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Asian American Political Activation (AAPA) Program

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Asian American Political Activation (AAPA) Program

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article- https://cejce.berkeley.edu/centers/asian-pacific-american-student-development/aapa

video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x0HaPMtWx3Y

The Asian American political Activation Is when a group of students come together to help connect the histories and futures and connect current Asian American students that are a part of the legacy of the third world Liberation Front, an American movement to help empower contemporary struggles that are happening to Asian Americans and Asian American organizers. this movement was started in 1968 in California and was founded by Yuji Ichioka and Emma Gee.

This group was made to help develop a unified and politicize identity for communities in Asia. This movement mostly started due to the shelter in place that would happen in these Asian communities. This movement is a movement that is used both on and off campuses in schools.

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The Vietnam war November 1, 1955 – April 30, 1975

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The Vietnam war November 1, 1955 – April 30, 1975

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The Vietnam War was  a conflict in Southeast Asia between the communist government of North Vietnam and the South Vietnamese government, supported by the United States. This War began in 1954 because of this ongoing conflict. After North Vietnam  became communist, Just started the Arm conflict between the northern and southern armies until North Vietnam took the victory in the Battle of dien bien Phu in May 1954. Later on in 1955,  “the strongly anti-communist politician Ngo Dinh Diem pushed Emperor Bao aside to become president of the Government of the Republic of Vietnam (GVN), often referred to during that era as South Vietnam.”  The main cause of this war was the start/spread of communism while trying to maintain south asia. Because of the start of this war it resulted in many Vietnamese American civilians to die in the war.  later on in 1973 after the battle between the US and North Vietnam, and in the Hostile between both nations. The war between North and South Vietnam continued up until April of 1975. because of the violence between his conflicts, it caused a toll on the Vietnam population. estimated 2 million Vietnamese people were killed, 3 million and another 12 million were wounded and others have become refugees. because of this it had demolished the infrastructure and economy of Vietnam.

video-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=exVKd-x5QVc

article-https://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/vietnam-war-history#when-did-the-vietnam-war-end

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Sadao S. Munemori, the first Asian American to get the medal of honor

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Sadao S. Munemori, the first Asian American to get the medal of honor

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Sadao Munemori, a kid who was born in August 17, 1922. He had faced some deep difficulties in his life, when he wanted to go use the public pool with a friend but turned away because he was Japanese, when he was 16 his father had died. In 1940, the month before the Pearl Harbor attack he had enlisted in the army after he was a mechanic, but since the Asian hate was going on him and his family were sent to internment camps, but then Munemori chose to transfer into the 100th Infantry Battalion in 1942 to avoid fighting in the Pacific. It was a move that required him to revert in rank from technical sergeant to private, but he accepted it. But one fateful day during 1945 Munemori dove onto an explosive to protect two soldiers, killing Munemori but in the process saving 2 American lives which is what has haven him the Medal of Honor for his family and the American Race to thank him for his heroic act.

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the Vietnam war was a war between north and south Vietnam alongside their ally, The US. Their conflict was intensified by the cold war happening between the Soviet Union and the US. millions of the Vietnam Civilians were killed during this time of war. however, in 1975 it was the end of this war due to the fact Communist forces took over and seized control over south Vietnam, a year later in 1976, the country unified as one. to go more in depth, in 1968, it was known as the deadliest year for the American soliders in Vietnam because of all the damage that was done to Vietnam.

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https://ny.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/fight-against-school-segregation-video/asian-americans-video/-Video link Mary Tape was a mother who fought for her daughters rights to allow her daughter to go to a public school in 1885. Before Mary Tape's movement Chinese people weren't allowed to go to school due to the widespread racism, mostly in California. At the end of the day they did not win and her children started going to school in downtown chinatown. She tried distancing herself from other Chinese people.

Soruce -https://www.nps.gov/people/mary-tape.htm

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This is Rohan Zhou Lee, he is the founder of the March. He started the March because he wants people of Black and Asian(Blasian) decent to come together and build solidarity between the two races. 

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Date: October 11, 2020

Video link: (youtube.com)

Zhou Lee, is an "a queer and non-binary Black Asian author, dancer, and organizer"(mahalayasf.org). They had experienced anti- Blackness by people within the Chinese and Filipino communities, so after these experiences they came up with the idea to start a march names the Blasian March to unite Black and Asian people. They felt as if their experiences could help others that have been through hate crimes. The first March took place in New York City on October 11th, and has currently expanded to Sacramento California where people of Black and Asian decent are connecting and others are understanding their history.

Source: (mahalayasf.org), (diaryofafirebird.com)

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Jerry Housel, Ted Haas, and James Hendrick Terry - helped Japanese Americans

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Jerry Housel, Ted Haas, and James Hendrick Terry - helped Japanese Americans

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During 1994 and 1998, A guy name Eric Muller has been the first to be exposed by the Japanese imprisonment camps, though he managed to show the other students that he taught in the university about how this affected the other kids in his class as well making them know a secret from their own history that they weren't even taught. With his own book along with James,Ted, and Jerry it helped him create a project to help people from an unjust system that are mostly run not by moral monsters but by ordinary people like us, people with plausible, self-comforting stories to tell about tempering evil, he understands what the problem is and he is doing his best to show those about those problems that need to be solved.

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This is an image of the Page Law being signed in 1875 

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Video link: youtube.com and youtube.com

The Page Act of 1875 was an event that occurred in which the first federal immigration law was passed to restrict immigration for Asia to the United States. This law was mainly enforced upon people of Chinese descent( specifically women). The United States took extreme measure to ensure that people from Asia were unable to enter the US by questioning people who were Asia and they deemed suspicious. The Page Act was just a way to segregate people and have dominant power, it was a way to stop Asian women from obtaining social and economic status in the US. After this law was put into effect the Chinese exclusion act was later passed affecting Chinese men(1882). The Page Law remained in effect for almost a century(1875- 1974).

Source: immigrationhistory.org and nps.gov

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Transcontinental Railroad Chinese workers 

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Transcontinental Railroad Chinese workers 

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it gives a brief summary of the transcontinental railroad built by the help of the Chinese migrants From 1863 to 1869, Central Pacific hired roughly 15,000 Chinese laborers enduring long journeys across the ocean from China to California to complete the Summit Tunnel at Donner Pass.

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The Chinese Transcontinental Railroad Workers | Asian Americans | PBS LearningMedia

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The construction of the 1,776-mile Transcontinental Railroad was established by the federal government's Pacific Railway Act of 1862. The Central Pacific Railroad (West, breaking ground in Sacramento, California) and the Union Pacific Railroad (East, breaking ground in Omaha, Nebraska) took on the challenge to link travel between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

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we learn about how during Vietnam war many Vietnamese refugees migrated to The United states because of all the brutality going on because of the war . but in April 30, 1975, the fall of Saigon marked the end of the Vietnam War,

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Southeast Asian Refugees | Asian Americans | PBS LearningMedia

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On April 30, 1975, the fall of Saigon marked the end of the Vietnam War, with the communist government of North Vietnam taking over anti-communist South Vietnam. Having played a major role in the war, the U.S. government coordinated many operations to evacuate any South Vietnamese who were against North Vietnam.
This resulted in a large-scale migration of nearly 130,000 Southeast Asian refugees from Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos (including the Hmong people, an ethnic group of people without their own country) to the United States. On May 23, 1975, President Gerald Ford signed the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act into law, which categorized Vietnamese, Cambodian, Laotian, and the Hmong people as refugees to be resettled in the U.S. By 2010, 1.2 million southeast Asians fled to the United States.

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Amanda Phingbodhipakkiyamitosis, born 1988 in Atlanta by thai and Indonesian immigrants. Amanda Phingbodhipakkiyaismitosismitochodria is a Brooklyn-based transdisciplinary artist who specializes in large scale art works. Her art works have been featured in various museums such as the Brooklyn museum, Lincoln center, as well as many rallies/protests across the world. Amanda Phingbodhipakkiyaismitosismitochodriawochestershiresauce's artwork covers important social issues, which is the reason why her artwork is often used in rallies/protests. Amanda Phingbodhipakkiyaismitosismitochodriawochestershiresaucesupercalifragilisticexpialidociouspneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis's story is important to us because it shows how artwork can be used for important issues. and we could learn from Amanda PhingbodhipakkiyaismitosismitochodriawochestershiresaucesupercalifragilisticexpialidociouspneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosisHippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobiaAequeosalinocalcalinoceraceoaluminosocupreovitriolicmethionylthreonylthreonylglutaminylalanyl's story

my sources for Amanda PhingbodhipakkiyaismitosismitochodriawochestershiresaucesupercalifragilisticexpialidociouspneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosisHippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobiaAequeosalinocalcalinoceraceoaluminosocupreovitriolicmethionylthreonylthreonylglutaminylalanylQuinquagintaquadringentilliardlopadotemachoselachogaleokranioleipsano's story are her own website: alonglastname.com. a video that could help can be found at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=viz57nydqr8

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The free Chol Soo Lee movement was about a Korean immigrant man named Chol Soo Lee who was sentenced to life in prison in 1973 for a San Francisco murder and while fighting the case he killed one of his inmates because of self defense. Chol Soo Lee was never found guilty for the killing so they released him in 1983 but Chol Soo wasn't done fighting his right because he has been accused for doing things he didn't do but can never speak up because he didn't speak proper English. Until his death in 2014 Chol Soo Lee found purpose speaking to Bay Area youth about the importance of Asian American solidarity and the unremitting evil of the criminal justice system.

