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Students with learning disabilities make up a significant, though not always clearly defined, group within special education. These students often experience language challenges that affect both academic achievement and social interactions. The following resources will provide some interventions, important things to know about the disability and/or some strategies we, as educator, can implement to support our students in our classrooms. (Kuder, 2025, p. 72)

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National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD)

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Learning Disabilities, What Are the Different Types?

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Resources and things to know when teaching students with learning disabilities

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Resources and things to know when teaching students with learning disabilities

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It is essential for us, as educators, to have immediate access to information and resources when teaching students with learning disabilities because these students often face unique challenges that impact their academic and social success. Learning disabilities can affect language processing, comprehension, and communication, which in turn influences reading, writing, and overall classroom performance. Having resources readily available allows educators to implement targeted interventions, adapt teaching strategies, and provide individualized support to help students overcome these barriers.

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Digital Language and Communication Resources for Assessment and Intervention

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Digital Language and Communication Resources for Assessment and Intervention

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In the world of education, understanding and addressing language development challenges is essential for fostering academic success. For us as educators, having immediate access to a range of resources and strategies tailored to specific disabilities or disorders is crucial. This resource binder is designed to provide educators with either organized tools, interventions, and/or strategies focused on five key disabilities or disorders: learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities, sensory disabilities, neuromotor disabilities and traumatic brain injuries, and autism spectrum disorder. By collecting and categorizing resources related to these areas, this binder will help educators effectively support students facing language-related challenges. The main goal is to provide other teachers with practical resources to adapt or improve their teaching practices and better meet the needs of their students.

“Academic success and well-being has to be the foremost goal in our classrooms, as there is no greater responsibility than guiding students to achieve it.”

~ Fernando Pérez

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What should we keep in mind when instructing students with Learning Disabilities?

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What should we keep in mind when instructing students with Learning Disabilities?

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Phonological awareness plays a crucial role in reading development, particularly for students with learning disabilities. Research has shown that teaching phonological skills can significantly improve reading outcomes. Effective instruction should begin with simple tasks and progress to more complex ones, be a consistent part of the curriculum, and incorporate both analytic (sound identification) and synthetic (sound blending) activities. Teachers should be mindful of pronunciation, regional accents, and provide engaging, interactive learning experiences to enhance phonological skills.

Kuder, S. J. (2025). Teaching students with language and communication disabilities (5th ed., p. 84). Pearson.

https://youtu.be/zZgS8Ij1Ltg?si=h2wxw1Y-j1ilyhw8

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What are mnemonic strategies?

An approach to instruction in which students are taught how to learn, not Language just what to learn. (Kuder, 2025, p. 90).

Students with learning disabilities often struggle with acquiring new vocabulary, making it essential to implement effective strategies that enhance their learning experience. One such method is the keyword strategy, originally described by Mastropieri (1988) and further explored in academic studies (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1992). This approach has been proven successful in various educational settings, particularly for students with language-learning difficulties, as it provides a structured and engaging way to retain new words.

The keyword strategy follows three main steps:

1. Recoding – The student transforms a new vocabulary word into a keyword that sounds similar, is familiar, and can be visualized. For example, the word forte (meaning “loud”) could be associated with fort, as it sounds alike and creates a mental image.

2. Relating – The student connects the keyword to the meaning of the original word by using an illustration and a descriptive sentence. In this case, a picture of a fort under attack, with guns firing, reinforces the concept of “loud.” A sentence such as The guns at the fort are loud further strengthens the association.

3. Retrieving – When recalling the word’s definition, the student mentally revisits the keyword, visualizes the image, remembers the sentence, and states the meaning of the word—for example, recognizing that forte means “loud.”

While this process may appear time-consuming, research indicates that it is highly effective in improving vocabulary retention among students with learning disabilities (Condus, Marshall, & Miller, 1986; Mastropieri, Scruggs, Levin, Gaffney, & McLoone, 1985). The strategy is not limited to students with disabilities; studies have demonstrated that it also benefits typically developing learners. Uberti, Scruggs, and Mastropieri (2003) found that while traditional vocabulary instruction—such as providing definitions or illustrations—yielded similar results for students without disabilities, those with learning disabilities performed significantly better using the keyword method, even surpassing their peers.

The effectiveness of the keyword strategy highlights the importance of implementing structured, multisensory learning techniques in the classroom. By providing students with disabilities a concrete, visual, and interactive way to process new words, educators can help bridge the gap in language acquisition and foster greater academic success (Kuder, 2025, p. 90).

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Using Mnemonic Instruction to Facilitate Access to the General Education Curriculum

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Learn about mnemonic instruction, a technique that researchers say has solid effectiveness for individuals with learning disabilities. Review three important strategies, key words, peg words, and letters. Specific examples will help you use it with students or apply it to yourself.

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Cognitive learning strategies play a crucial role in enhancing vocabulary acquisition for students with learning disabilities. These strategies provide a structured framework that helps students understand words and recognize relationships between them. Research has shown that cognitive strategy instruction is particularly effective in improving vocabulary retention and comprehension.

One approach within cognitive learning strategies is the semantic feature strategy, which involves using a relationship chart to compare key ideas from a reading passage with related vocabulary terms. In a study by Bos, Anders, Filip, and Jaffe (1989), high school students with learning disabilities used this method by defining each word and discussing how it connected to the main ideas in the text. The results showed that students who used this strategy performed better than their peers who relied solely on looking up definitions in a dictionary. A review of multiple studies by Jitendra, Edwards, Sacks, and Jacobson (2004) further confirmed that cognitive strategy instruction is a highly effective way to teach vocabulary to students with learning disabilities.

The following link provides with more information about the strategy learn above:

https://www.readingrockets.org/classroom/classroom-strategies/semantic-feature-analysis#:~:text=The%20semantic%20feature%20analysis%20strategy,enhances%20comprehension%20and%20vocabulary%20skills.

Another effective learning strategy is morphological analysis, which teaches students to break down words into meaningful parts such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words. Harris, Schumaker, and Deshler (2011) conducted a study comparing morphological analysis to an alternative vocabulary learning strategy. Their findings showed that both students with and without disabilities benefited from these strategies, making significant gains in vocabulary knowledge. However, those who used morphological analysis outperformed their peers in both alternative strategy and control groups, demonstrating the effectiveness of this method.

The following link provides with more information about the strategy learn above:

https://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/professionals/dyslexia-school/morphological-awareness

These findings highlight the importance of using structured cognitive strategies to support students with learning disabilities in developing their vocabulary and overall language skills. By implementing strategies such as semantic feature analysis and morphological analysis, educators can provide students with tools to better understand and retain new words, ultimately improving their academic success (Kuder, 2025, p. 90).

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Technological Applications for Students with Learning Disabilities

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Technological Applications for Students with Learning Disabilities

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Emerging technologies have shown great potential in assisting students with learning disabilities by addressing their unique challenges and improving academic outcomes. One promising approach involves the use of podcasts for vocabulary instruction, particularly in content-heavy subjects like social studies. Research by Kennedy and colleagues (2014, 2015) explored the effectiveness of content acquisition podcasts, which integrate visual, textual, and auditory elements following universal design for learning (UDL) principles. These podcasts provide word illustrations alongside voice-over explanations and definitions. Findings indicate that students with disabilities achieved significantly higher vocabulary scores and learned words more efficiently with this method compared to traditional instruction (Kuder, 2020, p. 91).

https://tedcec.org/sites/default/files/2020-12/Content_Acquisition_Podcasts.pdf

https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Education_and_Professional_Development/Comprehensive_Individualized_Curriculum_and_Instructional_Design_%28Sennott_et_al.%29/06%3A_Using_Content_Acquisition_Podcasts_%28CAPs%29_to_Improve_Vocabulary_Instruction_and_Learning_for_Students_with_Disabilities_and_Their_Teachers?utm_source=chatgpt.com

Another technological tool with potential benefits is speech recognition software, which converts spoken language into written text. Programs such as Dragon Naturally Speaking and IBM’s Via Voice have made this technology more accessible for students struggling with reading and writing. Research by Higgins and colleagues (2000, 2004) suggests that speech recognition software can enhance word recognition, spelling, reading comprehension, and phonological processing. However, there are notable challenges, including the time required to “train” the software to recognize a student’s voice and occasional inaccuracies in speech recognition, particularly among children with language impairments. Despite these obstacles, continued advancements in technology hold promise for supporting students with learning disabilities in the classroom (Kuder, 2020, p. 91).

https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/assistive-technology/articles/speech-recognition-learning

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Prepared by Gabrielle Young, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Memorial University of Newfoundland and Jeffrey MacCormack, M.Ed., Doctoral Student, Queen's University
Assistive technology refers to the devices and services that are used to increase, maintain, or improve the capabilities of a student with a disability (Dell, Newton, & Petroff, 2012). While the phrase assistive technology may make us think of computers and computerized devices, assistive technology can also be very low-tech. For example, pencil-grips (the molded plastic grips that slip over a pencil) are considered assistive technology. Assistive technology that helps students with learning disabilities includes computer programs and tablet applications that provide text-to-speech (e.g., Kurzweil 3000), speech-to-text (e.g., Dragon Naturally Speaking), word prediction capabilities (e.g., WordQ), and graphic organizers (e.g., Inspiration).

