromed from self-description to self-description. It has called itself a tool, a utility and a platform. It has talked about openness and connectedness. And in all these attempts at defining itself, it has managed to clarify its int

# data[].attributes.subject
l the values that Silicon Valley professes are the values of the 60s. The big tech companies present themselves as platforms for personal liberation. Everyone has the right to speak their mind on social media, to fulfil their intellectual and democratic potential, to express their individuality. Where television had been a passive medium that rendered citizens inert, Facebook is participatory and empowering. It allows users to read widely, think for themselves and form their own opinions.We can’t entirely dismiss this rhetoric. There are parts of the world, even in the US, where Facebook emboldens citizens and enables them to organise themselves in opposition to power. But we shouldn’t accept Facebook’s self-conception as sincere, either. Facebook is a carefully managed top-down system, not a robust public square. It mimics some of the patterns of conversation, but that’s a surface trait.Sign up to the Media Briefing: news for the news-makers Read moreIn reality, Facebook is a tangle of rules and procedures for sorting information, rules devised by the corporation for the ultimate benefit of the corporation. Facebook is always surveilling users, always auditing them, using them as lab rats in its behavioural experiments. While it creates the impression that it offers choice, in truth Facebook paternalistically nudges users in the direction it deems best for them, which also happens to be the direction that gets them thoroughly addicted. It’s a phoniness that is most obvious in the compressed, historic career of Facebook’s mastermind.Mark Zuckerberg is a good boy, but he wanted to be bad, or maybe just a little bit naughty. The heroes of his adolescence were the original hackers. These weren’t malevolent data thieves or cyberterrorists. Zuckerberg’s hacker heroes were disrespectful of authority. They were technically virtuosic, infinitely resourceful nerd cowboys, unbound by conventional thinking. In the labs of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) during the 60s and 70s, they broke any rule that interfered with building the stuff of early computing, such marvels as the first video games and word processors. With their free time, they played epic pranks, which happened to draw further attention to their own cleverness – installing a living cow on the roof of a Cambridge dorm; launching a weather balloon, which miraculously emerged from beneath the turf, emblazoned with “MIT”, in the middle of a Harvard-Yale football game.AdvertisementThe hackers’ archenemies were the bureaucrats who ran universities, corporations and governments. Bureaucrats talked about making the world more efficient, just like the hackers. But they were really small-minded paper-pushers who fiercely guarded the information they held, even when that information yearned to be shared. When hackers clearly engineered better ways of doing things – a box that enabled free long-distance calls, an instruction that might improve an operating system – the bureaucrats stood in their way, wagging an unbending finger. The hackers took aesthetic and comic pleasure in outwitting the men in suits.When Zuckerberg arrived at Harvard in the fall of 2002, the heyday of the hackers had long passed. They were older guys now, the stuff of good tales, some stuck in twilight struggles against The Man. But Zuckerberg wanted to hack, too, and with that old-time indifference to norms. In high school he picked the lock that prevented outsiders from fiddling with AOL’s code and added his own improvements to its instant messaging program. As a college sophomore he hatched a site called Facemash – with the high-minded purpose of determining the hottest kid on campus. Zuckerberg asked users to compare images of two students and then determine the better-looking of the two. The winner of each pairing advanced to the next round of his hormonal tournament. To cobble this site together, Zuckerberg needed photos. He purloined those from the servers of the various Harvard houses. “One thing is certain,” he wrote on a blog as he put the finishing touches on his creation, “and it’s that I’m a jerk for making this site. Oh well.”His brief experimentation with rebellion ended with his apologising to a Harvard disciplinary panel, as well as to campus women’s groups, and mulling strategies to redeem his soiled reputation. In the years since, he has shown that defiance really wasn’t his natural inclination. His distrust of authority was such that he sought out Don Graham, then the venerable chairman of the Washington Post company, as his mentor. After he started Facebook, he shadowed various giants of corporate America so that he could study their managerial styles up close.AdvertisementStill, Zuckerberg’s juvenile fascination with hackers never died – or rather, he carried it forward into his new, more mature incarnation. When he finally had a corporate campus of his own, he procured a vanity address for it: One Hacker Way. He designed a plaza with the word “HACK” inlaid into the concrete. In the centre of his office park, he created an open meeting space called Hacker Square. This is, of course, the venue where his employees join for all-night Hackathons. As he told a group of would-be entrepreneurs, “We’ve got this whole ethos that we want to build a hacker culture.”Plenty of companies have similarly appropriated hacker culture – hackers are the ur-disrupters – but none have gone as far as Facebook. By the time Zuckerberg began extolling the virtues of hacking, he had stripped the name of most of its original meaning and distilled it into a managerial philosophy that contains barely a hint of rebelliousness. Hackers, he told one interviewer, were “just this group of computer scientists who were trying to quickly prototype and see what was possible. That’s what I try to encourage our engineers to do here.” To hack is to be a good worker, a responsible Facebook citizen – a microcosm of the way in which the company has taken the language of radical individualism and deployed it in the service of conformism.Zuckerberg claimed to have distilled that hacker spirit into a motivational motto: “Move fast and break things.” The truth is that Facebook moved faster than Zuckerberg could ever have imagined. His company was, as we all know, a dorm-room lark, a thing he ginned up in a Red Bull–induced fit of sleeplessness. As his creation grew, it needed to justify its new scale to its investors, to its users, to the world. It needed to grow up fast. Over the span of its short life, the company has caromed from self-description to self-description. It has called itself a tool, a utility and a platform. It has talked about openness and connectedness. And in all these attempts at defining itself, it has managed to clarify its int