Article: Chol Soo Lee’s Complicated Heroism and Legacy https://www.aaartsalliance.org/magazine/stories/free-chol-soo-lee

Video: Let's Talk Chol Soo Lee Over Lunch | Independent Lens | PBS

https://youtu.be/pJ3opks4aVo?si=9I5-JZH5PW_E3Jmz

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Gordon Hirabayashi was an American born student at the University of Washington in 1942. During his senior year he was ordered to report to an internment camp in Northern California but he refused. A internment camp is prison specifically for Japanese Americans during World War II. Not many people denied this which made Gordon Hirabyashi decision civil disobedience. This made him a civil rights hero and he died on January 2, 2012 while he was 93. While given this order Hirabyashi stood up for himself saying, “If I were to register and cooperate… I would be giving helpless consent to the denial of practically all of the things which give me incentive to live,” he said then. “I must maintain the democratic standards for which this nation lives. I am objecting to the principle of this order which denies the right of human beings, including citizens.” This shows how resilient Gordon is, he wasn't afraid to fight for his freedom and didn't just speak for himself but all citizens. Despite this, he spent three and a half years in county jails and federal prison and the U.S Supreme Court kept the internment orders going.

Source: Remembering Gordon Hirabayashi

https://www.aclu.org/news/racial-justice/remembering-gordon-hirabayashi

AAPI Civil Rights Heroes - Gordon Hirabayashi

Video:https://youtu.be/mrcLHAi5iOs?feature=shared

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The ACLU dares to create a more perfect union — beyond one person, party, or side. Our mission is to realize this promise of the United States Constitution for all and expand the reach of its guarantees.

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The Black - Korean Alliance began around the 1950's-1990's. Throughout those years, these Koreans/Asians protested for their rights to make their own town aka "Koreatown" and gain human rights for all Asians whether they're immigrants or U.S Citizens. As this fight went on, many people died in the process of gaining rights for Asians and the ages of these people varied and so did their gender. This alliance caused police brutally on Asian-Americans, torcher, asians jobs such as faculty workers were at risk along with many of their businesses being shut down. to escape from these critical events asians would run away in little boats/ships. In years 1992-2012, this alliance was put to somewhat an end even tho asian-americas may go through similar events today just less brutally according to the paper of aka ending six years into the urban trenches.

Video Link :

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d_1TX1XS0ig (20:30 - 28:52)

Article : Timeline of Black-Korean Alliance

https://learn.aasc.ucla.edu/saigu/timeline/

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Video Link - https://www.pbs.org/video/nottingham-te58fc/

On April 29th 1878 Ah Yup, a Chinese immigrant was DENIED the rights to naturalize by The Ninth Circuit Court in California. At the time all free white people, and all aliens of African nativity and people of African descent all had the right to naturalize. The only people who weren't allowed the right to naturalize was a “Mongolian” AKA a Asian American. That's because they weren't classified as a free white person even after he (Ah Yup) wrote a brief anthropological on classifications of races.

SORUCE

https://apa.si.edu/now/this-month-in-history-in-re-ah-yup-rules-chinese-ineligible-for-naturalized-citizenship-on-april-29-1878/#:~:text=On%20April%2029%2C%201878%2C%20the,that%20had%20been%20passed%20since.

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1965 Delano Grape Strike - Third World Liberation Front Strike

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1965 Delano Grape Strike - Third World Liberation Front Strike

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Filipino farm-workers affiliated with 10 different grape vineyards in Delano went on strike and demanded both their hourly rate and money that they earned after packing each box gets raised. They wanted their hourly rate to go up from $1.25 to $1.40, and their money earned after packing a box to go up from $0.10 to $0.25. This strike was a big risk for a lot of the workers, because many of them lived in company housing. This resulted in many of them being evicted with little or no notice. They continued on the strike even though the NFWA leadership didn't feel ready for it. But, despite the efforts of the farmers the region's growers hired replacement workers from other places in California, Oregon, Texas, and Mexico. This resulted in the NFWA leadership starting a boycott of the grower's products, where nobody bought them. Over a couple months, this resulted in the growers suffering from a drop of sales which pressured them to sign a labor agreement with the NFWA, which was the unions first because of how recently they had been made at the time. Over the next decade, the union continued to use boycotting to fix the imbalance between growers and workers in this area.

Sources:

https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/workers-united-the-delano-grape-strike-and-boycott.htm

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Workers United: The Delano Grape Strike and Boycott (U.S. National Park Service)

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Carlos Bulosan, Immigrated to America on July 1, 1930- Pascaline T.

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Carlos Bulosan, Immigrated to America on July 1, 1930- Pascaline T.

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Carlos Bulosan was born in this small farming village in the Philippines called Mangusmana. His family had a hard time because of US colonization and the rich people hoarding all the wealth. To help out his family and get an education, he moved to the US when he was just 17. Even though he only had three years of school, he had low-paying jobs and faced a lot of racism. He got really sick with tuberculosis, had surgery, and lost most of his ribs and lung function. Despite all the discrimination, he educated himself and became a prolific writer, sharing the struggles of Filipinos in America. He never made it back to the Philippines and passed away in Seattle from bronchopneumonia.

Source: https://bulosan.org/

Video:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=53_yXp-e-gg

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Carlos Bulosan was born in the Philippines in the rural farming village of Mangusmana, near the town of Binalonan (Pangasinan province, Luzon island). He was the son of a farmer and spent most of his upbringing in the countryside with his family. Like many families in the Philippines, Carlos's family struggled to survive during times of economic hardship. Many families were impoverished and many more would suffer because of the conditions in the Philippines created by US colonization. Rural farming families like Carlos' family experienced severe economic disparity due to the growing concentration of wealth and power in the hands of the economic and political elite. Determined to help support his family and further his education, Carlos decided to come to America with the dream to fulfill these goals.

Traveling by ship, Carlos arrived in Seattle on July 22, 1930 at the age of seventeen. With only three years of education from the Philippines, Carlos spoke little English and had barely any money left. Desperate to survive, he soon began working various low-paying jobs: servicing in hotels, harvesting in the fields, and even embarking to the Alaskan canneries. During his hardships in finding employment, Carlos experienced much economic difficulty and racial brutality that significantly damaged his health and eventually changed his perception of America.

From several years of racist attacks, starvation, and sickness, Carlos underwent surgery for tuberculosis in Los Angeles. His health condition with tuberculosis forced him to undergo three operations where he lost most of the right side of his ribs and the function of one lung. Yet, he recovered and stayed in the hospital for about two years where he spent much of his time reading and writing.

The discrimination and unhealthy working conditions Carlos had experienced in many of his workplaces encouraged him to participate in union organizing with other Filipinos and various workers. Carlos become a self-educated and prolific writer determined to voice the struggles he had undergone as a Filipino coming to America and the struggles he had witnessed of other people. Like many of his fellow Filipinos in his time, Carlos never had the opportunity to return to the Philippines. After years of hardship and flight, he passed away in Seattle suffering from an advanced stage of bronchopneumonia. He is buried at Queen Anne Hill in Seattle.

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Carlos Bulosan was born in the Philippines in the rural farming village of Mangusmana, near the town of Binalonan (Pangasinan province, Luzon island). He was the son of a farmer and spent most of his upbringing in the countryside with his family. Like many families in the Philippines, Carlos's family struggled to survive during times of economic hardship.

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Richard Aoki joined and served in the army for 8 years and while serving in the army he became a government informant by 1964.In 1966 he attended Merritt college and met his friends the founders of black panther party and ask them to join even tho he wasn't black but he said ethnic/racial problems transcended race.In 1968 he attended graduate school at UC Berkeley and became a founder of AAPA.In January 1969, Richard Aoki helped establish the TWLF and became a leader in the student strike for Ethnic Studies. He used his Black Panther and AAPA experience to build unity among people of color in the struggle for Ethnic Studies programs.while doing this instead of always listening to his FBI handlers, he would feed them information that was already public knowledge.in 2008 instead of using his education to place himself apart he used it serve community,he was a coordinator for the first Asian american studies program.