In comparison to other interventions, assistive technology may have a significant effect in helping students with disabilities progress towards the goals outlined on their Individual Education Plans (Watson, Ito, Smith, & Andersen, 2010). Assistive technology helps in two ways: it can help the student learn how to complete the task and it can help to bypass an area of difficulty. For example, when a student decides to listen to a digital version of a book, they are bypassing an area of difficulty. However, if the student focuses on the computer screen as highlighted words are read aloud, they can learn unfamiliar words.

Assistive Technology Summary Points

1. Assistive technology ranges from low- to high-tech.

2. Assistive technology can be used in two ways: to support learning and to bypass a challenging task such as handwriting.

3. In order to be effective, assistive technology needs to be embedded within quality instruction.

Laptop Computers and Computerized Devices: Benefits of Assistive Technology

Laptop computers and tablet devices are beneficial for students with learning disabilities because they are portable and lightweight. For students with handwriting difficulties, being able to take notes on a laptop or computerized device (such as an iPad) can improve the quantity and quality of the notes (Vaughn & Bos, 2009). Using a word processor can help students to complete work that is more organized and includes less spelling errors than handwritten work (Hetzroni & Shrieber, 2004). In addition, students may identify and correct more errors when using spell check than when editing by hand (MacArthur, Graham, Haynes, & De La Paz, 1996; McNaughton, Hughes, & Ofiesh, 1997). However, obtaining personal access to laptops and computerized devices does not ensure engagement and increased academic success (Donovan, Green, & Hartley, 2010). For many students, laptop computers and computerized devices can be too distracting. Teachers and students need to be trained in how to meaningfully integrate technology into academic contexts so that the devices don't detract from learning (Dell, Newton, & Petroff, 2012).

Computer-assisted Instruction

Computer-assisted instruction refers to software and applications that have been designed to provide instruction and practice opportunities on a wide range of devices (e.g., computer, laptop, iPad, mobile technology). Computer-assisted instruction provides immediate and dynamic feedback and students with learning disabilities can benefit from this nonjudgmental computerized drill and practice (Stetter & Hughes, 2010). Computer-assisted instruction has been shown to be helpful for students with learning disabilities in spelling and expressive writing skills (Wanzek et al., 2006) as this software can reduce distractibility (Hecker, Burns, Elkind, Elkind, & Katz, 2002), and can help students learn to read (Lee & Vail, 2005) and achieve other academic outcomes (Chiang & Jacobs, 2009). Computer-assisted instruction is also an effective way for students with learning disabilities to practice math drills (Bouck & Flanagan, 2009), as students who used computer-assisted instruction to practice math skills were able to memorize math facts more easily, and developed a more positive attitude towards math than students who did not use computer-assisted instruction (Adcock et al., 2010).
Computer-assisted Instruction Summary Points Figure 1: Helping students through assistive technology

1. Computer-assisted instruction provides students with dynamic feedback.

2. Computer-assisted instruction can help students practice spelling and multiplication drills.

3. In order to prevent the technology from being a distraction, students need to be taught how to use technology to support their learning

Software Functions

Assistive technology can improve the writing skills of students with learning disabilities (Batorowicz, Missiuna, & Pollock, 2012). Assistive technology can help students to bypass the mechanical aspects of writing. Using spell check and grammar features can help students focus on communicating their ideas and students can write with confidence knowing that they can easily make changes. In addition, being able to submit a final assignment that is neater and better organized supports positive self-esteem. Text-to-speech (e.g., Kurzweil 3000), speech-to-text (e.g., Dragon Naturally Speaking), word prediction (e.g., WordQ) and graphic organizers (e.g., Inspiration) are four useful software functions for students who struggle with language-based learning disabilities.

We may not consider the default functions of word processors to be ground breaking, but for students with learning disabilities, functions such as spell check and text-to-speech can be a tremendous help when composing and decoding words.

Text-to-speech - Text-to-speech software, such as Kurzweil 3000, can read aloud digital or printed text. This is beneficial as students are more likely to understand text when unfamiliar words are read to them (MacArthur, Ferreti, Okolo, & Cavalier, 2001). Text-to-speech can have a positive effect on decoding and word recognition (Raskind & Higgins, 1999), as well as reading fluency and reading comprehension (Izzo, Yurick, & McArrell, 2009; Montali & Lewandowski, 1996; Stodden, Roberts, Takahishi, Park, & Stodden, 2012). Text-to-speech software can be especially helpful for students who retain more information through listening than reading. This software can assist students with monitoring and revising their typed work, as hearing the text read aloud may assist students in catching grammatical errors that may have otherwise gone unnoticed (Raskind & Higgins, 1995; Rao, Dowrick, Yuen, & Boisvert, 2009; Zhang, 2000).

After reviewing the literature, Strangman and Dalton (2005) reported that the use of text-to-speech software can improve students' sight reading and decoding abilities. In addition, text-to-speech software can improve the reading comprehension of individuals with specific deficits in phonological processing (difficulty hearing letter-sounds) as students can learn to decode new words when they are highlighted as they are read aloud (Fasting & Halaas Lyster, 2005; Holmes & Silvestri, 2009). Kurzweil 3000 provides reading, writing, studying, and organizational support for students who have difficulty reading or writing (e.g., Elkind, 1998). The use of Kurweil 3000 software also improves students' perception of their work and their ability to write expressively (Chiang & Jacobs, 2009). Programs such as Kurzweil 3000 may decrease the negative emotions students associate with reading and provide students with a more complete comprehension of the text (Young, 2012), and as a result, text-to-speech programs are recommended for use along with research-supported reading intervention practices.

Speech-to-text - Writing involves low-level transcription skills (e.g., handwriting, spelling, punctuation, and grammar), as well as high-level composition skills (e.g., planning, generating content, and revising). Speech-to-text software transcribes spoken word into computer text, allowing the student to bypass the demands of typing or handwriting; freed from these effortful tasks, students may compose stories that are longer, more complex, and contain fewer errors (Graham, 1999). Speech recognition accuracy improves with use; however, new users can become frustrated with the training process, and they may lack the ability to efficiently edit the program's text output. Titles such as XpressLab are licensed by the Ministry of Education and can be used to improve expressive oral language for students in grade 7-12.
Software Summary Point
Voice recognition software can improve word recognition, spelling, and reading comprehension skills for students with learning disabilities (Higgins & Raskind, 2000). MacArthur and Cavalier (2004) found that for students with learning disabilities, essays dictated using Dragon Naturally Speaking were better than handwritten essays, but essays dictated to a scribe were even better. These authors found a differential impact on students with and without disabilities, providing evidence that this technology removes a barrier based on disability.
Click here to access a list of Ministry of Education approved software titles.
Word Prediction - Word prediction software was originally designed for students with physical disabilities who experienced difficulty typing. However, word prediction with text-to-speech is also effective for students with learning disabilities because it reduces the need for handwriting, and improves students' spelling accuracy and writing skills (Cullen, Richards, & Frank, 2008; Evmenova, Graff, Jerome & Behrman, 2010; Handley-More, Dietz, Billingsley & Coggins, 2003; Lewis, Graves, Ashton, & Kieley, 1998; Silió & Barbetta, 2010). In addition, students may find it enjoyable to have the words recommended through word prediction and be able to form sentences without having to worry about spelling and word-choice (Evmenova et al., 2010).