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MIDI MessagesBlog Gear Tools Industry Answers News OffcutsHome » MIDI » MIDI BasicsMIDI MessagesBookmark/Search this post with:delicious | digg | reddit | newsvine | furl | google | yahoo | technorati  MIDI isn't a sound, it's a digital instruction to trigger sounds on external or software synths.This guide to the MIDI standard will help you manipulate and understand those MIDI messagesMIDI MessagesA MIDI message is made up of an eight-bit status byte which is generally followed by one or two data bytes.There are a number of different types of MIDI messages (categorised below) and this tutorial is split accordingly to each type.At the highest level, MIDI messages are classified as being either:(Click the links if you wish to dive straight to the info, else just read-on and absorb)Channel MessagesSystem MessagesChannel messages apply only to a specific Channel, so the Channel number is also included in the status byte for these messages.System messages are not Channel-specific, so no Channel number is indicated in their status bytes.Channel MessagesChannel Messages may be further classified as being either:Channel Voice MessagesChannel Mode MessagesChannel Voice Messages carry musical performance data, and so they make up most of the traffic in a typical MIDI data stream.Channel Mode messages affect the way a receiving instrument will respond to the Channel Voice messages.Channel Voice MessagesChannel Voice Messages are used to send musical performance information.The messages in this category are:Note OnNote OffPolyphonic Key PressureChannel PressurePitch Bend ChangeProgram ChangeControl ChangeNote On Note Off & VelocityActivation and release of a particular note are considered as two separate events.When a key is pressed on a MIDI keyboard, it sends a Note On message on the MIDI OUT port.The keyboard may be set to transmit on any one of the sixteen MIDI channels, and the status byte for the Note On message will indicate the selected Channel number.The Note On status byte is followed by two data bytes, which specify key number (indicating which key was pressed) and velocity (how hard the key was pressed).The key number is used by the receiving synthesiser to select which note should be played, and the velocity is normally used to control the amplitude of the note.Note OffWhen the key is released, the keyboard, or MIDI-controller, will send a Note Off message.The Note Off message also includes data bytes for the key number and for the velocity with which the key was released.The Note Off velocity information is normally ignored.Polyphonic Key PressureSome MIDI keyboard instruments have the ability to sense the amount of pressure which is being applied to the keys while they are depressed.AftertouchThis pressure information, commonly called "aftertouch", may be used to control some aspects of the sound produced by the synthesizer (vibrato, for example).If the keyboard has a pressure sensor for each key, then the resulting "polyphonic aftertouch" information would be sent in the form of Polyphonic Key Pressure messages.These messages include separate data bytes for key number and pressure amount. It's currently more common for keyboards to sense only a single pressure level for the entire keyboard.Channel PressureThis "Channel aftertouch" information is sent using the Channel Pressure message, which needs only one data byte to specify the pressure value.Pitch BendThe Pitch Bend Change message is normally sent from a keyboard instrument in response to changes in the pitch bend wheel.The pitch bend information is used to modify the pitch of sounds being played on a given Channel.The Pitch Bend message includes two data bytes to specify the pitch bend value. Two bytes are required to allow fine enough resolution to make pitch changes resulting from movement of the pitch bend wheel seem to occur in a continuous manner rather than in steps.Program ChangeThe Program Change message is used to select the instrument which should be used to play sounds on a given Channel.This message needs only one data byte which specifies the new program number.Control ChangeMIDI Control Change messages are used to control a wide variety of functions in a synthesizer.Control Change messages, like other MIDI Channel messages, should only affect the Channel number indicated in the status byte.The Control Change status byte is followed by one data byte indicating the "controller number", and a second byte which specifies the "control value".The controller number identifies which function of the synthesizer is to be controlled by the message. A complete list of assigned controllers is found in the MIDI 1.0 Detailed Specification.Bank SelectController number zero (with 32 as the LSB) is defined as the Bank Select.The bank select function is used in some synthesisers in conjunction with the MIDI Program Change message to expand the number of different instrument sounds which may be specified (The Program Change message alone allows selection of one of 128 possible program numbers).The additional sounds are selected by preceding the Program Change message with a Control Change message which specifies a new value for Controller 0 (zero) and Controller 32, allowing 16,384 banks of 128 sounds each...impressive eh!Since there is no standard way for a Bank Select message to select a specific synthesiser bank. Manufacturers, such as Roland (with "GS") and Yamaha (with "XG") , have adopted their own practices to assure some standardisation within their own product lines.RPN / NRPNController No. 6 (Data Entry), in conjunction with:Controller No. 96 (Data Increment)97 (Data Decrement)98 (Registered Parameter Number LSB)99 (Registered Parameter Number MSB)100 (Non-Registered Parameter Number LSB)101 (Non-Registered Parameter Number MSB)...extend the number of controllers available via MIDI.The Parameter data is transferred by first selecting the Parameter Number to be edited using controllers 98 and 99 or 100 and 101, and then adjusting the data value for that parameter using controller number 6, 96, or 97.RPN and NRPN are typically used to send parameter data to a synth in order to edit sound patches - very useful for playing around with various drum sounds to get the right sounding kit.Registered parameters (RPN) are those which have been assigned some particular function by the MIDI Manufacturers Association (MMA) and the Japan MIDI Standards Committee (JMSC). For example, there are Registered Parameter numbers assigned to control Pitch Bend Sensitivity and Master Tuning for a synthesizer.Non-Registered parameters (NRPN) have not been assigned specific functions, and may be used for different functions by different manufacturers. Here again, Roland and Yamaha, among others, have adopted their own practices to assure some standardisation.Channel Mode MessagesChannel Mode messages (controller numbers 121 through 127) affect the way a synthesiser responds to MIDI data.Controller number 121 is used to reset all controllers.Controller number 122 is used to enable or disable Local Control(In a MIDI synthesiser which has it's own keyboard, the functions of the keyboard controller and the synthesizer can be isolated by turning Local Control off).Controller number 124 selects Omni Mode OnController number 125 selects Omni Mode OffController number 126 selects Mono ModeController number 127 selects Poly ModeOmni Mode OnOmni Mode On enables the synth to respond to incoming MIDI data on all channels.Omni Mode OffOmni Mode Off means the synthesiser will only respond to MIDI messages on one Channel.Poly ModePoly Mode enables incoming Note On messages to be played Polyphonically.This means that when multiple Note On messages are received - as when playing a chord - each note is assigned its own voice (subject to the number of voices available in the synthesizer). The result is that multiple notes are played at the same time.Mono ModeMono Mode assigns a single voice per MIDI Channel.This means that only one note can be played on a given Channel at a given time.Most modern MIDI synthesisers will default to Omni On Poly mode of operation. In this mode, the synthesizer will play note messages received on any MIDI Channel, and notes received on each Channel are played polyphonically.In the Omni Off Poly mode of operation, the synthesizer will receive on a single Channel and play the notes received on this Channel polyphonically.This mode could be useful when several synthesisers are daisy-chained using MIDI THRU. In this case each synth in the chain can be set to play one part (the MIDI data on one Channel), and ignore the information related to the other parts.Note that a MIDI instrument has one MIDI Channel which is designated as its "Basic Channel". The Basic Channel assignment may be hard-wired, or it may be selectable.Mode messages can only be received by an instrument on the Basic Channel.System MessagesMIDI System Messages are classified as being:System Common Messages - intended for all receivers in the system.System Real Time Messages - used for synchronisation between clock-based MIDI components.System Exclusive Messages - can include a Manufacturer's Identification (ID) code, and are used to transfer any number of data bytes in a format specified by the referenced manufacturer.System Common MessagesThese are the System Common Messages which are currently defined:MTC Quarter Frame message - part of the MIDI Time Code information used for synchronization of MIDI equipment and other equipmentSong Select message - used with MIDI equipment, such as sequencers or drum machines, which can store and recall a number of different songs.Song Position Pointer - used to set a sequencer to start playback of a song at some point other than at the beginning.Tune RequestEnd Of Exclusive (EOX) message - used to flag the end of a System Exclusive message, which can include a variable number of data bytes.System Real Time MessagesThe MIDI System Real Time messages are used to synchronise all of the MIDI clock-based equipment within a system, such as sequencers and drum machines.Most of the System Real Time messages are normally ignored by keyboard instruments and synthesisers.To help ensure accurate timing, System Real Time messages are given priority over other messages, and these single-byte messages may occur anywhere in the data stream (a Real Time message may appear between the status byte and data byte of some other MIDI message).The System Real Time messages are:Timing ClockStartContinueStopActive SensingSystem Reset messageTiming ClockThe Timing Clock message is the master clock which sets the tempo for playback of a sequence.The Timing Clock message is sent 24 times per quarter note. The Start, Continue, and Stop messages are used to control playback of the sequence.Active Sensing - "Stuck Notes"The Active Sensing signal is used to help eliminate "stuck notes" which may occur if a MIDI cable is disconnected during playback of a MIDI sequence.Without Active Sensing, if a cable is disconnected during playback, then some notes may be left playing indefinitely because they have been activated by a Note On message, but the corresponding Note Off message will never be received.System ResetThe System Reset message, as the name implies, is used to reset and initialize any equipment which receives the message.This message is generally not sent automatically by transmitting devices, and must be initiated manually by a user.System Exclusive MessagesSystem Exclusive messages may be used to send data such as patch parameters or sample data between MIDI devices.Manufacturers of MIDI equipment can define their own formats for System Exclusive data. Manufacturers are granted unique identification (ID) numbers by the MMA or the JMSC, and the manufacturer ID number is included as part of the System Exclusive message.The manufacturers ID is followed by any number of data bytes, and the data transmission is terminated with the EOX message.Running Status - A cure for latency?Since MIDI data is transmitted serially, ie... one instruction after another, it's possible that musical events which originally occurred at the same time, eg... a chord, must be sent one at a time in the MIDI data stream and not actually be played at exactly the same time.With a data transmission rate of 31.25 Kbit/s and 10 bits transmitted per byte of MIDI data, a 3-byte Note On or Note Off message takes about 1 ms to be sent.This is generally short enough to be perceived as having occurred simultaneously.In fact, for a person playing a MIDI instrument keyboard, the time skew between playback of notes when 10 keys are pressed simultaneously should not exceed 10 ms, this would not be perceptible.However, MIDI data being sent from a sequencer can include a number of different parts....On a given beat, there may be a large number of musical events which should occur simultaneously, and the delays introduced by serialisation of this information might be noticeable. To help reduce the amount of data transmitted in the MIDI data stream, a technique called "running status" may be employed.Running status considers the fact that it's very common for a string of consecutive messages to be of the same message type.For instance, when a chord is played on a keyboard, 10 successive Note On messages may be generated, followed by 10 Note Off messages. When running status is used, a status byte is sent for a message only when the message is not of the same type as the last message sent on the same Channel.The status byte for subsequent messages of the same type may be omitted (only the data bytes are sent for these subsequent messages).The effectiveness of running status can be enhanced by sending Note On messages with a velocity of zero in place of Note Off messages.In this case, long strings of Note On messages will often occur.Changes in some of the MIDI controllers or movement of the pitch bend wheel on a musical instrument can produce a staggering number of MIDI Channel voice messages, and running status can also help a great deal in these instances.More information on what causes latency when making music with software synths.‹ MIDI Synthesisersup MIDI Standard - BasicsMIDI SynthesisersMIDI MessagesBLOGTheWhippinpostSearch User loginUsername: *Password: *Forgotten password?zZounds DatabaseSearchBy Category (optional):Sort By (optional):Search for: DecryptionComputer Music Dictionary A-GComputer Music Dictionary H-MComputer Music Dictionary N-RComputer Music Dictionary S-ZSitelinkssite map MIDI Messages - Click for TheWhippinpost home pageRecent blog postsUK Pushes for Music Copyright ExtensionCursor Miner: Grimewatch - WOW!Vista-Compatible Sound CardsHow-to Experience 3-D Ambient Sound from StereoDM-Recorder Uniting MusiciansHow Corporates Profit from Software Piracy - RevealedStupid Sequencer Games I PlayFree Ear Training SoftwareCakewalk SONAR Updates for Vista Plus New FeaturesReason ReWire and Cubase Tutorial UpdatesmoreTutorialsMIDIMIDI BasicsXGXG MIDIYamaha SYXG Synths DeadXG Electric GuitarMIDI EditorsCubaseMixingAudioReasonComposingMIDI LatencySimilar entriesMIDI Standard - BasicsMIDI SynthesisersXG MIDIEjectMixing Music Tutorial