Video- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HqF2fLGjf9\

Links- https://jacobin.com/2018/08/richard-aoki-

fbi-informant-leonard-gallagher

https://apiahip.org/everyday/day-24-richard-aoki-asian-american-black-panther-amp-fbi-informant-oakland-amp-uc-berkeley-ca#:~:text=Aoki%20became%20a%20field%20marshal,American%20Political%20Alliance%20(AAPA)%20and

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1960s-1970s The Asian American Movement 

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1960s-1970s The Asian American Movement 

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There was many racial groups involved in campaigns for the civil rights until different communities brought themselves to collide with the Asian Americans. Until it led to the Asian American Movement that was influenced by student activists due to the Vietnam war and the power of black people. Due to this movement many racist stereotypes were being thrown at the Asians

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Asian Coalition for Equality 1969- 1970s

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Asian Coalition for Equality 1969- 1970s

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The Asian Coalition for Equality (ACE) was founded in 1969. It took place in setal. Its goal was to fight for racial justice for Asian Americans and other disadvantaged communities. Rev. Mineo Katigiri was the leader of ACE. In July, 1969, ACE graduate affiliates confronted the head of Washington State University's SEP program, Charles Evans, and demanded that Asian Americans were to be included in the UW’s affirmative action recruiting, which had only included Black, Chicano, and Indian students. After gaining approval, they created the first UW Asian American student organization. In 1969, going into 1970, ACE fought for elite clubs to open their doors to people of color.

Souce link: https://depts.washington.edu/civilr/aa_ace.htm

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The Asian Coalition for Equality (ACE) was founded in the late Spring of 1969, and was the first civil rights organization in Seattle whose mission was to mobilize Asian Americans in multi-racial solidarity campaigns and promote Asian American consciousness. Below and to the right are links to documents, writings, photos, and interviews about ACE's brief but important activism.

Rev. Mineo Katigiri was ACE's leader and spokesperson.

University of Washington

In July, 1969, ACE-affiliated undergraduate and graduate students confronted Charles Evans, head of the University of Washington's Special Education Program (SEP) and demanded that Asian Americans be included in the UW's affirmative action recruiting which had previously only included Black, Chicano, and Indian students. Their success inspired them to lay the foundations for the UW's first Asian American student organization.

Woody Wong, Larry Matsuda, and Tony Ogilvie Confront the UW Administration.

Black Contractor and Worker Solidarity

In August and September of 1969, ACE mobilized Asian Americans to participate in direct action protests led by the Central Contractors Association that demanded the desegregation of the region's construction industry. Afterward, ACE activists challenged police repression of the protests.

Social Clubs

In late 1969 and into the early 1970s, ACE actively sought to pressure local elite social clubs to open their membership to people of color.

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The Asian Coalition for Equality (ACE) was founded in the late Spring of 1969, and was the first civil rights organization in Seattle whose mission was to mobilize Asian Americans in multi-racial solidarity campaigns and promote Asian American consciousness. Below and to the right are links to ...

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Yuri Kochiyama was a Japanese American political and civil rights activists. She was an advocate for the liberation and empowerment of African Americans, Asian Americans, and Puerto Ricans. Her parents were first-generation Japanese immigrants and was well known in her community. After Japan bombed Pearl Harbor her life changed. Her family was moved to a incarceration site as well as other Japanese Americans even if they were American Citizens. This was a law placed in fear by the President Franklin D. Roosevelt, worried that Americans of Japanese descent would side with Japan. They were labeled as "national security threats and her father (Recovering from Ulcer surgery) was refused medical treatment. They were held in those sites for the majority of the war. In 1960, her and her Husband(Bill Kochiyama) moved into the Projects in Harlem. Being exposed to her surroundings and to the Black and Puerto Rican communities struggling for freedom, sparked her interest for civil rights activism.

https://www.nps.gov/people/yuri-kochiyama.htm

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1923 United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind - Zeferino

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1923 United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind - Zeferino

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Bhagat Singh Thind was an Indian activist and a WW1 veteran. He was in a long struggle for the removal racial barriers to U.S. citizenship. He was born in the Punjab region of India and he migrated to Seattle in 1913 to attend school. Looking for an education and fleeing disease and repression by the British colonial authorities.

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VIDEO LINK:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yxyHzJyqYt0

May Chen is a famous labor activist who spent her whole career fighting for the rights of immigrant workers, especially in Asian American communities. She's been super involved with different labor movements and organizations like the International Ladies Garment Workers Union and Unite here, which helps workers in hotels, gaming, and food service. Chen has worked hard on organizing and supporting workers rights and dealing with issues like fair pay , safe working conditions, and empowering immigrant workers. Because she did what she did labor standards have gotten a lot better and she's given a voice to communities that often get overlooked in the labor movement.

SOUCE: https://exhibits.stanford.edu/riseup/feature/may-chen

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Civil Liberties Act of 1978- Japanese American Redress

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Civil Liberties Act of 1978- Japanese American Redress

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This document recounts the experiences or Amy Iwaskai Mass, who was imprisoned with her family at the Heart Mountain Revolution Center in Wyoming during World War II. The camp was one of the ten designed to house Japanese-Americans unjustly imprisoned. It derives the horrible conditions they had to suffer in the life of camp. Those conditions include; barracks that were rudimentary, often lacking insulation and privacy, prompting the imprisoned to improvise to make them livable. They also had to learn the concept of “gamma” to embody resilience and stoicism under duress. The document aleo outlines the long and powerful journey towards redress for these injustices , building up to the passage of Civil Liberties Act of 1987, which provided reparations and a formal apology to the brave survivors.

Article:

https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/redress-and-reparations-japanese-american-incarceration

Video:

https://www.google.com/search?q=civil+liberties+act+of+1987+-+japanese+american+redress+video&sca_esv=9214e60237169270&rlz=1CAOFBT_enUS1126&ei=gJ_MZ7-FCZy9p84PybCPiAQ&oq=Civil+Liberties+Act+of+1987+-+Japanese+American+Redress+v&gs_lp=Egxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAiOUNpdmlsIExpYmVydGllcyBBY3Qgb2YgMTk4NyAtIEphcGFuZXNlIEFtZXJpY2FuIFJlZHJlc3MgdioCCAAyBRAhGKABMgUQIRigATIFECEYoAEyBRAhGKABMgUQIRirAjIFECEYqwJIwRNQ4gVY4AdwAXgAkAEAmAG-AaABmwSqAQMwLjO4AQHIAQD4AQGYAgOgArADwgIKEAAYsAMY1gQYR5gDAIgGAZAGCJIHBTEuMS4xoAf_FQ&sclient=gws-wiz-serp&safe=active&ssui=on

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Amy Iwasaki Mass was only a girl when her family was imprisoned in a camp built at the foot of an upside-down mountain in northwest Wyoming during World War II. Comprised of limestone that is several hundred million years old, Heart Mountain stands upon much younger rocks. Over 300 million years ago, northwest Wyoming was a tropical sea layered with limestone and ancient dolomite and granite. Heart Mountain formed when the ancient rocks were raised and upended, causing a massive sheet of limestone to separate and slide southeast. The sheet splintered into hunks and rested upon rocks that are about 55 million years old.

Originally part of the Apsáalooke (Crow) tribe's homelands, the Heart Mountain Relocation Center was one of 10 camps that incarcerated 120,000 Japanese Americans in Arkansas, Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming. The first incarcerees arrived on August 12, 1942 to drafty barracks furnished with an overhead light, stove, and army cots. The Iwasakis arrived during the first week of September 1942.

"My family bought camp chairs with colorful lined seats on them because they were things we could fold up and carry," said Mass to her grandson in the Museum's 2021 Electronic Field Trip, Japanese American Experiences in World War II. "It gave me the idea that camp was going to be a rustic, quiet, calm place to go to. Well, it wasn't. It turned out to be there was no foliage. It was all tumbleweeds and a lot of dust flying around. And our house was one room with six cots and a potbelly stove that we could use to keep us warm."

Since there was no insulation or privacy, incarcerees stuffed cracks with newspaper and rags and strung up sheets to keep the harsh weather out. Noise traveled easily within the barracks because the partitions did not touch the ceiling. Mass learned the concept of gaman in camp, which she described as "the way Japanese were known for being very stoic and resilient and brave in the face of hardship."

"If we wanted to be good children, we were not allowed to have a tantrum or kick and scream and act nasty to our parents or anything like that because everybody could hear us next door. And the favorite social activity in camp was gossip so that would mean if you are acting bad everybody would find out about it," Mass said.

While gaman helped instill good behavior in the young incarcerees, making friends with children their own age helped them get through daily life. Former US Secretary of Transportation and Congressman Norman Mineta and former Wyoming Senator Alan Simpson describe how they met during a Boy Scout jamboree at Heart Mountain in oral history interviews with The National WWII Museum.

"So this kid and I built a great moat around our tent and he said, 'There's a kid from my troop in that tent below us. I don't really care for him. Would you mind if we cut the water to exit that way?' It was no skin off my nose. So I said, 'Sure' We cut the water to exit that way," said Norman Mineta in his oral history.

"We set up a tent and did our tent work, and then we got bullied by this guy, and we got above him in a kind of a topography there and it began to rain and we directed our overflow water to his tent," said Alan Simpson in his oral history.

"Went to the tent below us. Tent pegs pulled up on that tent. Tent came down. The kid in my tent [was] going, hee hee hee. Haw haw haw. Ho ho ho. Just laughing," said Mineta. "It was a wonderful thing, and he said that I cackled. I think that's not true. I may have chuckled. But anyway, both of us, it was funny as hell," said Simpson.