An analysis of 25 years of research found that word prediction increases transcription accuracy and may also increase word fluency and compositional quality of writing for students with learning and academic difficulties (Peterson-Karlan, 2011). In one particular study, children and their families generally found WordQ to be helpful, and reported improved vocabulary use and increased independence, productivity, and motivation to write (Tam, Archer, Mays, & Skidmore, 2005). While there are potential benefits to the use of WordQ, a basic foundation of phonological awareness is required as students who are unable to identify the beginning sound of words will not benefit from using word prediction software because the user has to provide the first letters of the word (MacArthur, 1999). In addition, word prediction demands a fairly high level of attention to make use of the suggested words (MacArthur, 1998); and as a result, each child must be considered on an individual basis in order to select the appropriate technology for his or her learning needs.

1. Text-to-speech software helps students to bypass the task of decoding words. Seeing individual words highlighted as the text is read aloud may help to improve students' sight word vocabulary.

2. Speech-to-text software bypasses the tasks of handwriting and spelling, allowing the student to concentrate on developing their ideas and planning their work.

3. Speech-to-text software bypasses the tasks of handwriting and spelling, allowing the student to concentrate on developing their ideas and planning their work.

Mid-tech Devices

Mid-tech devices such as audio recorders, portable note takers, mp3 players, calculators, and pentop computers (such as LiveScribe smartpen) can be useful without the cost associated with high-tech devices. For example, the AlphaSmart is a note-taking device that can provide basic word-processing, without the cost related to the purchase and maintenance of a laptop. AlphaSmart devices were discontinued in 2013, but NEO Direct still provides support for users.

Figure 2: Exploring technology for students with learning disabilities
While assistive technology can be low or high-tech, most of the assistive technology for students with learning disabilities is high-tech (Lewis, 1998). Teachers should become familiar with assistive technology and understand how it can be incorporated within their teaching to support an inclusive learning environment.

Graphic Organizers - Graphic organizers benefit individuals who experience difficulty expressing their thoughts on paper as well as visual learners who need to see their ideas mapped out. While graphic organizers completed without technology can help students with learning disabilities to improve the quality of writing (Institute for the Advancement of Research in Education, 2003), electronic versions, such as Inspiration, allow students to arrange their thoughts on the computer screen without worrying about order, level of importance or categories because the text can be easily manipulated. Graphic organizers provide an organizational framework to help writers generate topics and content for writing projects and can assist with the planning and organizational stages of writing, and using concept mapping software can increase the quality and quantity of writing (Sturm & Rankin-Erickson, 2002). Using a web-based graphic organizer with procedural prompts enabled students to produce better organized and higher quality papers, than they could produce with handwritten organizers (Englert, Wu & Zhao, 2005; Englert, Zhao, Dunsmore, Collings, & Woblers, 2007). Being taught a strategy to plan and organize writing can improve the compositions of students with learning disabilities (MacArthur, 2009).

Pentop computers - Pentop computers, such as LiveScribe smart pens, are cheaper than high-tech devices like iPads but can provide text-to-speech, strategy feedback, and other organizational functions. As cost-effective and self-regulated reading aides, pentop computers may be a useful tool for students with reading disabilities (Schmitt, McCallum, Hennessey, Lovelace, & Hawkins, 2012). Pentop computers are also useful because they utilize instruction strategies such as providing auditory feedback during composition or math work. Handheld computerized devices that provide feedback have shown to be helpful for students with learning disabilities for essay composition (Bouck, Bassette, Taber-Doughty, Flanagan, & Szwed, 2009), and receptive note-taking and multiplication skills (Bouck, Flanagan, Miller, & Bassette, 2009). For example, pentop computers are able to provide reminders such as "don't forget to carry" during multiplication questions (Doughty, Bouck, Bassette, Szwed, & Flanagan, 2013).

Calculators and math software - Students with learning disabilities may have a history of academic failure, which contributed to their development of learned helplessness in math. For some students, a fear of failure and low academic self-concept can lead to math related anxiety. While the use of calculators can level the playing field for students with learning disabilities, some research has shown that calculators may provide unfair advantage (Bouck & Flanagan, 2009). Graphing calculators may be particularly effective because they provide visual conformation of the graph-shape. The added advantage of visual data can be highly motivating for students with learning disabilities (Bethell & Miller, 1998). Math drill programs can be an effective way for students to learn to mentally solve math questions (Adcock et al., 2010), they are also effective in increasing motivation and the addition and subtraction skills of students with dyscalculia (Amiripour, Bijan-zadeh, Pezeshki, & Najafi, 2011). Math Trek 1,2,3 is an example of software licensed by the Ministry of Education for use in classroom. Click here to find the full list of approved software titles.

1. Concept organizers, whether completed electronically or by hand, may contribute to better writing in students with learning disabilities.

2. Pentop computers can be used for reading (text-to-speech), writing (digitizing written words), and math (strategy feedback).

3. Calculators can help students with learning disabilities demonstrate their understanding of mathematical computations. Graphing calculators can provide additional support as they verify graph shapes and help solve algebraic equations.

Considerations

Much needs to be done to improve the quality of special education technology research (Edyburn, 2009). Little research has been conducted on the use of assistive technology in inclusive schools (Watson, Ito, Smith, & Andersen, 2010), and only a few researchers are conducting systematic, well-designed research that can lead to confident conclusions on how the use of assistive technology affects learning (Edyburn & Gersten, 2007; MacArthur, Ferretti, Okolo, & Cavalier, 2001; Wanzek et al., 2006). In addition, research cannot be produced quickly enough to match the rate of technological innovations, and as a result, educators tend to rely on the claims of the producers of the technologies rather than evidence-based research (Blackhurst, 2005).

Despite the enthusiasm that may surround the application of assistive technology in the classroom, assistive technology is not a panacea. Lack of common vision, limited training, access to support services, insufficient funding, and lack of teacher time are commonly cited problems in regards to the implementation of assistive technology (Ault, Bausch, & McLaren, 2013; Flanagan, Bouck, & Richardson, 2013; Morrison, 2007; Okolo & Diedrich, 2014). Researchers have noted that there is still an enormous gap between the potential of assistive technology and how much it actually helps (Burne, Knafelc, Melonis, & Heyn, 2011).

Assistive technology can reduce students' dependence on others to read, write, and organize their work (MacArthur, Ferretti, Okolo, & Cavalier, 2001; Mull & Sitlington, 2003). When provided with effective strategy instruction, outlining programs and concept mapping software can help with planning, and word processing, spell check, word prediction, and speech recognition can offer support for transcription and revision (MacArthur, 2009). While assistive technology can support struggling learners, MacArthur (2009) cautions that technology by itself has little impact on learning. In order for students to benefit from the technology, educators must have an understanding of assistive technology and how to embedded it within quality instruction (Batorowicz, Missiuana, & Pollock, 2012; Lee & Vega, 2005; Marino, Marino, & Shaw, 2006; Michaels & McDermott, 2003).

Staff Training

In a large scale survey study nearly three-quarters of respondents indicated that improved staff training and knowledge were the most important actions that could be taken to promote technology use (Okolo & Diedrich, 2014). Assistive technology devices and services have to be coupled with context-appropriate instruction from trained teachers (Specht, Howell, & Young, 2007), as students' successful implementation of assistive technology is directly related to the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of special education teachers (Michaels & McDermott, 2003). While educators acknowledge the potential of assistive technology, they may feel overwhelmed by the responsibility of understanding and using this technology with their students (Lee & Vega, 2005; Ludlow, 2001). Many teachers feel that they lack the knowledge and support to more fully integrate assistive technology into the curriculum (Okolo & Diedrich, 2014). This is not surprizing given that only a third of special education programs surveyed by Judge and Simms (2009) addressed assistive technology, and few workshops or professional development opportunities exist to continually support teachers' use of assistive technology during instruction (Lee & Vega, 2005; Ludlow, 2001; Michaels & McDermott, 2003). Teachers' use and understanding of assistive technology may increase when provided with effective instruction during pre-service education or professional development opportunities (Flanagan, Bouck, & Richardson, 2013; Lee & Vega, 2005). General educators and special educators need to become familiar with assistive and instructional technology so that they can embed this technology within their instruction to meet the needs of all their students (Chmiliar, 2007; Chmiliar & Cheung, 2007; Flanagan, Bouck, & Richardson, 2013).