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MIDI MessagesBlog Gear Tools Industry Answers News OffcutsHome » MIDI » MIDI BasicsMIDI MessagesBookmark/Search this post with:delicious | digg | reddit | newsvine | furl | google | yahoo | technorati  MIDI isn't a sound, it's a digital instruction to trigger sounds on external or software synths.This guide to the MIDI standard will help you manipulate and understand those MIDI messagesMIDI MessagesA MIDI message is made up of an eight-bit status byte which is generally followed by one or two data bytes.There are a number of different types of MIDI messages (categorised below) and this tutorial is split accordingly to each type.At the highest level, MIDI messages are classified as being either:(Click the links if you wish to dive straight to the info, else just read-on and absorb)Channel MessagesSystem MessagesChannel messages apply only to a specific Channel, so the Channel number is also included in the status byte for these messages.System messages are not Channel-specific, so no Channel number is indicated in their status bytes.Channel MessagesChannel Messages may be further classified as being either:Channel Voice MessagesChannel Mode MessagesChannel Voice Messages carry musical performance data, and so they make up most of the traffic in a typical MIDI data stream.Channel Mode messages affect the way a receiving instrument will respond to the Channel Voice messages.Channel Voice MessagesChannel Voice Messages are used to send musical performance information.The messages in this category are:Note OnNote OffPolyphonic Key PressureChannel PressurePitch Bend ChangeProgram ChangeControl ChangeNote On Note Off & VelocityActivation and release of a particular note are considered as two separate events.When a key is pressed on a MIDI keyboard, it sends a Note On message on the MIDI OUT port.The keyboard may be set to transmit on any one of the sixteen MIDI channels, and the status byte for the Note On message will indicate the selected Channel number.The Note On status byte is followed by two data bytes, which specify key number (indicating which key was pressed) and velocity (how hard the key was pressed).The key number is used by the receiving synthesiser to select which note should be played, and the velocity is normally used to control the amplitude of the note.Note OffWhen the key is released, the keyboard, or MIDI-controller, will send a Note Off message.The Note Off message also includes data bytes for the key number and for the velocity with which the key was released.The Note Off velocity information is normally ignored.Polyphonic Key PressureSome MIDI keyboard instruments have the ability to sense the amount of pressure which is being applied to the keys while they are depressed.AftertouchThis pressure information, commonly called "aftertouch", may be used to control some aspects of the sound produced by the synthesizer (vibrato, for example).If the keyboard has a pressure sensor for each key, then the resulting "polyphonic aftertouch" information would be sent in the form of Polyphonic Key Pressure messages.These messages include separate data bytes for key number and pressure amount. It's currently more common for keyboards to sense only a single pressure level for the entire keyboard.Channel PressureThis "Channel aftertouch" information is sent using the Channel Pressure message, which needs only one data byte to specify the pressure value.Pitch BendThe Pitch Bend Change message is normally sent from a keyboard instrument in response to changes in the pitch bend wheel.The pitch bend information is used to modify the pitch of sounds being played on a given Channel.The Pitch Bend message includes two data bytes to specify the pitch bend value. Two bytes are required to allow fine enough resolution to make pitch changes resulting from movement of the pitch bend wheel seem to occur in a continuous manner rather than in steps.Program ChangeThe Program Change message is used to select the instrument which should be used to play sounds on a given Channel.This message needs only one data byte which specifies the new program number.Control ChangeMIDI Control Change messages are used to control a wide variety of functions in a synthesizer.Control Change messages, like other MIDI Channel messages, should only affect the Channel number indicated in the status byte.The Control Change status byte is followed by one data byte indicating the "controller number", and a second byte which specifies the "control value".The controller number identifies which function of the synthesizer is to be controlled by the message. A complete list of assigned controllers is found in the MIDI 1.0 Detailed Specification.Bank SelectController number zero (with 32 as the LSB) is defined as the Bank Select.The bank select function is used in some synthesisers in conjunction with the MIDI Program Change message to expand the number of different instrument sounds which may be specified (The Program Change message alone allows selection of one of 128 possible program numbers).The additional sounds are selected by preceding the Program Change message with a Control Change message which specifies a new value for Controller 0 (zero) and Controller 32, allowing 16,384 banks of 128 sounds each...impressive eh!Since there is no standard way for a Bank Select message to select a specific synthesiser bank. Manufacturers, such as Roland (with "GS") and Yamaha (with "XG") , have adopted their own practices to assure some standardisation within their own product lines.RPN / NRPNController No. 6 (Data Entry), in conjunction with:Controller No. 96 (Data Increment)97 (Data Decrement)98 (Registered Parameter Number LSB)99 (Registered Parameter Number MSB)100 (Non-Registered Parameter Number LSB)101 (Non-Registered Parameter Number MSB)...extend the number of controllers available via MIDI.The Parameter data is transferred by first selecting the Parameter Number to be edited using controllers 98 and 99 or 100 and 101, and then adjusting the data value for that parameter using controller number 6, 96, or 97.RPN and NRPN are typically used to send parameter data to a synth in order to edit sound patches - very useful for playing around with various drum sounds to get the right sounding kit.Registered parameters (RPN) are those which have been assigned some particular function by the MIDI Manufacturers Association (MMA) and the Japan MIDI Standards Committee (JMSC). For example, there are Registered Parameter numbers assigned to control Pitch Bend Sensitivity and Master Tuning for a synthesizer.Non-Registered parameters (NRPN) have not been assigned specific functions, and may be used for different functions by different manufacturers. Here again, Roland and Yamaha, among others, have adopted their own practices to assure some standardisation.Channel Mode MessagesChannel Mode messages (controller numbers 121 through 127) affect the way a synthesiser responds to MIDI data.Controller number 121 is used to reset all controllers.Controller number 122 is used to enable or disable Local Control(In a MIDI synthesiser which has it's own keyboard, the functions of the keyboard controller and the synthesizer can be isolated by turning Local Control off).Controller number 124 selects Omni Mode OnController number 125 selects Omni Mode OffController number 126 selects Mono ModeController number 127 selects Poly ModeOmni Mode OnOmni Mode On enables the synth to respond to incoming MIDI data on all channels.Omni Mode OffOmni Mode Off means the synthesiser will only respond to MIDI messages on one Channel.Poly ModePoly Mode enables incoming Note On messages to be played Polyphonically.This means that when multiple Note On messages are received - as when playing a chord - each note is assigned its own voice (subject to the number of voices available in the synthesizer). The result is that multiple notes are played at the same time.Mono ModeMono Mode assigns a single voice per MIDI Channel.This means that only one note can be played on a given Channel at a given time.Most modern MIDI synthesisers will default to Omni On Poly mode of operation. In this mode, the synthesizer will play note messages received on any MIDI Channel, and notes received on each Channel are played polyphonically.In the Omni Off Poly mode of operation, the synthesizer will receive on a single Channel and play the notes received on this Channel polyphonically.This mode could be useful when several synthesisers are daisy-chained using MIDI THRU. In this case each synth in the chain can be set to play one part (the MIDI data on one Channel), and ignore the information related to the other parts.Note that a MIDI instrument has one MIDI Channel which is designated as its "Basic Channel". The Basic Channel assignment may be hard-wired, or it may be selectable.Mode messages can only be received by an instrument on the Basic Channel.System MessagesMIDI System Messages are classified as being:System Common Messages - intended for all receivers in the system.System Real Time Messages - used for synchronisation between clock-based MIDI components.System Exclusive Messages - can include a Manufacturer's Identification (ID) code, and are used to transfer any number of data bytes in a format specified by the referenced manufacturer.System Common MessagesThese are the System Common Messages which are currently defined:MTC Quarter Frame message - part of the MIDI Time Code information used for synchronization of MIDI equipment and other equipmentSong Select message - used with MIDI equipment, such as sequencers or drum machines, which can store and recall a number of different songs.Song Position Pointer - used to set a sequencer to start playback of a song at some point other than at the beginning.Tune RequestEnd Of Exclusive (EOX) message - used to flag the end of a System Exclusive message, which can include a variable number of data bytes.System Real Time MessagesThe MIDI System Real Time messages are used to synchronise all of the MIDI clock-based equipment within a system, such as sequencers and drum machines.Most of the System Real Time messages are normally ignored by keyboard instruments and synthesisers.To help ensure accurate timing, System Real Time messages are given priority over other messages, and these single-byte messages may occur anywhere in the data stream (a Real Time message may appear between the status byte and data byte of some other MIDI message).The System Real Time messages are:Timing ClockStartContinueStopActive SensingSystem Reset messageTiming ClockThe Timing Clock message is the master clock which sets the tempo for playback of a sequence.The Timing Clock message is sent 24 times per quarter note. The Start, Continue, and Stop messages are used to control playback of the sequence.Active Sensing - "Stuck Notes"The Active Sensing signal is used to help eliminate "stuck notes" which may occur if a MIDI cable is disconnected during playback of a MIDI sequence.Without Active Sensing, if a cable is disconnected during playback, then some notes may be left playing indefinitely because they have been activated by a Note On message, but the corresponding Note Off message will never be received.System ResetThe System Reset message, as the name implies, is used to reset and initialize any equipment which receives the message.This message is generally not sent automatically by transmitting devices, and must be initiated manually by a user.System Exclusive MessagesSystem Exclusive messages may be used to send data such as patch parameters or sample data between MIDI devices.Manufacturers of MIDI equipment can define their own formats for System Exclusive data. Manufacturers are granted unique identification (ID) numbers by the MMA or the JMSC, and the manufacturer ID number is included as part of the System Exclusive message.The manufacturers ID is followed by any number of data bytes, and the data transmission is terminated with the EOX message.Running Status - A cure for latency?Since MIDI data is transmitted serially, ie... one instruction after another, it's possible that musical events which originally occurred at the same time, eg... a chord, must be sent one at a time in the MIDI data stream and not actually be played at exactly the same time.With a data transmission rate of 31.25 Kbit/s and 10 bits transmitted per byte of MIDI data, a 3-byte Note On or Note Off message takes about 1 ms to be sent.This is generally short enough to be perceived as having occurred simultaneously.In fact, for a person playing a MIDI instrument keyboard, the time skew between playback of notes when 10 keys are pressed simultaneously should not exceed 10 ms, this would not be perceptible.However, MIDI data being sent from a sequencer can include a number of different parts....On a given beat, there may be a large number of musical events which should occur simultaneously, and the delays introduced by serialisation of this information might be noticeable. To help reduce the amount of data transmitted in the MIDI data stream, a technique called "running status" may be employed.Running status considers the fact that it's very common for a string of consecutive messages to be of the same message type.For instance, when a chord is played on a keyboard, 10 successive Note On messages may be generated, followed by 10 Note Off messages. When running status is used, a status byte is sent for a message only when the message is not of the same type as the last message sent on the same Channel.The status byte for subsequent messages of the same type may be omitted (only the data bytes are sent for these subsequent messages).The effectiveness of running status can be enhanced by sending Note On messages with a velocity of zero in place of Note Off messages.In this case, long strings of Note On messages will often occur.Changes in some of the MIDI controllers or movement of the pitch bend wheel on a musical instrument can produce a staggering number of MIDI Channel voice messages, and running status can also help a great deal in these instances.More information on what causes latency when making music with software synths.‹ MIDI Synthesisersup MIDI Standard - BasicsMIDI SynthesisersMIDI MessagesBLOGTheWhippinpostSearch User loginUsername: *Password: *Forgotten password?zZounds DatabaseSearchBy Category (optional):Sort By (optional):Search for: DecryptionComputer Music Dictionary A-GComputer Music Dictionary H-MComputer Music Dictionary N-RComputer Music Dictionary S-ZSitelinkssite map MIDI Messages - Click for TheWhippinpost home pageRecent blog postsUK Pushes for Music Copyright ExtensionCursor Miner: Grimewatch - WOW!Vista-Compatible Sound CardsHow-to Experience 3-D Ambient Sound from StereoDM-Recorder Uniting MusiciansHow Corporates Profit from Software Piracy - RevealedStupid Sequencer Games I PlayFree Ear Training SoftwareCakewalk SONAR Updates for Vista Plus New FeaturesReason ReWire and Cubase Tutorial UpdatesmoreTutorialsMIDIMIDI BasicsXGXG MIDIYamaha SYXG Synths DeadXG Electric GuitarMIDI EditorsCubaseMixingAudioReasonComposingMIDI LatencySimilar entriesMIDI Standard - BasicsMIDI SynthesisersXG MIDIEjectMixing Music Tutorial