Heart Mountain closed on November 10, 1945. As veterans returned from the war, the US government held three lotteries for prospective homesteaders from 1947 to 1949. Wyoming homesteaders moved into the Heart Mountain barracks, living at the former prison camp until they were assigned homestead properties and sold a barrack for a dollar. Barracks were cut into halves or thirds and used as sheds, storage units, or homes. Although they were repurposed, Japanese Americans did not forget their years spent in them. For many, their wartime experiences affected them years after they were free of barbed wire.

Mass's experiences led her to become a clinical social worker and participate in the redress movement that culminated with the passage of the Civil Liberties Act of 1988. This law gave surviving Japanese Americans $20,000 in reparations and a formal apology by President Reagan for their incarceration during World War II. But its passage did not happen overnight. It took years to turn the redress movement into legislation.

In 1978, the Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) formed the Redress Committee and appointed John Tateishi as its chair. The JACL and Tateishi went to the Hill to meet with California Representatives Mineta and Robert Matsui, as well as Senators Daniel Inouye and Spark Matsunaga. Like Inouye, Matsunaga was a WWII veteran. He fought in the 100th Infantry Battalion and the 442nd Regimental Combat Team. They began their political careers together when they were elected to the Hawaii Territorial House of Representatives in 1954. The JACL Redress Committee assumed the congressmen would agree with their idea for reparations. Inouye convinced them to switch from pursuing monetary compensation to creating a federal commission to investigate the causes and consequences of the incarceration.

On August 2, 1979, Inouye and Matsunaga introduced Senate bill 1647 to establish the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC). In 1980, Congress and President Carter signed that bill into law. The CWRIC gathered archival sources, scholarship, and personal papers that explained the government's decision and process for incarceration. The Commission also held 20 days of hearings. Over 750 policy makers and incarcerees in Washington DC, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, Chicago, New York, and Boston shared their experiences from July to December 1981. But not everyone supported the Commission.

The National Council for Japanese American Redress (NCJAR) formed in 1979 and challenged the JACL redress leadership by supporting a bill that demanded $15,000 in reparations and $15 for each day of incarceration. When the bill died in Congress, NCJAR filed a lawsuit in 1983 that demanded $220,000 in reparations. When the US Supreme Court heard it in 1986, they recommended that the case be heard by the US Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. When it was dismissed in that court, the US Supreme Court declined to reconsider it and NCJAR's redress efforts ended in 1988.

The National Coalition for Redress/ Reparations (NCRR) was a Sansei (the children of children born to ethnic Japanese in a new country of residence)-led grassroots effort for inclusion in the Commission hearings. Afraid that the hearings would be restricted to the JACL community, they encouraged working class and non-English language speaking incarcerees to testify. Their efforts culminated in an evening hearing in Los Angeles and translators at the Los Angeles and San Francisco hearings. Mass testified at the Los Angeles hearings as a member of a mental health panel on August 6, 1981.

"It was interesting because it was not something that was popular among everybody. And I guess the fact that I had been talking to my students, to my patients, and reading about other people's experiences with camp, I knew what a profound effect it had on all of us and so I knew that was important to talk about even though it wasn't popular to talk about," Mass said.

To prepare, she attended the Los Angeles hearings days before her testimony.

"Lillian Baker, who is very anti-Japanese, was at that meeting. And although I didn't come to the meetings until after she left, it was the day when she got so upset by some man who was giving a speech, she ran up to him and grabbed his papers. The sheriff had to come and take her away. I didn't see her, but when I went as part of my preparation, I sat next to the women who were supporting her. When you see the hatred of somebody directed at you-and I was sitting very close to them-I thought to myself, it's that kind of dedicated hatred that got us into the camp."

On February 24, 1983 the CWRIC issued its report Personal Justice Denied. It concluded that Executive Order 9066 "was not justified by military necessity, and the decisions which followed from it-detention, ending detention and ending exclusion-were not driven by analysis of military conditions. The broad historical causes which shaped these decisions were race prejudice, war hysteria, and failure of political leadership."

On June 16, 1983, the CWRIC published its recommendations. It proposed an apology from the federal government, presidential pardons for those convicted of curfew and exclusion violations, a request that federal agencies review applications for restitution related to incarceration, and recommended that the government establish a foundation for research and public education on WWII incarceration.

The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 was signed into law on August 10, 1988, and implemented the recommendations of the CWRIC. Throughout his time in office, Senator Matsunaga supported civil rights for Asian Americans and was the primary advocate for the Civil Liberties Act. He personally talked to each of his colleagues in the Senate about how their support could help address the unjustness of the incarceration. His experience as a veteran, good-natured personality, and strong work ethic all helped him garner 75 cosponsors for the act. According to Leslie T. Hatamiya in Righting a Wrong: Japanese Americans and the Passage of the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 "Matsunaga's efforts cannot be overemphasized."

In an oral history interview with The National WWII Museum, Mineta recalls how he and Simpson worked with Democrats and Republicans to get the Civil Liberties Act passed:

"I think for the Japanese American community, they shouldered the yoke of the evacuation and internment in 1942. And I think that yoke was finally lifted," said Mineta about that day 33 years ago.

Today, Mass, Mineta, and Simpson are on the Advisory Council of the Heart Mountain Wyoming Foundation. The Foundation preserves the personal stories, visual histories, and artifacts of Heart Mountain incarcerees. It also preserves the original site of the camp and hosts annual pilgrimages. Mass has returned to Heart Mountain several times since the end of World War II. When she returned for the first time, she was on the way to Yellowstone National Park for vacation with her husband and young children.

"I didn't miss the fact that the camp was not there. I didn't miss the barracks not being there. But I was very moved by the fact that Heart Mountain was still there. That this mountain, this very large, strong mountain was still there."In recent years, she's returned to Heart Mountain for the annual pilgrimages. "It made me feel really good that this was an opportunity for my family to learn and grow and really understand their history."

Meet the Author

Helen Yoshida is a consultant, oral historian, and writer. She received her Master's degree in History from California State University Fullerton (CSUF) and her Bachelor's degree in English from the University of California Irvine (UCI). She is currently the Oral History Interviewer and Research Assistant for the Documenting the Experiences of Mexican, Filipina, and Chicana Women in California Agriculture oral history project at CSUF's Lawrence de Graaf Center for Oral and Public History (COPH). Previously, she worked for the National Education Association, Education Week, and the Heart Mountain Wyoming Foundation in Washington DC. Her writing has appeared in The Atlantic, Education Week, Kokoro Kara, NEA Today, The Oral History Review, Oral History Review Blog, COPH Biennial Report, and the UCI School of Humanities, among others. She currently lives in Southern California.

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asian americans and pacific islanders in world war ii

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Redress and Reparations for Japanese American Incarceration | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans

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The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 gave surviving Japanese Americans reparations and a formal apology by President Reagan for their incarceration during World War II. But its passage did not happen overnight.

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1990s- 2006: Killing of Balbir Singh Sodhi (Francesca D.) 

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1990s- 2006: Killing of Balbir Singh Sodhi (Francesca D.) 

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VIDEO LINK: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_FTLAypfs7U

In the 1990s Balbir Singh Sodhi  Settled in Mesa, Arizona and became a successful business owner of a gas station. In September 15, 2001 Balbir Singh Sodhi was a Sikh (Religion) American who was the first person to be murdered in a hate crime following the terrorist attacks that were happening during that time.  On September 15, 2001 he was shot and killed at his gas station by a man who “mistakenly” believed that Balbir wearing a turban as a part of his religion was associated with the terrorist. His death highlighted the wave of violence that affected killings of innocent people of those who are of Middle Eastern or South Asian descent in the aftermath of 9/ 11.  In 2006 Arizona governor Janet Napolitano declared September 15 as a day of remembrance of Balbir Singh Sodhi.

SOUCE:https://www.npr.org/2018/09/14/647426417/people-saw-only-a-turban-and-a-beard-reflecting-on-a-post-sept-11-death#:~:text=On%20Sept.,and%20killed%20him%20as%20retaliation.

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Japanese American anti-draft movement during WW2: During WW2 an estimate of 33,000 Japanese Americans were detained in incarceration camps. Japanese Americans were either enlisted in the military or were drafted into service.  They felt it was unfair to to be drafted into military while their families were imprisoned and treated as enemies in their own country.

"and its freedoms even as their own relatives and friends remained behind barbed wire fences guarded by armed American soldiers. “.

After a lot of injustice a group of women from the "Minidoka incarceration camp" got together in February 1944. They protested with a petition to the government against drafting their American-born sons in the military. Unfortunately some Japanese Americans that refused to be drafted were arrested. This time period shows the injustices the Japanese American faced and the need to to protest against the draft. Making it a tough situation for many of them.

Source: https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/japanese-american-military-service-protest-during-wwii

Videos:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W_WcDD1e1ew

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7FePu1yBk9E

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Japanese American Military Service and Protest During WWII

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Learn about the complex history of Japanese American military service during World War II.