When recommending the use of assistive technology, one must consider how training can be provided for students, parents, and teachers to become competent with the technology, as well as environmental factors that will continue to support the child in using technology (Specht, Howell, & Young, 2007). Funding should be allotted for the training of teachers to effectively facilitate assistive technology use (Burne, Knafelc, Melonis, & Heyn, 2011), and all educators who support an individual student should be knowledgeable about that child's assistive technology and be able to embed the use of the technology within instruction (Nelson, 2006; Okolo & Diedrich, 2014). Computers shouldn't be restricted to a specific subject area, and the use of technology should not solely occur within a computer lab; rather, assistive and instructional technology should be an integral part of all subjects and the use of these tools should be built into the curriculum. Schools should encourage teaching staff to assume the role of technology co-ordinators as they understand the demands of the curriculum and may be best equipped to find free or low cost educational solutions to help students meet curricular expectations.

1. Due to the limited evidence-based research, teachers tend to make decision about assistive technology based on claims from the software companies.

2. In order to be effective, assistive technology has to be coupled with quality instruction.

3. Teachers require training to support their implementation of assistive technology.

Examples of Assistive Technology by Domain

Receptive
Notepad - Notepads are an excellent way to record information. Students with learning disabilities (LDs) may appreciate having the information colour-coded based on the purpose, topic, or function of the information.

Audiobooks - Provides a simple way to listen to many of the best classic books and modern titles .

Speaking
Cue cards - Cue cards provide helpful hints for the oral presentation of information, and the process of composing cue cards can help organize the information before-hand.

Prezi - A free 3D graphic organizer which can be used to create presentations. Prezis can be collaborative as students can comment and build upon other Prezis.

ShowMe Interactive Whiteboard -In order to reduce anxiety, students may opt to record presentations on their iPad beforehand. Video recordings can be uploaded on YouTube or a more private domain.

Reading
Highlighter strips - Translucent rectangles of colour can help eliminate extra visual clutter by blocking out the rest of the text. Sticky notes - Students with LDs may find it useful to summarize the main ideas of the text with sticky notes which can be stuck directly on the page.

Kurzweil 3000 - Text-to-speech software, such as Kurzweil 3000, can read aloud digital or printed text.

Storyline Online - A free online streaming video program featuring books read aloud. Each book includes accompanying activities and lesson ideas.

Project Gutenberg - Over 45,000 free e-books.

Wikipedia - The Simple English function on Wikipedia allows content to be "translated" into plain English which is easier to read.

Writing
Pencil grips - For students who struggle with handwriting, pencil grips can provide a surface that is easier to manipulate.

Computerized pens - These pens can automatically transmit handwriting into digital text. Some computerized pens have audio-recording functions that allow the writer to listen to specific sections of the audio file by tapping on the written notes.

Word processing - Functions such as spell check, dictionary options, synonym support, and word-prediction features are helpful for students with learning disabilities.

Reasoning
Graphic organizers - Organizing ideas visually allows students with LDs to see the connections between ideas. Audio recorders - Many students with LD experience difficulty translating oral language into written text. Recording ideas early in the thinking process can provide a record for later recall and clarification.

SimpleMind+ - This app allows you to brainstorm and organize your ideas. Completed concept maps can be automatically converted to an outline.

Math
4-function calculator - Depending on the type of work being done, a 4-function calculator can be a great help without providing disproportionate advantage to students with LDs.

Graphing calculator - Graphing computers can solve complex equations, and the dynamic display screen allows the student to verify the results before solving on paper.

Math Dictionary for Kids - An animated, interactive online math dictionary that explains over 600 common mathematical terms in simple language.

Braiing Camp - Animated lessons and interactive activities to assess student understanding.

IXL Math - IXL's math practice skills are aligned with pre-K through Grade 8 provincial curricula, and students' performance is assessed on each objective.

Sumdog - Sumdog's learning engine adapts its math questions to each student's ability. Covering number operations through to simple algebra, it is designed for students age 6 to 14.

ShowMe and ScreenChomp - These apps provide an interactive whiteboard interface to solve problems. The actions on the screen and audio can be recorded and shared as a video file.

References

Adcock, W., Luna, E., Parkhurst, J., Poncy, B., Skinner, C., & Yaw, J. (2010). Effective class-wide remediation: Using technology to identify idiosyncratic math facts for additional automaticity drills. The International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 6, 111-123.

Amiripour, P., Bijan-zadeh, M. H., Pezeshki, P., & Najafi, M. (2011). Effects of assistive technology instruction on increasing motivation and capacity of mathematical problem solving in dyscalcula student. Educational Research, 2(10), 1611-1618.

Ault, M. J., Bausch, M. E., & McLaren, E. M. (2013). Assistive technology service delivery in rural school districts. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 32(2), 15-22. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1420524203?accountid=6180

Batorowicz, B., Missiuna, C. A., & Pollock, N. A. (2012). Technology supporting written productivity in children with learning disabilities: A critical review. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 79(4), 211-224. doi:10.2182/cjot.2012.79.4.3

Bethell, S. & Miller, N. (1998). From an E to an A in first year algebra with the help of a graphing calculator. Mathematics Teacher, 91, 118-119.

Blackhurst, A. (2005). Perspectives on applications of technology in the field of learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 28, 175-178. doi:10.2307/1593622

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Dr. Gabrielle Young is an Assistant Professor at Memorial University of Newfoundland where she teaches undergraduate courses such as the Nature and Characteristics of Learning Disabilities and Inclusive Practices for Students with Learning Disabilities, as well as graduate courses such as the Nature and Assessment of Learning Disabilities. While completing her doctoral studies at Western University, Gabrielle was also actively involved with the Learning Disabilities Association - London Region, where she was Vice-President of the Board. Gabrielle's research interests include: the use of assistive technology by students with special learning needs; learners' self-beliefs and the self-esteem of individuals with learning disabilities; and the use of universal design for learning and differentiated instruction to support the inclusion of students with exceptionalities in the general education classroom. Jeffrey MacCormack is a PhD student at the Faculty of Education, Queen's University, with a focus on cognition. He is a teacher certified by the Ontario College of Teachers with 9 years of experience teaching elementary school. He worked as an instructor at Queen's University and has taught and authored online courses for educators. He is currently conducting research on several topics including: learning disabilities, autism, emotional well-being, and youth development.
Young, G. (2012). Examining assistive technology use, self-concept, and motivation, as students with learning disabilities transition from a demonstration school into inclusive classrooms. Unpublished Doctoral thesis, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada. Retrieved from http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2316&context=etd

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Assistive Technology for Students with Learning Disabilities

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Prepared by Gabrielle Young, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Memorial University of Newfoundland and Jeffrey MacCormack, M.Ed., Doctoral Student, Queen's University Assistive technology refers to the devices and services that are used to increase, maintain, or improve the capabilities of a student with a disability (Dell, Newton, & Petroff, 2012).

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Kuder in chapter eight of of the book Teaching Students with Language and Communication Disabilities, 5e teaches us that children with intellectual disabilities are a diverse group, ranging from those with relatively minor developmental delays to those with severe impairments. According to Kuder an examination of the range of language and communication problems experienced by students with intellectual disabilities and the factors that contribute to these impairments leads to some approaches to helping students improve their language and communication skills.

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What are some specific instructional approaches?

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What are some specific instructional approaches?

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According to Kuder there are few instructional methods that have been developed to teach language and communication skills exclusively to students with intellectual disabilities. In general, instructional methods for enhancing language and communication in this population lie along a continuum from highly structured, didactic teaching to more naturalistic, child-oriented approaches (Yoder,

Kaiser, & Alpert, 1991).

Among the more highly structured procedures are those that use applied behavior analysis methods such as imitation, modeling, and/ or reinforcement. These approaches take the child through a highly structured sequence of steps toward a goal that is set prior to instruction.

Instructional approaches based on applied behavior analysis (ABA) principles have been quite successful in enhancing the language and literacy of children with significant disabilities, including intellectual disabilities and autism.

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Naturalistic approaches based on ABA principles, like incidental teaching and mand-model procedures, offer more flexible, real-world settings for language instruction, which can help improve the generalization of language skills across various contexts.

Incidental Teaching:

This approach is structured yet allows for more natural learning by prompting the child to initiate interaction within an arranged environment. The key steps are:

1. Choose a learning objective.

2. Arrange the environment to prompt the student’s initiation.

3. Wait for the student to initiate a response.

4. Prompt the student to elaborate on their response.

5. If the student responds correctly, provide praise and access to materials.

The goal is to encourage spontaneous communication while guiding the child toward using language in context. For a more detailed example of incidental teaching, the video linked can help explain the procedure.

Watch the video here.