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MIDI Messages

Bookmark/Search this post with: | | | | | | | MIDI isn't a sound, it's a digital instruction to trigger sounds on external or software synths.This guide to the MIDI standard will help you manipulate and understand those MIDI messagesMIDI MessagesA MIDI message is made up of an eight-bit status byte which is generally followed by one or two data bytes. There are a number of different types of MIDI messages (categorised below) and this tutorial is split accordingly to each type. At the highest level, MIDI messages are classified as being either: (Click the links if you wish to dive straight to the info, else just read-on and absorb)

Channel Messages

System Messages

Channel messages apply only to a specific Channel, so the Channel number is also included in the status byte for these messages.

System messages are not Channel-specific, so no Channel number is indicated in their status bytes.

Channel Messages

Channel Messages may be further classified as being either:

Channel Voice Messages

Channel Mode Messages

Channel Voice Messages carry musical performance data, and so they make up most of the traffic in a typical MIDI data stream.

Channel Mode messages affect the way a receiving instrument will respond to the Channel Voice messages.

Channel Voice Messages

Channel Voice Messages are used to send musical performance information.

The messages in this category are:

Note On

Note Off

Polyphonic Key Pressure

Channel Pressure

Pitch Bend Change

Program Change

Control Change

Note On Note Off & Velocity

Activation and release of a particular note are considered as two separate events.

When a key is pressed on a MIDI keyboard, it sends a Note On message on the MIDI OUT port.

The keyboard may be set to transmit on any one of the sixteen MIDI channels, and the status byte for the Note On message will indicate the selected Channel number.

The Note On status byte is followed by two data bytes, which specify key number (indicating which key was pressed) and velocity (how hard the key was pressed).