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Japanese-Mexican Labor Association 1903: In 1903 both Japanese and Mexican American workers were important to the agricultural in Oxnard, California. Many workers came from Mexico, Japan, India, China, and the Philippines. They all faced the challenge of low wages and and poor working conditions.

"shows just how thorny the harvest can be. But conflicts over wages and worker rights are not unique to this time and place, or even to the berry harvest."

Both Mexicans and Japanese people faced discrimination and were able to gather together and stand up for their struggles for better wages. The Japanese and Mexican labor Association (JMLA) is seen as an organization that united against the unfair labor practices. They face racism from the AFL (American Federation of Labor). Both groups united and showed effort to advocate for their rights and working conditions.

Source: https://densho.org/catalyst/japanese-mexican-americans-agricultural-allies-adversaries/

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Densho: Japanese American Incarceration and Japanese Internment

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Berry season is in full swing, with farmer's markets and produce departments across the country overflowing with these quintessential summer fruits. But the story isn't always so sweet for the migrant workers who harvest berries in fields across the United States. A conflict between Mexican migrant workers and the Japanese American family owned Sakuma Brothers berry farm in Washington state, shows just how thorny the harvest can be. But conflicts over wages and worker rights are not unique to this time and place, or even to the berry harvest. Along with other migrant groups, workers of Japanese and Mexican heritage have been central to the story of modern American agriculture. And as field workers, farmers, tenants, strikers, and scabs, their stories have intersected at many points along the way.

A woman picks berries in El Monte, California. Courtesy of La Historia Society of El Monte via KCET.

The last century saw several of these cross-cultural encounters: In 1933, the El Monte berry strike pitted mostly Japanese American growers and field managers against predominantly Mexican American laborers in a conflict over wages in California's berry industry. In the 1940s, Mexican filled jobs left behind when Japanese Americans were incarcerated at the height of the 1942 spring harvest. In the 1970s, the Nisei Farmers League undermined strikes organized by Cesar Chavez's United Farm Workers union by bringing in outside workers to cross the picket lines.

While the two groups were on opposing sides in many of these encounters, there were also remarkable instances of unity. One example stands out in its demonstration of solidarity between the two groups. The story brings us back to turn-of-the-century Oxnard, California. The region was experiencing a major agricultural boom, owing to the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad and a newly completed network of irrigation channels. Workers came from Mexico, Japan, India, China (yes, some Chinese workers remained despite the not subtle efforts to eradicate them), the Philippines, and even Riverside's Indian boarding school, the Sherman Institute. This multilingual, multinational, and easily replenishable workforce allowed businessmen and farm owners to keep wages low and their workers disenfranchised.

But that wasn't always the case. The close proximity and shared experience of the diverse workforce also "promoted the creation of unexpected, and often intricate, cross-cultural relationships," writes Frank P. Barajas in his book, Curious Unions: Mexican American Workers and Resistance in Oxnard, California, 1898-1961.

In 1897, enterprising East Coast sugar magnates Henry, James, Benjamin, and Robert Oxnard had founded the American Beet Sugar Company (ABSC) in their namesake town of Oxnard, California. They built a massive processing plant and developed acres of fields, transforming land that had, within recent living memory, belonged to Mexico and Chumash Indians before that. Seasonal workers-Mexican Americans and Japanese immigrants brought in by labor contractors-toiled to thin, irrigate, harvest, and top beets, before transporting them to a massive processing plant where the mostly white workforce would transform them into sugar.

But when the company hired an outside contractor that sought to reduce wages and force workers to be paid in credit at overpriced company stores rather than in cash, workers rallied in opposition.

Around 200 Mexican betabeleros (beet pickers) and 1,000 Japanese buranke katsugi (blanket carriers, so named for their itinerant lifestyles) united. They formed the Japanese-Mexican Labor Association (JMLA), one of America's first multiracial labor unions. Communicating through interpreters, this multilingual group successfully negotiated a strategy for action. On February 11, 1903, workers walked off the job in what would become the "first successful agricultural strike" in Southern California, according to the Encyclopedia of U.S. Labor and Working-Class History. By the end of March, the group's numbers had grown to 1,300 and frustrated growers brought in scabs to cross the picket lines.

As tensions mounted, the conflict turned violent. On March 23, 1903 members of the JMLA were attacked without provocation by a local anti-union farmer. One man, Louis Vasquez, was killed and four others wounded. The murderous farmer was tried but found to be innocent, sparking the JMLA to take a militant turn.

Shortly after the attack, the JMLU issued the following statement:

"Our union has always been law abiding, and has in its ranks at least nine-tenths of all the beet thinners in this section-who have not asked for a raise in wages, but only that the wages be not lowered, as was demanded by the beet growers. Many of us have families, were born in this country, and are lawfully seeking to protect the only property that we have-our labor. It is just as necessary for the welfare of the valley that we get a decent living wage, as it is that the machines in the great sugar factory be properly oiled -if the machines stop, the wealth of the valley stops, and likewise if the laborers are not given decent wage, they too, must stop work, and the whole people of the country will stop with them."

The movement grew in size and visibility and the American Beet Sugar Company eventually caved to their demands, agreeing to return to the original wage scale. But as the JMLA sought to transform itself into the chartered Sugar Beet Farm Laborers Union (SBFLU), they received an unexpected blow from an organization that ought to have been an ally. The American Federation of Labor (AFL)-the body that governed labor unions-issued a charter to formally recognize the union. However, they delivered with it an unexpected caveat: AFL President Samuel Gompers granted workers of Mexican heritage "all rights and privileges" in the union, but mandated that they would "under no circumstance accept membership of any Chinese or Japanese."

Despite the AFL's principles that "race, color, religion or nationality, shall be no bar to fellowship in the American Federation of Labor," Gompers had succumbed to anti-Asian sentiment. But the Mexican American members of the JMLA refused to take this racist, partial victory. In response to Gompers, the union sent the unsigned charter back and stood by their Japanese American brothers. In a letter that accompanied the rejected charter, the union's secretary, J.M. Lizarraras, wrote:

"In the past we have counseled, fought and lived on very short rations with our Japanese brothers, and toiled with them in the fields, and they have been uniformly kind and considerate. We would be false to them and to ourselves and to the cause of Unionism if we, now, accepted privileges for ourselves which are not accorded to them. We are going to stand by men who stood by us in the long, hard fight which ended in a victory over the enemy. We therefore respectfully petition the A. F. of L. to grant us a charter under which we can unite all the Sugar Beet & Field Laborers of Oxnard, without regard to their color or race. We will refuse any other kind of charter, except one which will wipe out race prejudices and recognize our fellow workers as being as good as ourselves. "

The AFL stood its ground and refused to grant a charter to the union. That, combined with a revision to the labor contractor system in Oxnard, led to the quick dissolution of the SBFLU. The organization had a short life, but this union of Japanese and Mexican American workers stands as a powerful example of interracial solidarity in a history of labor relations that would, more often than not, turn sour as power dynamics shifted.

Over the next several decades, Japanese Americans were able to pool resources and form partnerships that helped them leverage their social positions relative to other migrant groups. Strategically working around the alien land laws that prevented them from owning farm land, Japanese Americans slowly began expanding their agricultural holdings. The unjust and illegal incarceration of Japanese Americans during World War II disrupted this trajectory, but by the late 1940s the alien land laws had been rendered unenforceable and many Japanese Americans were again on the path to prosperity.

Upon arrival to the United States, braceros were taken to processing centers where they were searched for vegetables, weapons, marijuana or similar contraband and sprayed with DDT by Department of Agriculture personnel. Photo by Leonard Nadel, courtesy of the National Museum of American History.

Meanwhile, millions of temporary workers from Mexico continued to come North through the Bracero Program, the U.S.'s largest agricultural contract labor program which some have likened to " legalized slavery." Though Braceros worked strenuous jobs for a pittance, suffered countless abuses, and were provided with sub-standard accommodations, many criticized them and other undocumented workers from Mexico for taking jobs from domestic workers and depressing wages. Soon, these exploited Mexican laborers were scorned just as Asian workers had been earlier in the century.

Grassroots activism in opposition to the Bracero Program eventually led to its termination in 1964, and farm workers who remained in the U.S. gradually won union representation and leverage for better working conditions. From this emerged United Farm Workers, a union and civil rights movement led by Cesar Chavez. While the movement was led by Mexican Americans, the group had wide support from others, including Larry Itliong and other Filipino Americans who comprised another agricultural underclass.

But Japanese and Mexican Americans often found themselves at odds over agricultural and labor issues. These tensions were amplified by socio-economic factors and perceptions of the other group's intentions. In 1971, Japanese American-owned farms found themselves at the center of UFW protests and strikes, and felt they were being unfairly targeted.

"It was widely believed...that the United Farm Workers felt (either at the local or higher levels) that the Japanese would be easy organizing targets because of their general lack of resistance to being relocated to concentration camps during World War II," wrote scholar Stephen Fugita.