Mand-Model Procedure: https://youtu.be/_XYfQpOmB4M?si=kV4jvrnoM7N9tN3Z

This technique relies on natural interactions, where the adult initiates by using prompts within the child’s ongoing activities. For instance, when a child is scooping rice, the adult might say, “Tell me what you are doing,” prompting the child to respond with a more complete sentence. This method is designed to enhance language by modeling appropriate responses in everyday scenarios, rather than focusing on operant conditioning.

An example from Warren (1991):

• Context: Child is scooping rice.

• Adult: “Tell me what you are doing.”

• Child: “Beans.”

• Adult: “Well then, say, ‘Pour beans.’”

• Child: “Pour beans.”

• Adult: “That’s right, you’re pouring beans into the pot.”

This approach encourages verbal interaction while linking the language to real-world activities.

Interrupted-Behavior-Chain Strategy: https://youtu.be/Hj_qSjoIHmo?si=na_OzZLxJZDAD4pP

This method incorporates teaching a language skill within an already established behavior sequence. The key idea is to interrupt a routine, like grocery shopping, to insert a language skill—such as asking the student to describe or identify items—while the activity is ongoing. By interrupting the flow of an activity, the student is prompted to practice a new skill in context.

An example from Caro and Snell (1989):

• Context: Grocery shopping.

• Instructor’s Action: After the student places an item in the cart, the instructor asks, “What did you put in the cart?”

• The student is then prompted to respond or choose from a set of pictures.

This strategy helps students learn new skills without isolating them from real-life tasks.

Key Considerations for Instructional Methods:

• Focus on Relevant Skills: Identify and teach skills that are necessary for the child’s daily life.

• Use Appropriate Reinforcers: Utilize rewards that motivate and engage the child.

• Naturalistic Instruction Settings: Provide opportunities for practice in everyday environments.

• Generalization of Skills: Ensure that learned skills are transferable to different settings and contexts.

These strategies, rooted in ABA principles, focus on teaching skills in a more natural context, ensuring that students with intellectual disabilities can generalize and apply what they learn in real-world scenarios.

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Naturalistic approaches based on ABA principles, like incidental teaching and mand-model procedures, offer more flexible, real-world settings for language instruction, which can help improve the generalization of language skills across various contexts.

Incidental Teaching:

This approach is structured yet allows for more natural learning by prompting the child to initiate interaction within an arranged environment. The key steps are:

1. Choose a learning objective.

2. Arrange the environment to prompt the student’s initiation.

3. Wait for the student to initiate a response.

4. Prompt the student to elaborate on their response.

5. If the student responds correctly, provide praise and access to materials.

The goal is to encourage spontaneous communication while guiding the child toward using language in context. For a more detailed example of incidental teaching, the video linked can help explain the procedure.

Watch the video here.

Mand-Model Procedure:

This technique relies on natural interactions, where the adult initiates by using prompts within the child’s ongoing activities. For instance, when a child is scooping rice, the adult might say, “Tell me what you are doing,” prompting the child to respond with a more complete sentence. This method is designed to enhance language by modeling appropriate responses in everyday scenarios, rather than focusing on operant conditioning.

An example from Warren (1991):

• Context: Child is scooping rice.

• Adult: “Tell me what you are doing.”

• Child: “Beans.”

• Adult: “Well then, say, ‘Pour beans.’”

• Child: “Pour beans.”

• Adult: “That’s right, you’re pouring beans into the pot.”

This approach encourages verbal interaction while linking the language to real-world activities.

Interrupted-Behavior-Chain Strategy:

This method incorporates teaching a language skill within an already established behavior sequence. The key idea is to interrupt a routine, like grocery shopping, to insert a language skill—such as asking the student to describe or identify items—while the activity is ongoing. By interrupting the flow of an activity, the student is prompted to practice a new skill in context.

An example from Caro and Snell (1989):

• Context: Grocery shopping.

• Instructor’s Action: After the student places an item in the cart, the instructor asks, “What did you put in the cart?”

• The student is then prompted to respond or choose from a set of pictures.

This strategy helps students learn new skills without isolating them from real-life tasks.

Key Considerations for Instructional Methods:

• Focus on Relevant Skills: Identify and teach skills that are necessary for the child’s daily life.

• Use Appropriate Reinforcers: Utilize rewards that motivate and engage the child.

• Naturalistic Instruction Settings: Provide opportunities for practice in everyday environments.

• Generalization of Skills: Ensure that learned skills are transferable to different settings and contexts.

These strategies, rooted in ABA principles, focus on teaching skills in a more natural context, ensuring that students with intellectual disabilities can generalize and apply what they learn in real-world scenarios.

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In chapter nine of the book Teaching Students with Language and Communication Disabilities defines autism as a complex developmental disability that is characterized by significant problems with social interaction and communication and by restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The 2013 revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V) was very controversial in that it eliminated several previous types of autism as separate disorders, including Asperger syndrome, and combined them into one category with three levels of severity:

1. ﻿﻿﻿Requiring very substantial support: Characterized by severe deficits in verbal and nonverbal social communication.

2. ﻿﻿﻿Requiring substantial support: Characterized by marked deficits in verbal and nonverbal social communication.

3. ﻿﻿﻿Requiring support: Characterized by impairments in social communication when supports are not in place.

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WHAT TO KNOW ABOUT AUSTIM WHEN TEACHING STUDENTS WITH SUCH DISORDER.

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WHAT TO KNOW ABOUT AUSTIM WHEN TEACHING STUDENTS WITH SUCH DISORDER.

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INTERVENTIONS FOR LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION IMPAIRMENT

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As discussed in Teaching Students with Language and Communication Disabilities (Kuder, 2020), ABA has proven effective in enhancing language and communication skills for children with significant language disabilities. The core of these approaches lies in the principles of operant conditioning, including identifying intervention targets through task analysis and using reinforcement to promote desired behaviors.

Discrete Trial Training (DTT)

A prominent ABA approach, particularly for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), is Discrete Trial Training (DTT). This method involves structured, repetitive teaching cycles, where the adult presents a stimulus (such as an instruction), the child responds, and a consequence follows (such as reinforcement for correct responses or corrective feedback for mistakes). DTT is executed in trials, which are single teaching units that involve a clear sequence of antecedents, behaviors, and consequences.

Research findings:

• Studies have shown that DTT, especially when delivered early and intensively, leads to improvements in IQ and expressive speech in children with ASD. For instance, Lovaas (1987) found that children receiving intensive early intervention exhibited higher IQ scores and more expressive speech compared to peers who received less intensive treatment.

• Follow-up studies (McEachin, Smith, & Lovaas, 1993; Smith et al., 1997) showed that the positive effects of intensive behavioral treatment persisted over time.

Concerns and Criticisms

Despite the success of DTT, some key concerns have been raised:

1. Outcome Claims: Some proponents of DTT, like Lovaas, have claimed that it can lead to “recovery” from autism. However, critics argue that these claims are not well-supported by research design and replication, suggesting that the Lovaas approach is still experimental and does not promise a cure.

2. Exclusivity: Advocates for DTT sometimes argue that it should be the sole method for treating ASD. However, research suggests that other methods may be equally or more effective in addressing social skills and pragmatic language issues that are often problematic for individuals with autism.

3. Intensity: DTT advocates claim that it needs to be implemented for 40 hours a week over several years for success. However, there is no empirical evidence that such intensive intervention is necessary for all children, and this approach may overlook individual differences in children’s strengths and weaknesses.

4. Personnel Training: The qualification of those administering DTT is a contentious issue. Some argue that trainers do not need certification, while others believe that uncertified trainers may lack the necessary skills to customize interventions and respond to children’s needs.

Current Trends and Adjustments

Contemporary ABA approaches have evolved from traditional DTT. While early DTT focused on teaching isolated words out of context, more recent approaches emphasize the generalization of language skills to natural social environments. These modern approaches incorporate:

• Child-Centered Focus: ABA interventions are increasingly based on the child’s interests and everyday activities to create more relevant and engaging learning opportunities.

• Naturalistic Settings: The role of the child as an active communicative partner in natural settings is emphasized to facilitate more authentic language use.

ABA approaches, particularly DTT, have been successful in improving language and communication skills in children with autism and other language disabilities. However, contemporary strategies are adjusting to focus on more naturalistic, child-driven interventions that integrate skills into real-world contexts, addressing some of the concerns raised about the intensity and scope of earlier ABA methods.