The key number is used by the receiving synthesiser to select which note should be played, and the velocity is normally used to control the amplitude of the note.

Note Off

When the key is released, the keyboard, or MIDI-controller, will send a Note Off message.

The Note Off message also includes data bytes for the key number and for the velocity with which the key was released.

The Note Off velocity information is normally ignored.

Polyphonic Key Pressure

Some MIDI keyboard instruments have the ability to sense the amount of pressure which is being applied to the keys while they are depressed.

Aftertouch

This pressure information, commonly called "aftertouch", may be used to control some aspects of the sound produced by the synthesizer (vibrato, for example).

If the keyboard has a pressure sensor for each key, then the resulting "polyphonic aftertouch" information would be sent in the form of Polyphonic Key Pressure messages.

These messages include separate data bytes for key number and pressure amount. It's currently more common for keyboards to sense only a single pressure level for the entire keyboard.

Channel Pressure

This "Channel aftertouch" information is sent using the Channel Pressure message, which needs only one data byte to specify the pressure value.

Pitch Bend

The Pitch Bend Change message is normally sent from a keyboard instrument in response to changes in the pitch bend wheel.

The pitch bend information is used to modify the pitch of sounds being played on a given Channel.

The Pitch Bend message includes two data bytes to specify the pitch bend value. Two bytes are required to allow fine enough resolution to make pitch changes resulting from movement of the pitch bend wheel seem to occur in a continuous manner rather than in steps.

Program Change

The Program Change message is used to select the instrument which should be used to play sounds on a given Channel.

This message needs only one data byte which specifies the new program number.

Control Change

MIDI Control Change messages are used to control a wide variety of functions in a synthesizer.

Control Change messages, like other MIDI Channel messages, should only affect the Channel number indicated in the status byte.

The Control Change status byte is followed by one data byte indicating the "controller number", and a second byte which specifies the "control value".

The controller number identifies which function of the synthesizer is to be controlled by the message. A complete list of assigned controllers is found in the MIDI 1.0 Detailed Specification.

Bank Select

Controller number zero (with 32 as the LSB) is defined as the Bank Select.

The bank select function is used in some synthesisers in conjunction with the MIDI Program Change message to expand the number of different instrument sounds which may be specified (The Program Change message alone allows selection of one of 128 possible program numbers).

The additional sounds are selected by preceding the Program Change message with a Control Change message which specifies a new value for Controller 0(zero) and Controller 32, allowing 16,384 banks of 128 sounds each...impressive eh!

Since there is no standard way for a Bank Select message to select a specific synthesiser bank. Manufacturers, such as Roland (with "GS") and Yamaha (with "XG") , have adopted their own practices to assure some standardisation within their own product lines.

RPN / NRPN

Controller No. 6 (Data Entry), in conjunction with:

Controller No. 96 (Data Increment)

97 (Data Decrement)

98 (Registered Parameter Number LSB)

99 (Registered Parameter Number MSB)

100 (Non-Registered Parameter Number LSB)

101 (Non-Registered Parameter Number MSB)

...extend the number of controllers available via MIDI.

The Parameter data is transferred by first selecting the Parameter Number to be edited using controllers 98 and 99 or 100 and 101, and then adjusting the data value for that parameter using controller number 6, 96, or 97.

RPN and NRPN are typically used to send parameter data to a synth in order to edit sound patches - very useful for playing around with various drum sounds to get the right sounding kit.

Registered parameters (RPN) are those which have been assigned some particular function by the MIDI Manufacturers Association (MMA) and the Japan MIDI Standards Committee (JMSC). For example, there are Registered Parameter numbers assigned to control Pitch Bend Sensitivity and Master Tuning for a synthesizer.

Non-Registered parameters (NRPN) have not been assigned specific functions, and may be used for different functions by different manufacturers. Here again, Roland and Yamaha, among others, have adopted their own practices to assure some standardisation.

Channel Mode Messages

Channel Mode messages (controller numbers 121 through 127) affect the way a synthesiser responds to MIDI data.

Controller number 121 is used to reset all controllers.

Controller number 122 is used to enable or disable Local Control(In a MIDI synthesiser which has it's own keyboard, the functions of the keyboard controller and the synthesizer can be isolated by turning Local Control off).

Controller number 124 selects Omni Mode On

Controller number 125 selects Omni Mode Off

Controller number 126 selects Mono Mode

Controller number 127 selects Poly Mode

Omni Mode On

Omni Mode On enables the synth to respond to incoming MIDI data on all channels.

Omni Mode Off

Omni Mode Off means the synthesiser will only respond to MIDI messages on one Channel.

Poly Mode

Poly Mode enables incoming Note On messages to be played Polyphonically.

This means that when multiple Note On messages are received - as when playing a chord - each note is assigned its own voice (subject to the number of voices available in the synthesizer). The result is that multiple notes are played at the same time.

Mono Mode

Mono Mode assigns a single voice per MIDI Channel.

This means that only one note can be played on a given Channel at a given time.

Most modern MIDI synthesisers will default to Omni On Poly mode of operation. In this mode, the synthesizer will play note messages received on anyMIDI Channel, and notes received on each Channel are played polyphonically.

In the Omni Off Poly mode of operation, the synthesizer will receive on a single Channel and play the notes received on this Channel polyphonically.

This mode could be useful when several synthesisers are daisy-chained using MIDI THRU. In this case each synth in the chain can be set to play one part (the MIDI data on one Channel), and ignore the information related to the other parts.

Note that a MIDI instrument has one MIDI Channel which is designated as its "Basic Channel". The Basic Channel assignment may be hard-wired, or it may be selectable.

Mode messages can only be received by an instrument on the Basic Channel.

System Messages

MIDI System Messages are classified as being:

System Common Messages - intended for all receivers in the system.

System Real Time Messages - used for synchronisation between clock-based MIDI components.

System Exclusive Messages - can include a Manufacturer's Identification (ID) code, and are used to transfer any number of data bytes in a format specified by the referenced manufacturer.

System Common Messages

These are the System Common Messages which are currently defined:

MTC Quarter Frame message - part of the MIDI Time Code information used for synchronization of MIDI equipment and other equipment

Song Select message - used with MIDI equipment, such as sequencers or drum machines, which can store and recall a number of different songs.

Song Position Pointer - used to set a sequencer to start playback of a song at some point other than at the beginning.

Tune Request

End Of Exclusive (EOX) message - used to flag the end of a System Exclusive message, which can include a variable number of data bytes.

System Real Time Messages

The MIDI System Real Time messages are used to synchronise all of the MIDI clock-based equipment within a system, such as sequencers and drum machines.

Most of the System Real Time messages are normally ignored by keyboard instruments and synthesisers.

To help ensure accurate timing, System Real Time messages are given priority over other messages, and these single-byte messages may occur anywhere in the data stream (a Real Time message may appear between the status byte and data byte of some other MIDI message).

The System Real Time messages are:

Timing Clock

Start

Continue

Stop

Active Sensing

System Reset message

Timing Clock

The Timing Clock message is the master clock which sets the tempo for playback of a sequence.

The Timing Clock message is sent 24 times per quarter note. The Start, Continue, and Stop messages are used to control playback of the sequence.

Active Sensing - "Stuck Notes"

The Active Sensing signal is used to help eliminate "stuck notes" which may occur if a MIDI cable is disconnected during playback of a MIDI sequence.

Without Active Sensing, if a cable is disconnected during playback, then some notes may be left playing indefinitely because they have been activated by a Note On message, but the corresponding Note Off message will never be received.

System Reset

The System Reset message, as the name implies, is used to reset and initialize any equipment which receives the message.

This message is generally not sent automatically by transmitting devices, and must be initiated manually by a user.

System Exclusive Messages

System Exclusive messages may be used to send data such as patch parameters or sample data between MIDI devices.

Manufacturers of MIDI equipment can define their own formats for System Exclusive data. Manufacturers are granted unique identification (ID) numbers by the MMA or the JMSC, and the manufacturer ID number is included as part of the System Exclusive message.

The manufacturers ID is followed by any number of data bytes, and the data transmission is terminated with the EOX message.

Running Status - A cure for latency?