In response, the farmers banded together to form the Nisei Farmers League (NFL). Their hope was to collectively protect their interests in face of UFW actions and to defend their reputations as Japanese Americans. In a full-page ad published in twenty leading California newspapers, Harry Kubo, the first president of the NFL reminded readers of the historical injustice he had suffered and used it as a justification to stand his ground against the UFW. Alongside a portrait of Kubo, the ad read:

"1942. WWII. Tule Lake Japanese-American detention camp. My family lost everything. I was 20 years old and I gave up my personal rights without a fight. Never again."

In addition to inter-ethnic conflict, the opposition to the United Farm Workers movement took a toll on Japanese Americans. Disputes between younger generations of Sansei and older generations of Nisei broke out. The rift was felt deeply by the Japanese American Citizens League (JACL), where clashes over Sansei support for the UFW and other social justice issues eventually led to Sansei employees resigning from their JACL positions en masse in 1972.

The radical pan-Asian journal Gidra also protested the actions of their elders in the Nisei Farmers League, encouraging readers to support boycotts of grapes and other products that didn't bear a union label. And in an interview conducted with Densho years later, Ryo Imamura recalled trying to garner Nisei support for the UFW, "there's no way that they could feel separate from the Chicano farm laborers" because in recent memory Japanese Americans had themselves occupied the lowest positions in the hierarchy of agricultural labor.

While the divisions between the NFL and UFW were complicated by social, economic, and generational factors, both sides summoned history and cultural identity in waging attacks and articulating defenses. The spirit of unity seen between Japanese and Mexican American farm workers in the Oxnard strike was evident in Sansei solidarity, but nowhere to be found in the exchanges between the two groups most closely involved in the labor dispute.

This evolution from comradery to competition is a perfect illustration of the "divide and conquer" mentality that has, by design, come to define modern American agriculture and race relations. Divisions among workers, as well as between farmers and the agricultural labor force, helps keep workers disenfranchised and profits high. Add to this the fact that immigrant groups have historically been incentivized to elevate their own status by standing on the backs of fellow newcomers. Racist constructs like the model minority myth, disparities in wealth and citizenship status, and America's revolving door of migrant scapegoating have sown further divisions.

But the interracial allegiance in Oxnard in 1903 remains as a powerful example of what can happen when groups unite in solidarity instead of giving into the social forces working to pit them against one another.

-

By Natasha Varner, Densho Communications Manager

[Header image: Japanese migrant strawberry pickers, possibly on Vashon Island, Washington. February 14, 1915. Courtesy of the Ouchi Family Collection.]

Sources:
Curious Unions: Mexican American Workers and Resistance in Oxnard, California, 1898-1961
Bittersweet Fruit: El Monte's Berry Strike of 1933 by Melquiades Fernandez
Bracero History Archive
Fugita, Stephen S. "A Perceived Ethnic Factor in California's Farm Labor Conflict: The Nisei Farmer's League." Explorations in Ethnic Studies 1.1 (1978): 50-72.

Encyclopedia of US Labor and Working Class History, edited by Eric Arnesen
"A Foretaste of the Orient": John Murray Criticizes the AFL

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Over More than a Hundred Years of Farm Labor History, Japanese and Mexican Americans Have Been Both Allies and Adversaries

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Japanese and Mexican farm workers have been central to the history of American agriculture, as field workers, farmers, strikers, and scabs.

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1960s-1970s: The Asian American Movement 

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1960s-1970s: The Asian American Movement 

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VIDEO:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XZr1DzaMmiI&t=30s

The Asian American Movement led in the 1960s and 1970s, involving different racial groups to share a identity and collided with the Asian Americans. Throughout this movement, student activists were influenced by the Vietnam war and the black power movements bringing many challenges upon them. This brought stereotypes and discrimination being targeted at them. Different Asian organizations were created to advocate for civil rights and protest for what they wanted which was to bring an end to racism. These Asian Americans wanted changes into hiring practices, the school's education, media stereotypes, and many more. Due to this movement, it brought a significance into transforming community institutions and gained Asian American political power expanding into different areas.

SOURCE:

https://depts.washington.edu/civilr/aa_intro.htm

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June 25, 1950 marked the start of the Korean War. The cause was North Korean soldiers crossing the 38th parallel. This was the first military action of the Cold War. The U.S got involved on behalf of South Korea. As casualties increased with nothing good to come from them, the U.S and South Korea stalled the attacks from North Korea. The U.S feared that this war would be the cause of WWIII. In July 1953, the war ended. Some people in the U.S consider this war "The Forgotten War" due to the lack of attention it received.

https://www.history.com/topics/asian-history/korean-war

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Table of Contents

1. North vs. South Korea

2. The Korean War and the Cold War

3. 'No Substitute for Victory'

4. The Korean War Reaches a Stalemate

5. Korean War Casualties&nbsp;

The Korean war began on June 25, 1950, when some 75,000 soldiers from the North Korean People's Army poured across the 38th parallel, the boundary between the Soviet-backed Democratic People's Republic of Korea to the north and the pro-Western Republic of Korea to the south. This invasion was the first military action of the Cold War. By July, American troops had entered the war on South Korea's behalf. As far as American officials were concerned, it was a war against the forces of international communism itself. After some early back-and-forth across the 38th parallel, the fighting stalled and casualties mounted with nothing to show for them. Meanwhile, American officials worked anxiously to fashion some sort of armistice with the North Koreans. The alternative, they feared, would be a wider war with Russia and China-or even, as some warned, World War III. Finally, in July 1953, the Korean War came to an end. In all, some 5 million soldiers and civilians lost their lives in what many in the U.S. refer to as "the Forgotten War" for the lack of attention it received compared to more well-known conflicts like World War I and II and the Vietnam War. The Korean peninsula remains divided today.

North vs. South Korea

"If the best minds in the world had set out to find us the worst possible location in the world to fight this damnable war," U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson (1893-1971) once said, "the unanimous choice would have been Korea." The peninsula had landed in America's lap almost by accident. Since the beginning of the 20th century, Korea had been a part of the Japanese empire, and after World War II it fell to the Americans and the Soviets to decide what should be done with their enemy's imperial possessions. In August 1945, two young aides at the State Department divided the Korean peninsula in half along the 38th parallel. The Russians occupied the area north of the line and the United States occupied the area to its south.

Did you know? Unlike World War II and Vietnam, the Korean War did not get much media attention in the United States. The most famous representation of the war in popular culture is the television series "M*A*S*H," which was set in a field hospital in South Korea. The series ran from 1972 until 1983, and its final episode was the most-watched in television history.

By the end of the decade, two new states had formed on the peninsula. In the south, the anti-communist dictator Syngman Rhee (1875-1965) enjoyed the reluctant support of the American government; in the north, the communist dictator Kim Il Sung (1912-1994) enjoyed the slightly more enthusiastic support of the Soviets. Neither dictator was content to remain on his side of the 38th parallel, however, and border skirmishes were common. Nearly 10,000 North and South Korean soldiers were killed in battle before the war even began.

The Korean War and the Cold War

Even so, the North Korean invasion came as an alarming surprise to American officials. As far as they were concerned, this was not simply a border dispute between two unstable dictatorships on the other side of the globe. Instead, many feared it was the first step in a communist campaign to take over the world. For this reason, nonintervention was not considered an option by many top decision makers. (In fact, in April 1950, a National Security Council report known as NSC-68 had recommended that the United States use military force to "contain" communist expansionism anywhere it seemed to be occurring, "regardless of the intrinsic strategic or economic value of the lands in question.")

"If we let Korea down," President Harry Truman (1884-1972) said, "the Soviet[s] will keep right on going and swallow up one [place] after another." The fight on the Korean peninsula was a symbol of the global struggle between east and west, good and evil, in the Cold War. As the North Korean army pushed into Seoul, the South Korean capital, the United States readied its troops for a war against communism itself.

At first, the war was a defensive one to get the communists out of South Korea, and it went badly for the Allies. The North Korean army was well-disciplined, well-trained and well-equipped; Rhee's forces in the South Korean army, by contrast, were frightened, confused and seemed inclined to flee the battlefield at any provocation. Also, it was one of the hottest and driest summers on record, and desperately thirsty American soldiers were often forced to drink water from rice paddies that had been fertilized with human waste. As a result, dangerous intestinal diseases and other illnesses were a constant threat.

By the end of the summer, President Truman and General Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964), the commander in charge of the Asian theater, had decided on a new set of war aims. Now, for the Allies, the Korean War was an offensive one: It was a war to "liberate" the North from the communists.

Initially, this new strategy was a success. The Inch'on Landing, an amphibious assault at Inch'on, pushed the North Koreans out of Seoul and back to their side of the 38th parallel. But as American troops crossed the boundary and headed north toward the Yalu River, the border between North Korea and Communist China, the Chinese started to worry about protecting themselves from what they called "armed aggression against Chinese territory." Chinese leader Mao Zedong (1893-1976) sent troops to North Korea and warned the United States to keep away from the Yalu boundary unless it wanted full-scale war.