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ABA Autism Training - Chapter 1 - The Discrete Trial

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Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)

The Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS), developed by Bondy and Frost in 1994, is a communication method that uses pictures to facilitate meaningful communication exchanges. Initially designed for individuals with autism, PECS has been successfully applied to a variety of individuals with significant disabilities. The program incorporates behavioral methodologies and incidental teaching techniques to improve social communication.

Training Phases and Process:

PECS progresses through six phases, with each phase increasing in complexity to develop more sophisticated communication skills.

• Phase I: The child is taught to exchange a picture for an item they desire. For example, if a child reaches for an item, the trainer places a picture of that item in the child’s hand, guiding them to hand it to the trainer in exchange for the item.

• Later Phases: As the child advances, they are guided to engage in more spontaneous communication, use sentence strings, and broaden their communicative repertoire.

Research and Effectiveness:

PECS has shown significant effectiveness in enhancing communication skills. According to Bondy and Frost (1994), 76% of 66 children without functional speech developed speech or used a combination of speech and the PECS system. The program also led to notable behavioral improvements.

In studies like Ganz and Simpson (2004), children with developmental disabilities (including autism) showed rapid progress, acquiring new words and communication skills. Yoder and Stone’s (2006) comparison of PECS with Responsive Education and Prelinguistic Milieu Teaching (RPMT) showed that children using PECS made more significant progress in communication.

Research Support and Limitations:

A review by Sulzer-Azaroff et al. (2009) analyzed 34 peer-reviewed studies and found that PECS is an effective tool for teaching functional communication. It was shown to be as effective or superior to other methods and supported speech development in some cases. However, Flippen et al. (2010) noted limited evidence of PECS significantly increasing speech in children.

While PECS has limitations, such as a limited range of communicative functions and the issue of portability with pictures, it remains an effective tool for enhancing communication, especially in helping children initiate and engage in social exchanges.

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Auditory integration training (AIT), developed by Guy Berard, is an experimental approach designed to address auditory processing issues in children with autism. The method involves listening to electronically modified music for 10 hours over 10 days, with the goal of improving language and communication. While early studies (e.g., Rimland & Edelson, 1992) suggested that AIT might reduce auditory problems and improve behavior, later research (Bettison, 1996; Mudford et al., 2000; Zollweg et al., 1997) did not support these claims. Due to inconsistent findings, AIT remains controversial, with experts recommending caution in its use.

Resources for Further Information:

1. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) – Position statements on AIT and auditory processing disorders.

https://www.asha.org/policy/tr2004-00260/?srsltid=AfmBOoqcKSYM1n4M1FtKzr2n98VLrOE1JqwTnm40KUsbJoPTrhrFy8R8

2. National Autism Center – Provides evaluations of various autism interventions, including AIT.

https://nationalautismcenter.org/autism/autism-interventions/

3. The Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders – Peer-reviewed studies on interventions for autism, including AIT

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11638897/

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This technical report was prepared by the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) Working Group on Auditory Integration Training and was adopted by the ASHA Executive Board in March 2003.

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Kuder in Teaching Students with Language and Communication Disabilities states that children with sensory disabilities, including hearing impairments and visual impairments, present significant challenges for education professionals. Sensory disabilities can have an impact on a number of areas of functioning, including language and communication. For children with hearing impairments, the problems are apparent. However, individuals with vision disabilities frequently have difficulties with language and communication that may limit their ability to fully participate in school and society. This chapter examines the impact of sensory impairments on language and cognitive development and on academic and social performance. The chapter also includes instructional methods that have been used effectively with children with sensory and motor impairments.

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Introduction

Students with sensory disabilities such as those who are blind, visually impaired, deaf, or hearing impaired often bring auxiliary aids and adaptive equipment to the classroom (e.g., dog, cane, interpreter, Type-N-Speak). These aids assist in gaining access to the classroom; however, they do not ensure access. The classroom instructor is responsible for considering the needs of every student when teaching. For example, your instruction, including lectures, website, videos, overheads, handouts, and textbook must be accessible to all students.

If you would like verification that a student has a disability, ask the student to provide you with a letter from Student Life Disability Services (SLDS). SLDS produces these letters only for students who are registered with this office and for whom documentation of the disability is on file. SLDS can also send you this letter directly.

Blind or Visually Impaired

Description

Students with visual impairments are constantly challenged by classroom instructional strategies. Although they can easily hear lectures and discussions, it can be difficult for them to access class syllabi, textbooks, overhead projector transparences, PowerPoint presentations, the chalkboard, maps, videos, written exams, demonstrations, library materials, and films. A large part of traditional learning is visual; fortunately, many students with visual disabilities have developed strategies to learn.

Students who are blind or visually impaired vary considerably. For example, some have no vision; others are able to see large forms; others can see print if magnified; and still others have tunnel vision with no peripheral vision or the reverse. Furthermore, some students with visual impairments use Braille, and some have little or no knowledge of Braille. They use a variety of accommodations, equipment, and compensatory strategies based upon their widely varying needs. Many make use of adaptive technology, especially print to voice conversion using a scanner and voice production software. Textbooks are often converted and stored as digital files for later use. Others use recorded textbooks or equipment to enlarge print (closed circuit television [CCTV]) or actual enlargements.

Guidelines

Preferential Seating: Students with visual impairments may need preferential seating since they depend upon listening. Since they may want the same anonymity as other students, it is important that you avoid pointing out the student or the alternative arrangements to others in the class.

Exam Accommodations: Exam accommodations, which may include adaptive technology, a reader/scribe and extra time, a computer, closed circuit TV (CCTV), Braille, enlargements, tapes, and/or image enhanced materials, may be needed. Coordinate these arrangements with Student Life Disability Services (SLDS).

Arranging for Accommodations: A meeting with the student is essential to facilitate the arrangements of accommodations and auxiliary aids which may include, in addition to exam accommodations, access to class notes and/or the taping of lectures; print material in alternative format; a script with verbal descriptions of videos or slides, charts, and graphs, or other such visual depictions converted to tactile representations.

Orientation to Classroom: You may also ask the student if he/she would like an orientation to the physical layout of the room with locations of steps, furniture, lecture position, low-hanging objects or any other obstacles.

Use of Language: Although it is unnecessary to rewrite the entire course, you can help a visually impaired student by avoiding phrases such as "Look at this" and "Examine that" while pointing to an overhead projection. Use descriptive language. Repeat aloud what is written on an overhead or chalkboard.

Lab Assistance: These students may need a lab assistant or lab partner in lab classes. Assist the student in finding an assistant.

Print Material in Alternative Format: Have copies of the syllabus and reading assignments ready three to five weeks prior to the beginning of classes. Students with visual impairments will likely need all print material in alternative format which means that they need print material converted to audio files, scanned onto disks, Braille, enlarged or image enhanced. Conversion of materials takes time. It is important that they have access to class materials at the same time as others in your class. Coordinate alternative format with SLDS.

Guide Dogs: Keep in mind that guide dogs are working animals. They must be allowed in all classes. Do not feed or pet a guide dog. Since they are working, they should not be distracted.

Deaf or Hard of Hearing

Description

Individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing rely upon visual input rather than auditory input when communicating. Using visual aspects of communication (body language, gestures, and facial expression) often feels awkward to people who are accustomed to the auditory; however, it is essential that faculty learn to effectively communicate with students who are deaf or hard of hearing.

Students who are deaf or hard of hearing do not all have the same characteristics. Some have a measure of usable residual hearing and use a device to amplify sounds (FM system). Some choose to speak, while others use very little or no oral communication. Some students are extremely adept at speech reading, while others have very limited ability to "read lips." For some, sign language and/or finger spelling are the preferred means of communication, while other communication choices include gestures and writing. Most students who are deaf or hard of hearing have experience communicating with the hearing population. Let them be the guide on how best to communicate.

Guidelines

Gaining Attention: Make sure you have a deaf student's attention before speaking. A light touch on the shoulder, a wave, or other visual signal will help.

Preferential Seating: Offer the student preferential seating near the front of the classroom so that he/she can get as much from visual and auditory clues as possible or clearly see a sign language interpreter if one is used.

Effective Communication: Don't talk with your back to the class (for example, when writing on the chalkboard). It destroys any chance of the student getting facial or speech reading cues. Your face and mouth need to be clearly visible at all times. Avoid sitting with your back to a window, chewing gum, biting on a pencil, or other similar obstructions.