Since MIDI data is transmitted serially, ie... one instruction after another, it's possible that musical events which originally occurred at the same time, eg... a chord, must be sent one at a time in the MIDI data stream and not actually be played at exactly the same time.

With a data transmission rate of 31.25 Kbit/s and 10 bits transmitted per byte of MIDI data, a 3-byte Note On or Note Off message takes about 1 ms to be sent.

This is generally short enough to be perceived as having occurred simultaneously.

In fact, for a person playing a MIDI instrument keyboard, the time skew between playback of notes when 10 keys are pressed simultaneously should not exceed 10 ms, this would not be perceptible.

However, MIDI data being sent from a sequencer can include a number of different parts....

On a given beat, there may be a large number of musical events which should occur simultaneously, and the delays introduced by serialisation of this information might be noticeable. To help reduce the amount of data transmitted in the MIDI data stream, a technique called "running status" may be employed.

Running status considers the fact that it's very common for a string of consecutive messages to be of the same message type.

For instance, when a chord is played on a keyboard, 10 successive Note On messages may be generated, followed by 10 Note Off messages. When running status is used, a status byte is sent for a message only when the message is not of the same type as the last message sent on the same Channel.

The status byte for subsequent messages of the same type may be omitted (only the data bytes are sent for these subsequent messages).

The effectiveness of running status can be enhanced by sending Note On messages with a velocity of zero in place of Note Off messages.

In this case, long strings of Note On messages will often occur.

Changes in some of the MIDI controllers or movement of the pitch bend wheel on a musical instrument can produce a staggering number of MIDI Channel voice messages, and running status can also help a great deal in these instances.

More information on what causes latency when making music with software synths.

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# data[].attributes.headline
I remember when we broke up the first timeSaying, "This is it, I've had enough, " 'cause likeWe hadn't seen each other in a monthWhen you said you needed space. (What?)Then you come around again and say"Baby, I miss you and I swear I'm gonna change, trust me."Remember how that lasted for a day?I say, "I hate you, " we break up, you call me, "I love you."Ooh, we called it off again last nightBut ooh, this time I'm telling you, I'm telling youWe are never ever ever getting back together,We are never ever ever getting back together,You go talk to your friends, talk to my friends, talk to meBut we are never ever ever ever getting back togetherLike, ever...I'm really gonna miss you picking fightsAnd me falling for it screaming that I'm rightAnd you would hide away and find your peace of mindWith some indie record that's much cooler than mineOoh, you called me up again tonightBut ooh, this time I'm telling you, I'm telling youWe are never, ever, ever, ever getting back togetherWe are never, ever, ever, ever getting back togetherYou go talk to your friends, talk to my friends, talk to meBut we are never ever ever ever getting back togetherOoh, yeah, ooh yeah, ooh yeahOoh, yeah, ooh yeah, ooh yeahOoh, yeah, ooh yeah, ooh yeahOh oh ohI used to think that we were forever everAnd I used to say, "Never say never..."Uggg... so he calls me up and he's like, "I still love you, "And I'm like... "I just... I mean this is exhausting, you know, like,We are never getting back together. Like, ever"No!We are never ever ever getting back togetherWe are never ever ever getting back togetherYou go talk to your friends, talk to my friends, talk to meBut we are never ever ever ever getting back togetherWe, ooh, getting back together, ohhh,We, ooh, getting back togetherYou go talk to your friends, talk to my friends, talk to me (talk to me)But we are never ever ever ever getting back together

# data[].attributes.subject
I remember when we broke up the first timeSaying, "This is it, I've had enough, " 'cause likeWe hadn't seen each other in a monthWhen you said you needed space. (What?)Then you come around again and say"Baby, I miss you and I swear I'm gonna change, trust me."Remember how that lasted for a day?I say, "I hate you, " we break up, you call me, "I love you."Ooh, we called it off again last nightBut ooh, this time I'm telling you, I'm telling youWe are never ever ever getting back together,We are never ever ever getting back together,You go talk to your friends, talk to my friends, talk to meBut we are never ever ever ever getting back togetherLike, ever...I'm really gonna miss you picking fightsAnd me falling for it screaming that I'm rightAnd you would hide away and find your peace of mindWith some indie record that's much cooler than mineOoh, you called me up again tonightBut ooh, this time I'm telling you, I'm telling youWe are never, ever, ever, ever getting back togetherWe are never, ever, ever, ever getting back togetherYou go talk to your friends, talk to my friends, talk to meBut we are never ever ever ever getting back togetherOoh, yeah, ooh yeah, ooh yeahOoh, yeah, ooh yeah, ooh yeahOoh, yeah, ooh yeah, ooh yeahOh oh ohI used to think that we were forever everAnd I used to say, "Never say never..."Uggg... so he calls me up and he's like, "I still love you, "And I'm like... "I just... I mean this is exhausting, you know, like,We are never getting back together. Like, ever"No!We are never ever ever getting back togetherWe are never ever ever getting back togetherYou go talk to your friends, talk to my friends, talk to meBut we are never ever ever ever getting back togetherWe, ooh, getting back together, ohhh,We, ooh, getting back togetherYou go talk to your friends, talk to my friends, talk to me (talk to me)But we are never ever ever ever getting back together

# data[].attributes.headline
l the values that Silicon Valley professes are the values of the 60s. The big tech companies present themselves as platforms for personal liberation. Everyone has the right to speak their mind on social media, to fulfil their intellectual and democratic potential, to express their individuality. Where television had been a passive medium that rendered citizens inert, Facebook is participatory and empowering. It allows users to read widely, think for themselves and form their own opinions.We can’t entirely dismiss this rhetoric. There are parts of the world, even in the US, where Facebook emboldens citizens and enables them to organise themselves in opposition to power. But we shouldn’t accept Facebook’s self-conception as sincere, either. Facebook is a carefully managed top-down system, not a robust public square. It mimics some of the patterns of conversation, but that’s a surface trait.Sign up to the Media Briefing: news for the news-makers Read moreIn reality, Facebook is a tangle of rules and procedures for sorting information, rules devised by the corporation for the ultimate benefit of the corporation. Facebook is always surveilling users, always auditing them, using them as lab rats in its behavioural experiments. While it creates the impression that it offers choice, in truth Facebook paternalistically nudges users in the direction it deems best for them, which also happens to be the direction that gets them thoroughly addicted. It’s a phoniness that is most obvious in the compressed, historic career of Facebook’s mastermind.Mark Zuckerberg is a good boy, but he wanted to be bad, or maybe just a little bit naughty. The heroes of his adolescence were the original hackers. These weren’t malevolent data thieves or cyberterrorists. Zuckerberg’s hacker heroes were disrespectful of authority. They were technically virtuosic, infinitely resourceful nerd cowboys, unbound by conventional thinking. In the labs of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) during the 60s and 70s, they broke any rule that interfered with building the stuff of early computing, such marvels as the first video games and word processors. With their free time, they played epic pranks, which happened to draw further attention to their own cleverness – installing a living cow on the roof of a Cambridge dorm; launching a weather balloon, which miraculously emerged from beneath the turf, emblazoned with “MIT”, in the middle of a Harvard-Yale football game.AdvertisementThe hackers’ archenemies were the bureaucrats who ran universities, corporations and governments. Bureaucrats talked about making the world more efficient, just like the hackers. But they were really small-minded paper-pushers who fiercely guarded the information they held, even when that information yearned to be shared. When hackers clearly engineered better ways of doing things – a box that enabled free long-distance calls, an instruction that might improve an operating system – the bureaucrats stood in their way, wagging an unbending finger. The hackers took aesthetic and comic pleasure in outwitting the men in suits.When Zuckerberg arrived at Harvard in the fall of 2002, the heyday of the hackers had long passed. They were older guys now, the stuff of good tales, some stuck in twilight struggles against The Man. But Zuckerberg wanted to hack, too, and with that old-time indifference to norms. In high school he picked the lock that prevented outsiders from fiddling with AOL’s code and added his own improvements to its instant messaging program. As a college sophomore he hatched a site called Facemash – with the high-minded purpose of determining the hottest kid on campus. Zuckerberg asked users to compare images of two students and then determine the better-looking of the two. The winner of each pairing advanced to the next round of his hormonal tournament. To cobble this site together, Zuckerberg needed photos. He purloined those from the servers of the various Harvard houses. “One thing is certain,” he wrote on a blog as he put the finishing touches on his creation, “and it’s that I’m a jerk for making this site. Oh well.”His brief experimentation with rebellion ended with his apologising to a Harvard disciplinary panel, as well as to campus women’s groups, and mulling strategies to redeem his soiled reputation. In the years since, he has shown that defiance really wasn’t his natural inclination. His distrust of authority was such that he sought out Don Graham, then the venerable chairman of the Washington Post company, as his mentor. After he started Facebook, he shadowed various giants of corporate America so that he could study their managerial styles up close.AdvertisementStill, Zuckerberg’s juvenile fascination with hackers never died – or rather, he carried it forward into his new, more mature incarnation. When he finally had a corporate campus of his own, he procured a vanity address for it: One Hacker Way. He designed a plaza with the word “HACK” inlaid into the concrete. In the centre of his office park, he created an open meeting space called Hacker Square. This is, of course, the venue where his employees join for all-night Hackathons. As he told a group of would-be entrepreneurs, “We’ve got this whole ethos that we want to build a hacker culture.”Plenty of companies have similarly appropriated hacker culture – hackers are the ur-disrupters – but none have gone as far as Facebook. By the time Zuckerberg began extolling the virtues of hacking, he had stripped the name of most of its original meaning and distilled it into a managerial philosophy that contains barely a hint of rebelliousness. Hackers, he told one interviewer, were “just this group of computer scientists who were trying to quickly prototype and see what was possible. That’s what I try to encourage our engineers to do here.” To hack is to be a good worker, a responsible Facebook citizen – a microcosm of the way in which the company has taken the language of radical individualism and deployed it in the service of conformism.Zuckerberg claimed to have distilled that hacker spirit into a motivational motto: “Move fast and break things.” The truth is that Facebook moved faster than Zuckerberg could ever have imagined. His company was, as we all know, a dorm-room lark, a thing he ginned up in a Red Bull–induced fit of sleeplessness. As his creation grew, it needed to justify its new scale to its investors, to its users, to the world. It needed to grow up fast. Over the span of its short life, the company has caromed from self-description to self-description. It has called itself a tool, a utility and a platform. It has talked about openness and connectedness. And in all these attempts at defining itself, it has managed to clarify its int