'No Substitute for Victory'

This was something that President Truman and his advisers decidedly did not want: They were sure that such a war would lead to Soviet aggression in Europe, the deployment of atomic weapons and millions of senseless deaths. To General MacArthur, however, anything short of this wider war represented "appeasement," an unacceptable knuckling under to the communists.

As President Truman looked for a way to prevent war with the Chinese, MacArthur did all he could to provoke it. Finally, in March 1951, he sent a letter to Joseph Martin, a House Republican leader who shared MacArthur's support for declaring all-out war on China-and who could be counted upon to leak the letter to the press. "There is," MacArthur wrote, "no substitute for victory" against international communism.

For Truman, this letter was the last straw. On April 11, the president fired the general for insubordination.

The Korean War Reaches a Stalemate

In July 1951, President Truman and his new military commanders started peace talks at Panmunjom. Still, the fighting continued along the 38th parallel as negotiations stalled. Both sides were willing to accept a ceasefire that maintained the 38th parallel boundary, but they could not agree on whether prisoners of war should be forcibly "repatriated." (The Chinese and the North Koreans said yes; the United States said no.)

Finally, after more than two years of negotiations, the adversaries signed an armistice on July 27, 1953. The agreement allowed the POWs to stay where they liked; drew a new boundary near the 38th parallel that gave South Korea an extra 1,500 square miles of territory; and created a 2-mile-wide "demilitarized zone" that still exists today.

Korean War Casualties

The Korean War was relatively short but exceptionally bloody. Nearly 5 million people died. More than half of these-about 10 percent of Korea's prewar population-were civilians. (This rate of civilian casualties was higher than World War II's and the Vietnam War's.) Almost 40,000 Americans died in action in Korea, and more than 100,000 were wounded. Today, they are remembered at the Korean War Veterans Memorial near the Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., a series of 19 steel statues of servicemen, and the Korean War memorial in Fullerton, California, the first on the West Coast to include the names of the more than 30,000 Americans who died in the war.

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Korean War - Causes, Timeline & Veterans | HISTORY

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On June 25, 1950, the Korean War began when some 75,000 soldiers from the North Korean People's Army poured across the 38th parallel, the boundary between the Soviet-backed Democratic People's Republic of Korea to the north and the pro-Western Republic of Korea to the south. Explore the war's causes, timeline, facts and end.

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VIDEO:

https://comcastnewsmakers.com/videos/2022/6/17/who-is-vincent-chin

Vincent Chin is a Chinese American born on May 18, 1955 , he was adopted and worked as a draftsman in Detroit Michigan. During his whole life he took care supporting his family financially. Chin was engaged with his fiancée, Victoria Wong. On June 19, 1982, he hosted his bachelor party until he was beaten with a baseball bat by two white autoworkers, Ronald Ebens, and Micheal Nitz caused by an anti-Asian hate crime. They started to target him calling him racial slurs due to his Asian heritage. Until he died on June 23, 1982 at 27 years old, this brought attention to the Asian American community to stand out in Detroit. Multiple advocate groups like the American Citizens for Justice started to protest from racial discrimination. Due to the cause of his death, his legacy remains to represent and fight for hate crimes of discrimination bringing the Asian Americans into unity.

SOURCE:

https://www.nps.gov/people/vincent-chin.htm

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video:https://youtu.be/2wIkShFWIlo?si=3i3UKn6Z9EjK7XQh

Dalip Singh Saund was born in India in 1899 and later passed in 1973 in Los Angeles, United States. During his life, Saund became the first Asian American and first Indian American to be elected to the U.S congress. He began his higher education by studying at the University of the Punjab. He graduated with a bachelor’s degree in mathematics in 1919. Later on he received Master’s degree at Berkeley. He is known for his remarkable work in the U.S government at the peak of the Cold War, his determination in the Democratic party despite the discrimination he had faced over time, and his vocal advocacy for civil rights and the interests of Indian Americans.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dalip-Singh-Saund

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video: https://youtu.be/EqCLNMZvteY?si=JADE8NeRPPUcJGxp (a recording of one of her classes in which she discusses Richard Aoki)

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Diane C. Fujino, is a very distinguished Asian-American activist and author who is known for her insights on Black and Asian American hardships, and Afro-Asian Solidarities (coordinated efforts of African and Asian peoples for changes in the cultural and economic development). In time, Fujino has helped give the public an understanding of Asian American experiences. This includes her discussion of common stereotypes that people of asian diasporas have faced over time.

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Asian Americans for Action is a political action committee established with the fundamental purpose of empowering the democratically-aligned Asian-Americans,Native Americans, Hawaiian, and Pacific Islanders communities to have a significant presence and voice in the political field across all of the leaves of the government in the U.S. Each element of this organizations structure is orientated towards strengthening the political influence of these communities and insuring that their concerns and aspirations are represented in the policy discussions. This organization operates as a trusted partner in the political landscape, assembling a robust network of political operatives, campaign professionals and leaders who actively collaborate to foster equitable representation in governance. The fund ensures that the community's needs address continuously and with the sustained advocacy.

Article: https://www.aaafund.org/about

Video:
Asian Americans Call For Action Over Reproductive Rights ...

www.youtube.com › watch

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Jose Antonio Vargas is an Activist and an author. He was a person that was an undocumented immigrant. In the article, he was talking about his life and he wrote a book about his life as an undocumented person. He also was directed and produced a documentary called Documentea which is about his undocumented experiences. It was broadcasted on CNN and on Netflix. He is an activist for people that are undocumented and is a voice for them.

https://mcsilver.nyu.edu/bio/jose-antonio-vargas/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ULfu8TIU0T8

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He is an anti-bias and anti-racism activist, author, educator, speaker, poet, and researcher. His work has been featured in Harvard Ed Magazine, CNN, the Smithsonian, Hulu, and elsewhere. He has also won many awards such as the 2021 Inspire Award given by United Airlines. He is on his way to receive his PhD in Education Leadership and Policy Analysis at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.

https://badgertalks.wisc.edu/speaker/tony-delarosa/

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Tony DelaRosa (he/they/siya) is a Filipino American anti-bias/anti-racist educator, racial equity strategist, poet, and researcher. His work has been featured in Harvard Ed Magazine, CNN, NPR, the Smithsonian, Hulu, and elsewhere. He won the 2021 …

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Tony DelaRosa

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Daniel Inouye was born on September 7th 1924 and sadly passed away on December 17th of 2012. Inouye was born in a Japanese household and ever since he was a kid he wanted to study medicine and become a surgeon. Even with this in mind he still decided to apply for the US military after graduating high school but was declined because of his ethnicity even though he was a US citizen. Eventually Inouye enrolled in the army again and was accepted but they made it clear to Inouye that he won't be deployed in Japanese territory because they feared the Japanese might betray them. So Inouye as well as many other Japanese American soldiers were deployed in Europe and unfortunately Inouye lost his arm due to a grenade. In 1947 Inouye was discharged from the army with the title of captain and with the thought in mind that he can never be a surgeon after the army, he decided to go to George Washington law school where he got his degree in the year 1952 and would soon be the first Japanese American to serve in Congress.

Article:

https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/medal-of-honor-recipient-daniel-inouye

Video:
Daniel K. Inouye's journey from WWII veteran to historic ...

www.youtube.com › watch

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Grace Lee Boggs was born in a Chinese Immigrant household in 1915. She studied in Barnard college and earned her Ph.D in Philisophy in Bryn Mawr College. She struggled with finding work after graduating. Something else to know about Grace Lee Boggs is that she was a very influential person to many people ranging from kids to full grown adults. She was married to a man named James Boggs in 1953 after she moved to Detroit and together they became the most influential people where they went after issues relating to labor civil rights issues, feminism, Black Power, Asian Americans and the environment. James Boggs sadly passed away in 1993 when Grace was only 78 which took a huge toll on grace and she became even more active in different Detroit communities.

Article:

https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2015/06/27/417175523/grace-lee-boggs-activist-and-american-revolutionary-turns-100

Video:
Grace Lee Boggs' Lasting Impact: AAPI Activism Then and Now

www.youtube.com › watch

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Tyler , Chol soo lee, Born In Korea on August 15th, 1952. Immigrated to the United States In 1964 & was wrongly convicted of a Murder killing Yip Yee Tak in 1973. He was put into a line up for witnesses to select out of a couple of suspects & 3/5 Witnesses chose Chol Soo Lee. In 1974 Chol Soo Lee was convicted of first-degree murder and sentenced to life imprisonment.  While locked up, He was also fighting Another case for killing one of his inmates as a self defense act.
	He was labeled a gang member,A “Nuestra Familia” to be exact, a Latino prison gang.
Ending up dying in 2014

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The SAALT is a south asian American organization movement that began in the 2000-2024. in this movement they fought for racial justice through buildings , strategic communications and more. after 9/11 is there they got a kick start to here organization since they were protecting the civil rights towards South Americans since they were being targeted after this big event.

article link :

https://saalt.org

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The Supreme Court sided with twenty-two women who sailed from China to San Francisco, deciding that Congress, not states, had the power to regulate immigration. Because the women traveled alone, the California Commissioner of Immigration determined that they were “lewd”, or prostitutes. They were detained and held on a $500 bond in gold until the Supreme Court ordered their release, declaring that only a federal immigration authority was empowered to determine the women’s status.