Videos and Slides: Provide videos and slides with captioning. If captioning is not available, supply an outline or summary of the materials covered. If an interpreter is in the classroom, make sure that he/she is visible.

Class Discussion: When students make comments in class or ask questions, repeat the questions before answering, or phrase your answers in such a way that the questions are obvious.

Class Notes: Students may need your assistance in getting class notes. When a student is using a sign language interpreter or captioning or lip-reading, it is difficult to take good notes simultaneously.

Sign Language or Captioning Services: When a student uses a sign language interpreter, discuss with both the student and interpreter(s) where the interpreter(s) should be located to provide the greatest benefit for the student without distracting other class members. When a student uses a captioning service, discuss with the student and captioner the appropriate location.

Role of the Interpreter: The interpreter is in the classroom only to facilitate communication. He/she should not be asked to run errands, proctor exams or discuss the student's personal issues. He/she should not participate in the class in any way or express personal opinions.

Interpreter Classroom Etiquette: The interpreter is in the classroom to facilitate communication for both the student and the instructor. Speak directly to the student, even though it may be the interpreter who clarifies information for you. Likewise, the interpreter may request clarification from you to insure accuracy of the information conveyed.

English as a Second Language: For many deaf students, English is a second language. When grading written assignments and/or essay tests, look for accurate and comprehensive content rather than writing style. Students should be encouraged to go to the Writing Center or call 614-688-4291 for assistance if necessary.

Considerations for Teaching All Students with Disabilities

Universal Design for Learning: "Universal design is an approach to designing course instruction, materials, and content to benefit people of all learning styles without adaptation or retrofitting." Visit the SLDS Universal Design page for more information. By incorporating Universal Design principles in instruction that allow students with disabilities access to the classroom, you may also be designing instruction that works better for everyone in the class. Classes designed with this concept in mind offer a variety of methods of content presentation, flexible teaching strategies, and options for demonstrating mastery of course content.

Expectations: Although many students with disabilities need accommodations, expect these students to perform at a level commensurate with their peers. Do not have a special grading scale or other criteria for them.

Collaboration: Don't hesitate to call SLDS to arrange for a three-way meeting between you, the student's assigned disability counselor, and the student to work out any issues and to collaborate on the best instructional strategies for the student. Visit the Quick Reference Guides for Faculty page for more information.

Guided Notes on the Web: Providing students with guided notes that they can access through the Web prior to class assists them with focusing on the appropriate material. It will help them to learn more effectively in the classroom as well as take better notes. Visit the Intervention Center's Guided Notes page for more information.

Web-Enhanced Learning: If classroom materials are available on the Web, check with the Digital Accessibility Center (DAC) to ensure that the web format is compatible with adaptive technology. Visit the Digital Accessibility Center site for more information.

Comprehensive Syllabus: A comprehensive syllabus with clearly delineated statements about expectation is helpful to students who need help with structure and organization. View the recommended accommodations syllabus statement from SLDS.

Inappropriate Behavior: Students with disabilities are subject to the same code of conduct required of any student at Ohio State. If there are incidences of inappropriate behavior, meet privately to discuss issues of behavior and encourage students to seek help. Give concise and honest feedback about behaviors that are inappropriate. If there are situations involving threats or abusive behavior, call the University Police. If the student is so disruptive that he/she prevents you from effectively teaching your class, call Student Judicial Affairs.

You are always welcome to consult with SLDS. These situations are not likely to occur, but it is wise to have a plan.

It's your responsibility to support Ohio State's commitment to equal access to education. This information will assist you when you have students with disabilities in your class; staff at Student Life Disability Services are also available to help you. Some key elements are:

* Alternative Format: Many students need print materials in alternative format (scanned to digital files, audio tapes, Braille, or enlarged). Work quickly with SLDS and the student to make sure students get materials converted in a timely fashion.

* Verification of a Disability: If you would like verification that a student has a disability, ask the student to provide you with a letter. SLDS produces these letters only for students who are registered with this office and for whom documentation of the disability is on file.

* Class Notes: Some students with disabilities have difficulty taking notes. They may need your assistance in getting a volunteer note taker, or you may provide them a copy of your notes and/or copies of overheads and other class materials.

* Proctor Sheets: A student with a disability may ask you to complete a proctor sheet, a form that facilitates the administration of your tests with accommodations at SLDS. It is essential for you to fill the form out completely and quickly so that arrangements can be made for exam accommodations.

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Teaching Students with Sensory Impairments

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Students with sensory disabilities such as those who are blind, visually impaired, deaf, or hearing impaired often bring auxiliary aids and adaptive equipment to the classroom (e.g., dog, cane, interpreter, Type-N-Speak). These aids assist in gaining access to the classroom; however, they do not ensure access.

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What to know when teaching students with sensory disabilities…

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Research indicates that students who are deaf or hearing impaired often experience significant challenges in reading achievement, which can impact their academic performance and long-term success. According to Kuder (2020), the average high school graduate who is deaf reads at a level comparable to an 8- to 9-year-old hearing student, with approximately 30% leaving school functionally illiterate (Paul, 1998; Traxler, 2000). National assessment data further suggest that students with hearing impairments tend to fall further behind their hearing peers in reading comprehension as they progress through school, widening the achievement gap over time (Qi & Mitchell, 2012). While this trend does not apply to every deaf individual, it highlights the widespread literacy deficiencies among this population, which can limit career opportunities and overall quality of life.

Several factors contribute to the reading difficulties experienced by students with hearing impairments. Kuder (2020) explains that one of the primary challenges is obstructed access to the phonological code, as children who are deaf typically develop phonological skills more slowly than their hearing counterparts. This can hinder their ability to use phonics-based decoding strategies, which are crucial for reading fluency and comprehension (Sterne & Goswami, 2000). Additionally, many students with hearing impairments enter formal schooling with limited English fluency, making them similar to second-language learners who must simultaneously acquire both spoken language and literacy skills. These students also tend to have reduced exposure to print and books in early childhood, as their parents may read to them less frequently or interact differently with texts than parents of hearing children (Paul, 1998; Aram, Most, & Mayafit, 2006). Research further suggests that vocabulary acquisition is slower in children with hearing impairments, resulting in smaller lexicons and difficulties with word recognition, syntax, and morphology—fundamental components of reading comprehension (Lederberg & Spencer, 2001; Gibbs, 2004). Deficits in cognitive and metacognitive skills, including prior knowledge activation, memory, attention, and comprehension monitoring, have also been linked to reading struggles among this population (Marschark et al., 2009; Daza, Phillips-Silver, Ruiz-Cuadra, & Lopez-Lopez, 2014).

In addressing these challenges, various instructional approaches have been proposed to support literacy development in students who are deaf or hearing impaired. Kuder (2020) describes a balanced literacy approach, which integrates phonics-based instruction with whole-word reading, as one potential method, although research on its effectiveness for deaf students remains inconclusive (Marschark et al., 2002). Since phonological awareness and vocabulary development are critical areas of difficulty, educators may benefit from implementing visual-based phonological instruction methods such as Cued Speech and Visual Phonics, which provide visual representations of speech sounds to aid in reading development (Wang, Trezek, Luckner, & Paul, 2008). Additionally, increasing students’ exposure to literacy experiences—such as shared book reading, writing activities, and explicit English language instruction—may help mitigate some of the disadvantages faced by this population (Luckner, Sebald, Cooney, Young III, & Muir, 2005/2006). One intervention that has demonstrated success in improving literacy outcomes for deaf students is the Reading Recovery program, a one-on-one tutoring approach designed to accelerate the progress of struggling readers. A study involving first-grade students with severe and profound hearing impairments found that participation in Reading Recovery led to significant reading improvements, with several students achieving grade-level proficiency by the end of the intervention (Charlesworth, Charlesworth, Raban, & Rickards, 2005). Although long-term effects of this program remain uncertain, it represents a promising option for supporting early literacy development in children with significant hearing loss.

Ultimately, while students with sensory disabilities face distinct obstacles in literacy acquisition, research suggests that targeted interventions focusing on phonological awareness, vocabulary growth, and individualized instruction can lead to meaningful improvements in reading outcomes. As educators continue to explore effective strategies, a combination of evidence-based practices and early intervention will be essential in promoting literacy success for students who are deaf or hearing impaired (Kuder, 2020).