# data[].attributes.subject
l the values that Silicon Valley professes are the values of the 60s. The big tech companies present themselves as platforms for personal liberation. Everyone has the right to speak their mind on social media, to fulfil their intellectual and democratic potential, to express their individuality. Where television had been a passive medium that rendered citizens inert, Facebook is participatory and empowering. It allows users to read widely, think for themselves and form their own opinions.We can’t entirely dismiss this rhetoric. There are parts of the world, even in the US, where Facebook emboldens citizens and enables them to organise themselves in opposition to power. But we shouldn’t accept Facebook’s self-conception as sincere, either. Facebook is a carefully managed top-down system, not a robust public square. It mimics some of the patterns of conversation, but that’s a surface trait.Sign up to the Media Briefing: news for the news-makers Read moreIn reality, Facebook is a tangle of rules and procedures for sorting information, rules devised by the corporation for the ultimate benefit of the corporation. Facebook is always surveilling users, always auditing them, using them as lab rats in its behavioural experiments. While it creates the impression that it offers choice, in truth Facebook paternalistically nudges users in the direction it deems best for them, which also happens to be the direction that gets them thoroughly addicted. It’s a phoniness that is most obvious in the compressed, historic career of Facebook’s mastermind.Mark Zuckerberg is a good boy, but he wanted to be bad, or maybe just a little bit naughty. The heroes of his adolescence were the original hackers. These weren’t malevolent data thieves or cyberterrorists. Zuckerberg’s hacker heroes were disrespectful of authority. They were technically virtuosic, infinitely resourceful nerd cowboys, unbound by conventional thinking. In the labs of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) during the 60s and 70s, they broke any rule that interfered with building the stuff of early computing, such marvels as the first video games and word processors. With their free time, they played epic pranks, which happened to draw further attention to their own cleverness – installing a living cow on the roof of a Cambridge dorm; launching a weather balloon, which miraculously emerged from beneath the turf, emblazoned with “MIT”, in the middle of a Harvard-Yale football game.AdvertisementThe hackers’ archenemies were the bureaucrats who ran universities, corporations and governments. Bureaucrats talked about making the world more efficient, just like the hackers. But they were really small-minded paper-pushers who fiercely guarded the information they held, even when that information yearned to be shared. When hackers clearly engineered better ways of doing things – a box that enabled free long-distance calls, an instruction that might improve an operating system – the bureaucrats stood in their way, wagging an unbending finger. The hackers took aesthetic and comic pleasure in outwitting the men in suits.When Zuckerberg arrived at Harvard in the fall of 2002, the heyday of the hackers had long passed. They were older guys now, the stuff of good tales, some stuck in twilight struggles against The Man. But Zuckerberg wanted to hack, too, and with that old-time indifference to norms. In high school he picked the lock that prevented outsiders from fiddling with AOL’s code and added his own improvements to its instant messaging program. As a college sophomore he hatched a site called Facemash – with the high-minded purpose of determining the hottest kid on campus. Zuckerberg asked users to compare images of two students and then determine the better-looking of the two. The winner of each pairing advanced to the next round of his hormonal tournament. To cobble this site together, Zuckerberg needed photos. He purloined those from the servers of the various Harvard houses. “One thing is certain,” he wrote on a blog as he put the finishing touches on his creation, “and it’s that I’m a jerk for making this site. Oh well.”His brief experimentation with rebellion ended with his apologising to a Harvard disciplinary panel, as well as to campus women’s groups, and mulling strategies to redeem his soiled reputation. In the years since, he has shown that defiance really wasn’t his natural inclination. His distrust of authority was such that he sought out Don Graham, then the venerable chairman of the Washington Post company, as his mentor. After he started Facebook, he shadowed various giants of corporate America so that he could study their managerial styles up close.AdvertisementStill, Zuckerberg’s juvenile fascination with hackers never died – or rather, he carried it forward into his new, more mature incarnation. When he finally had a corporate campus of his own, he procured a vanity address for it: One Hacker Way. He designed a plaza with the word “HACK” inlaid into the concrete. In the centre of his office park, he created an open meeting space called Hacker Square. This is, of course, the venue where his employees join for all-night Hackathons. As he told a group of would-be entrepreneurs, “We’ve got this whole ethos that we want to build a hacker culture.”Plenty of companies have similarly appropriated hacker culture – hackers are the ur-disrupters – but none have gone as far as Facebook. By the time Zuckerberg began extolling the virtues of hacking, he had stripped the name of most of its original meaning and distilled it into a managerial philosophy that contains barely a hint of rebelliousness. Hackers, he told one interviewer, were “just this group of computer scientists who were trying to quickly prototype and see what was possible. That’s what I try to encourage our engineers to do here.” To hack is to be a good worker, a responsible Facebook citizen – a microcosm of the way in which the company has taken the language of radical individualism and deployed it in the service of conformism.Zuckerberg claimed to have distilled that hacker spirit into a motivational motto: “Move fast and break things.” The truth is that Facebook moved faster than Zuckerberg could ever have imagined. His company was, as we all know, a dorm-room lark, a thing he ginned up in a Red Bull–induced fit of sleeplessness. As his creation grew, it needed to justify its new scale to its investors, to its users, to the world. It needed to grow up fast. Over the span of its short life, the company has caromed from self-description to self-description. It has called itself a tool, a utility and a platform. It has talked about openness and connectedness. And in all these attempts at defining itself, it has managed to clarify its int

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Channel Voice Messages

Almost all MIDI devices are equipped to receive MIDI messages on one or more of 16 selectable MIDI channel numbers. A device's particular voice (or patch, program, timbre) will respond to messages sent on the channel it is tuned to and ignore all other channel messages, analogous to a television set receiving only the station it is tuned to and rejecting the others. The exception to this is OMNI mode. An instrument set to receive in OMNI mode will accept and respond to all channel messages, regardless of the channel number.