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Chy Lung v. Freeman (1875) - Immigration History

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This Supreme Court decision affirmed that the federal government holds sole authority to regulate immigration.

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The hardening of U.S. isolationism and nativism set the stage for the Supreme Court to affirm the 1790 Nationality Act’s prohibition against naturalization for Asians because they were considered racially not “white” regardless of their demonstrated acculturation and integration.  Takao Ozawa was a graduate of a U.S. college, living and working in Hawaii with his family. While he was otherwise qualified for naturalization and citizenship. His citizenship application was rejected based on his race. The next year, in the case of Thind v. United States, the Supreme Court would contradict itself in applying a different standard of race in another case regarding Asian American citizenship.

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Summary

The hardening of U.S. isolationism and nativism set the stage for the Supreme Court to affirm the 1790 Nationality Act's prohibition against naturalization for Asians because they were considered racially not "white" regardless of their demonstrated acculturation and integration. Takao Ozawa was a graduate of a U.S. college living and working in Hawaii with his family. While he was otherwise qualified for naturalization and citizenship, his application for citizenship was rejected on the basis of his race. The next year in the case of Thind v. United States, the Supreme Court would contradict itself in applying a different standard of race in another case regarding Asian American citizenship.

Source

"Mr. Justice Sutherland delivered the opinion of the court:

The appellant is a person of the Japanese race, born in Japan. He applied, on October 16, 1914, to the United States district court for the territory of Hawaii to be admitted as a citizen of the United States. His petition was opposed by the United States district attorney for the district of Hawaii. Including the period of his residence in Hawaii appellant had continuously resided in the United States for twenty years. He was a graduate of the Berkeley, California, high School, had been nearly three years a student in the University of California, had educated his children in American schools, his family attended American churches, and he had maintained the use of the English language in his home. That he was well qualified by character and education for citizenship is conceded . . . .

The language of the Naturalization Laws from 1790 to 1870 had been uniformly such as to deny the privilege of naturalization to an alien unless he came within the description 'free white person'... Beginning with the decision of Circuit Judge Sawyer... the Federal and state courts, in an almost unbroken line, have held that the words 'white person' were meant to indicate a person of what is popularly known as the Caucasian race . . . .

The appellant in the case now under consideration, however, is clearly of a race which is not Caucasian, and therefore belong entirely outside the zone on the negative side . . . These decisions are sustained by numerous scientific authorities . . . We think these decisions are right, and so hold."

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Ozawa v. United States (1922) - Immigration History

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The hardening of U.S. isolationism and nativism set the stage for the Supreme Court to affirm the 1790 Nationality Act's prohibition against naturalization for Asians because they were considered racially not "white" regardless of their demonstrated acculturation and integration. Takao Ozawa was a graduate of a U.S.

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The Chinese immigration Law was the very first law to restrict an entire nationality from migrating to the United States Of America. The law was passed on May 6, 1882. The law was passed by Congress and signed by the then President Chester A. Arthur. This restriction lasted for a full decade before expiring in 1902, however it was soon extended for another 10 years, and then made permanent.

source: https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/chinese-exclusion-act#:~:text=It%20was%20the%20first%20significant,immigrating%20to%20the%20United%20States.

video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2K88pWCimZg

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During WWll, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed a paper following the events of pearl harbor, allowing military to confine anyone they deemed to be to be a threat as Japanese Americans into internment camps, forcing them to abandon their homes and daily lives.Over 100,000 Japanese Americans found themselves held in these camps, and many lost their homes and business due to not paying taxes because they had no way to. This event is very overlooked today, and many Japanese Americans are unsatisfied with the aftermath of these events, feeling lack of closure.

Source:

https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/education/presidential-inquiries/japanese-american-internment

Video Link:

https://ny.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/japanese-american-incarceration-during-ww2/asian-americans-video/

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1979 Orderly Departure Program - “second wave” of refugees from southeast Asia

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1979 Orderly Departure Program - “second wave” of refugees from southeast Asia

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In 1975, North Vietnamese troops had closed the South Vietnamese capital which is in Saigon. This had made the United States order for an evacuation which would have over several thousand south Vietnamese soldiers and diplomatic officials. The results of this happening was that desperate south Vietnamese people pleading and swarming the gates of American Embassy.

In only 20 years, over 3 million Vietnamese people had fled Vietnam. Some on their way to flee died at sea. The remaining people ended up in the Philippines, Malaysia or Thailand which led to 2.5 million of the refugees to settle all around the world. Starting from July of 1979 to July of 1982, 620,000 refugees had permanently settled in over 20 countries, but families who were unlucky spent years waiting in refugee camps.

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Erika Lee is an award winning historian and writer on Asian American history. The Making of Asian America: A History and America for Americans: A History of Xenophobia in the United States. As the granddaughter of Chinese immigrants, she grew up in the San Francisco bay area and earned her PhD from the University of California in Berkeley. She now works as a history professor at Harvard.

Source:

https://www.radcliffe.harvard.edu/people/erika-lee-radcliffe-professor#:~:text=Erika%20Lee%2C%20the%20Carl%20and,History%20in%20the%20Harvard%20Faculty

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Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study at Harvard University

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Erika Lee, the Carl and Lily Pforzheimer Foundation Faculty Director of the Arthur and Elizabeth Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America, is a Radcliffe Alumnae Professor at Harvard Radcliffe Institute and the inaugural Bae Family Professor of History at the Department of History in the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences. She has served as president of the Organization of American Historians, Pitt Professor of History at the University of Cambridge, and Regents Professor of History and Asian American Studies and director of the Immigration History Research Center at the University of Minnesota.

An award-winning historian and expert on Asian American history and immigration, Lee is the author of five books, including The Making of Asian America: A History (Simon & Schuster, 2016) and America for Americans: A History of Xenophobia in the United States (Basic Books, 2019), which won an American Book Award and an Asian/Pacific American Award for Literature and was an honoree for the Richard Frisbie Award for Adult Nonfiction. Her most recent book is Made in Asian America: A History for Young People (HarperCollins, 2024), cowritten with the three-time Newbery honoree Christina Soontornvat. At the University of Minnesota, Lee helped to merge immigration history with the digital humanities. She launched the Immigrants in COVID America project as well as the National Endowment for the Humanities-funded Immigrant Stories project, which works with recent immigrants and refugees to collect, preserve, and share their experiences with a multilingual digital storytelling website.

The granddaughter of Chinese immigrants, Lee grew up in the San Francisco Bay area and attended Tufts University. She earned her PhD from the University of California, Berkeley. She has been the recipient of numerous national awards for her scholarship and her advocacy and appears regularly in the media. Recently awarded an honorary degree from Tufts University and elected to the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Lee also testified before Congress during its historic hearings on discrimination and violence against Asian Americans.

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Erika Lee | Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study at Harvard University

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Erika Lee, the Carl and Lily Pforzheimer Foundation Faculty Director of the Arthur and Elizabeth Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America, is a Radcliffe Alumnae Professor at Harvard Radcliffe Institute and the inaugural Bae Family Professor of History at the Department of History in the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences.

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Cathy Park Hong is an essayist and a poet who brings up topics of cultural criticism, and to bring light to the truth about racialized consciousness that are present in America.

She comes from a Korean Background. She is the daughter from Korean immigrant parents.

Throughout her childhood she was always trying to hide in the dark in her own shame and suspicion of her own life. She soon understand why these feelings were always happening. They would happen because of American optimism contracting your own reality.

This means that you believe the stereotypes and lies that are spread about your racial identity.

Cathy now uses her personal story to help dive deeper into racial consciousness that occurs in America to this day.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wg1QB44pbbE

https://blogs.und.edu/cfl/2021/05/celebrating-asian-american-and-pacific-islander-heritage-month-at-cfl/?print=print

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1944 Korematsu v. United States- Brielle

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1944 Korematsu v. United States- Brielle

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The Korematsu v. United States case is significant because the Supreme Court upheld the government's right to intern Japanese Americans during World War II, despite the violation of their civil rights. On May 30, 1942, about six months after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor the FBI arrested Korematsu for failure to report to a relocation center. Korematsu was tried in federal court in San Francisco, convicted of violating military orders and given five years on probation, and sent to an Assembly Center in San Bruno, CA. Korematsu asked the Supreme Court of the United States to hear his case. On December 18, 1944, a divided Supreme Court ruled, in a 6-3 decision, that the detention was a “military necessity” not based on race.

Article: https://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/educational-resources/annual-observances/asian-pacific-american-heritage-month/korematsu-v-us-balancing-liberties-and-safety/facts-and-case-summary-korematsu-v-us

Video: https://youtu.be/IvoZ21Sfp2U?si=kStncUXSq1PCHpcZ