The most common MIDI messages are channel voice messages listed in the chart below. They convey information about whether to turn a note on or off, what patch to change to, how much key pressure to exert (called aftertouch), etc.

The table below presents a summary of the MIDI Channel Voice Message codes in binary form.
A MIDI channel voice message consists of a status Byte followed by one or two data Bytes.
Click here for a list of currently assigned MIDI controller numbers.
Status Byte | Data Byte 1 | Data Byte 2 | Message | Legend
1000nnnn | 0kkkkkkk | 0vvvvvvv | Note Off | n=channel* k=key # 0-127(60=middle C) v=velocity (0-127)
1001nnnn | 0kkkkkkk | 0vvvvvvv | Note On | n=channel k=key # 0-127(60=middle C) v=velocity (0-127)
1010nnnn | 0kkkkkkk | 0ppppppp | Poly Key Pressure | n=channel k=key # 0-127(60=middle C) p=pressure (0-127)
1011nnnn | 0ccccccc | 0vvvvvvv | Controller Change | n=channel c=controller v=controller value(0-127)
1100nnnn | 0ppppppp | [none] | Program Change | n=channel p=preset number (0-127)
1101nnnn | 0ppppppp | [none] | Channel Pressure | n=channel p=pressure (0-127)
1110nnnn | 0fffffff | 0ccccccc | Pitch Bend | n=channel c=coarse f=fine (c+f = 14-bit resolution)

A sample message for turning on a note (middle C) on MIDI channel #5 very loudly (with a velocity or force of 127, the maximum) is shown below in binary.

status byte  | data byte  | data byte
10010100  | 00111100  | 01111111

The first four bits of the status byte (1001) tell MIDI that the following message is a note-on command, while the last four bits tell MIDI what MIDI channel the message is for (0000=MIDI channel #1, 1111=MIDI channel #16). Note that the channel number are offset by one value, since channel 1 is set by binary '0' and channel 16 is set by binary '15.' The first data byte tells MIDI what note to play (decimal 60=middle C), while the second data byte tells MIDI how loud to play the note. In this case the maximum velocity of 127 is sent. The note will sound until a message to turn off the same note number is received.

Simultaneous events in MIDI must be sent as a string of serial commands. A 3-note chord, for example, will be transmitted as three separate note #-velocity pairs. Because of the 31.25 Kbaud transmission speed, this is normally perceived as a simultaneity. However, as polyphonic instruments (those capable of playing more than one note simultaneously) have increased their number of voices and more MIDI set-ups have networks of ever-increasing numbers of instruments and tone modules, the speed of both the interface's processor and sheer volume of serial data make large simultaneous events susceptible to glitches, undesired arpeggiations, and data errors.

To make more efficient use of the limited bandwidth, MIDI manufacturers adopted a shortcut called running status. Running status allows a single status byte's action to remain in effect for an unlimited number of data byte pairs which follow. For example, to play three 'simultaneous' notes on the same MIDI channel, a Note On status byte can be sent, followed by six data bytes.

status(note on, ch 1) key1-velocity key2-velocity key3-velocity

To help minimize excessive data by using running status, the note on command can also function to turn notes off by sending a velocity value of zero for the key # to be turned off. so:

status(note on, ch 1) key1-velocity1 key2-velocity2 key3-velocity3 key1-velocity0 key2-velocity0 key3-velocity0

Many instruments transmit and respond to key velocity, the speed at which a key is depressed. Some even respond to the speed at which a key is released. Most simply allow dynamic range to be controlled, while others have the capability to alter timbre or spatial location through velocity. Recent instruments often have the capacity to crossfade or switch between two different sounds, based upon the speed of a keystroke.

While almost all channel voice messages assign a single data byte to a single parameter such as key # or velocity (128 values because they start with '0,' so = 2^7=128), the exception is pitch bend. If pitch bend used only 128 values, discreet steps might be heard if the bend range were large (this range is set on the instrument, not by MIDI). So the 7 non-zero bits of the first data byte (called the most significant byte or MSB) are combined with the 7 non-zero bits from the second data byte (called the least significant byte or LSB) to create a 14-bit data value, giving pitch bend data a range of 16,384 values.

# data[].attributes.headline
Sample rate is the number of samples of audio carried per second, measured in Hz or kHz (one kHz being 1 000 Hz). For example, 44 100 samples per second can be expressed as either 44 100 Hz, or 44.1 kHz. Bandwidth is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies carried in an audio stream.

# data[].attributes.subject
Sample rate is the number of samples of audio carried per second, measured in Hz or kHz (one kHz being 1 000 Hz). For example, 44 100 samples per second can be expressed as either 44 100 Hz, or 44.1 kHz. Bandwidth is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies carried in an audio stream.

# data[].attributes.headline
MIDI  (short for Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a technical standard that describes a communications protocol, digital interface and electrical connectors and allows a wide variety of electronic musical instruments, computers and other related music and audio devices to connect and communicate with one another. A single MIDI link can carry up to sixteen channels of information, each of which can be routed to a separate device.

# data[].attributes.subject
MIDI  (short for Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a technical standard that describes a communications protocol, digital interface and electrical connectors and allows a wide variety of electronic musical instruments, computers and other related music and audio devices to connect and communicate with one another. A single MIDI link can carry up to sixteen channels of information, each of which can be routed to a separate device.

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Bit depth is the number of bit s you have in which to describe something. Each additional bit in a binary number doubles the number of possibilities. By the time you have a 16-bit sequence, there are 65,536 possible levels. Add one more bit, and you double the possible accuracy (to 131,072 levels). When you have a 24-bit process or piece of 24-bit hardware, there are 16,777,216 available levels of audio.

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Bit depth is the number of bit s you have in which to describe something. Each additional bit in a binary number doubles the number of possibilities. By the time you have a 16-bit sequence, there are 65,536 possible levels. Add one more bit, and you double the possible accuracy (to 131,072 levels). When you have a 24-bit process or piece of 24-bit hardware, there are 16,777,216 available levels of audio.

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how Bit Depth works

FIG.1: If the bit depth is low (a), the signal will be inaccurately converted because it’s sampled in large increments. By increasing the bit depth (b), you get finer increments and a more accurate representation of the signal.

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Computers use binary to process data. There are simple techniques to convert between binary and denary and to add two binary numbers together.

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Computers use binary to process data. There are simple techniques to convert between binary and denary and to add two binary numbers together.

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Sample rate is the number of samples of audio carried per second, measured in Hz or kHz (one kHz being 1 000 Hz). For example, 44 100 samples per second can be expressed as either 44 100 Hz, or 44.1 kHz. Bandwidth is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies carried in an audio stream.

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Computers use binary to process data. There are simple techniques to convert between binary and denary and to add two binary numbers together.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/guides/z26rcdm/revision

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BINARY NUMBERS - a numbering system based on 2 in which 0 and 1 are the only available digits. Of or based on the number two or the binary numeration system (base 2). Digital computers use this form of numbering because the values of 0 and 1 can easily be represented by an open or closed switch.

http://www.traditionalmusic.co.uk/music%20tech%20glossary/Music%20Tech%20GlossaryB.htm
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MIDI message is made up of an eight-bit status byte which is generally followed by one or two data bytes. There are a number of different types of MIDI messages. At the highest level, MIDI messages are classified as being either ChannelMessages or System Messages.

https://www.midi.org/articles/about-midi-part-3-midi-messages
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Sample rate is the number of samples of audio carried per second, measured in Hz or kHz (one kHz being 1 000 Hz). For example, 44 100 samples per second can be expressed as either 44 100 Hz, or 44.1 kHz. Bandwidth is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies carried in an audio stream.

wiki.audacityteam.org/wiki/Sample_Rates
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n digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_bit_depth
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Task:

Research these terms. Find written descriptions, videos, audio clips. Post your research on here...

- Binary

- MIDI messages;

- sample rate;

- bit depth;

- digital devices eg samplers, effects processors, mixing consoles, interfaces