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According to Deafness Forum Australia, approximately one in six Australians has a significant hearing loss. Within this population, most individuals have some level of hearing impairment and only a small proportion of the group is deaf. Types of hearing loss include sensorineural (nerve-related), conductive (affecting the outer or middle ear) or a mixed hearing loss (mixture of both types.) People who use Australian Sign Language (Auslan) often prefer to be referred to as deaf rather than hard of hearing. They see this as a positive identity rather than a negative label.

People who have a hearing loss are either pre-lingually deafened or post-lingually deafened. People who are pre-lingually deafened have lost their hearing before they acquired language. People who are post-lingually deafened acquired their hearing loss after they acquired language. For each group the impact of the hearing loss and the degree of deafness will vary.

Some people who are pre-lingually deafened use Auslan. Many received cochlear implants early at birth. Some rely on spoken language. Many communicate with a combination of spoken language and sign language. Some have normal language and literacy development. Some may have issues with literacy. It varies greatly, so it is important to understand the needs of each individual. All these factors need to be considered when assessing the types of reasonable adjustments.

People who have a post-lingual hearing loss generally acquired their hearing loss later in life. They may or may not benefit from listening devices. Some may learn sign language as a means to diversify access to communication. As with people who are pre-lingually deafened, it is important to assess the needs of each individual before implementing any reasonable adjustments. This is because the requirements of each individual can be diverse.

Students with a hearing loss may require accommodations and assistive devices to have the best access to education. Accommodations may be as simple as preferential seating or as complex as wireless assistive listening devices in the classroom. Some will require Auslan interpreters and live remote captioning. Each learner with a hearing loss should be assessed individually and accommodations should be implemented based on the unique needs of each student.

Impact of Hearing Loss

The learning processes of students with a hearing loss may be affected in the following ways:

Students who have been deafened in early childhood can be very different to students who have lost hearing later in life in terms of educational disadvantage. For example, their range of vocabulary may be limited, which in turn may affect their level of English literacy.

Deaf and hard of hearing students can sometimes prefer visual learning strategies. This can be a challenge in an environment where much essential information is delivered exclusively by word of mouth.

Students with a hearing loss may need to use assistive technology to participate in class. This assistive technology can be the laptop where software such as Skype can be used to deliver Auslan interpreters or captioning. For some it will be in the form of listening devices. For others it will be a combination of technology that includes both listening devices and computer based software.

The impact of hearing loss can cause delays in receiving learning material. Students who need information transcribed from tape must sometimes wait for a significant period of time for this to happen. This needs to be considered in terms of developing suitable timelines for the completion of work for each student.

Students with hearing loss may appear isolated in the learning environment. The possibility for social contact and interaction with other students is often limited, and this isolation or separateness may have an impact on learning.

Participation and interaction in tutorials may be limited. Students who cannot hear the flow and nuances of rapid verbal exchange will be at a disadvantage.

Some students with hearing loss coming straight from the school system have been familiar with a structured learning environment, and may require a period of adjustment when entering into the post-secondary learning environment. Communication difficulties and adjustments may lead to a level of anxiety about performing in front of others. This may affect participation in tutorials, particularly for students whose speech development has been impacted by their hearing loss.

Teaching Strategies

There is a range of inclusive teaching strategies that can assist all students to learn but there are some specific strategies that are useful in teaching a group that includes students with a hearing impairment:

Encourage students with a hearing loss to seat themselves toward the front of the lecture theatre where they will have an unobstructed line of vision. This is particularly important if the student is using an interpreter, lip-reading, relying on visual clues or using a hearing aid which has a limited range. Be aware that some students may not be comfortable with this suggestion or have alternate strategies. Respect their choices.

Use assistive listening devices such as induction loops if these are available in the lecture theatre. Hearing aids may include transmitter/receiver systems with a clip-on microphone for the lecturer. If using such a microphone, it is not necessary to change your speaking or teaching style.

Ensure that any background noise is minimised.

Repeat clearly any questions asked by students in the lecture or class before giving a response.

Do not speak when facing the blackboard. Be aware that moustaches, beards, hands, books or microphones in front of your face can add to the difficulties of lip-readers. Students who lip-read cannot function in darkened rooms. You may need to adjust the lighting in your teaching environment. If a sign interpreter is employed, follow the hints for working with a sign interpreter.

It is difficult for a student watching an interpreter to also take notes from an overhead or blackboard. An interpreter is unable to translate concurrently both your words and any information given on an overhead. It is important therefore that all information should also be available as handouts.

Provide written materials to supplement all lectures, tutorials and laboratory sessions. Announcements made regarding class times, activities, field work, industry visits etc, should be given in writing as well as verbally.

Allow students to record lectures or, preferably, make available copies of your lecture notes. Flexible delivery of teaching materials via electronic media is also particularly helpful for students who have difficulty accessing information in the usual ways. For students with a hearing loss, new technology - and the internet in particular - can be used to bridge many gaps.

Ensure that lists of the subject-specific jargon and technical terms which students will need to acquire are made available early in the course. If interpreters or captioning are being used as an adjustment, make this list available to the professionals providing the service as early as possible.

Any videos or films used should, where possible, be captioned. When this is not possible, you will need to consider alternative ways for students with hearing impairment to access the information.

In tutorials, assist students who lip-read by having the student sit directly opposite you and ensure, if possible, that they can see all other participants. Control the discussion so that only one person is speaking at a time.

Students with hearing loss, especially those with associated speech issues, may prefer to have another student present their tutorial papers.

Language abilities are often affected by hearing loss, depending on the age of onset. Students who acquired their hearing loss early in life may have literacy issues. In some cases, providing reading lists well before the start of a course for students with a hearing loss can be beneficial. Consider tailoring these reading lists when necessary, and provide guidance to key texts.

Allow assignments or reviews to be completed on an in-depth study of a few texts rather than a broad study of many.

Using Auslan interpreters and live remote captioning may require some adjustments in teaching styles, particularly the pace of the learning. Consult with the providers of the service early to identify any potential changes.

Where live remote captioning is provided, a transcript of the session can usually be assessed within 24 hours. It is recommended that these be emailed directly to the student as an accurate record of reference.

Assessment Strategies

Always consider alternative forms of assessment where necessary. Standards are not expected to be lowered to accommodate students with a disability but rather are required to give them a reasonable opportunity to demonstrate what they have learnt. Once you have a clear picture of how the disability impacts on learning, you can consider alternative assessment strategies:

When their range of literacy is an issue, students may require the use of a thesaurus or dictionary during exams. A personal computer with spelling and grammar functions may be required.

Provide alternatives to those assignments which are based on interviews or questionnaires, and be flexible with assignment deadlines, particularly if students have had to wait for transcripts of learning sessions.

Provide extra time in examinations, particularly extra time for reading questions. Some students will prefer to have questions and instructions 'signed' to them.

Related Resources

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Inclusive Teaching: Deaf and Hard of Hearing

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Inclusive teaching practices for Deaf an hard of hearing students.

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The writing abilities of students who are deaf or hearing impaired present significant challenges, as research consistently indicates that their written language skills are less developed compared to their hearing peers (Albertini & Schley, 2011; Williams & Mayer, 2015). Their writing is typically shorter, less complex, and contains more grammatical errors, including incorrect word order, unnecessary words, and missing essential words (Quigley & Paul, 1990). Marschark et al. (2002) further highlight that students who are deaf struggle with sentence complexity and cohesion in writing.

A study by Everhart and Marschark (1988) found that when children who were deaf, between the ages of 8 and 15, were asked to write a story about being picked up by a UFO, their responses were shorter, used simpler sentences, and lacked descriptive elements compared to their hearing peers. Interestingly, when telling the same story through sign language, the children demonstrated more sophisticated and imaginative ideas, suggesting that their cognitive abilities exceeded their written language skills.

The academic achievement of students who are deaf can be interpreted in two ways. A pessimistic view acknowledges that, despite significant efforts, their reading and writing skills remain behind those of their hearing peers, and the gap tends to widen over time. However, an optimistic perspective suggests that these deficiencies can be addressed through early intervention, consistent language exposure, and appropriate educational programs (Kuder, 2020, p. 176). These findings emphasize the importance of tailored literacy instruction and support systems to help students who are deaf develop stronger written communication skills.

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One of the most significant technological advancements for students with hearing impairments is the development of amplification devices and cochlear implants. Amplification devices, such as behind-the-ear hearing aids and FM radio hearing aids, work by amplifying sound and can be customized to match an individual’s hearing loss. However, challenges exist, including the need for frequent resizing for children as they grow and the high cost of digital hearing aids, which may not be accessible to all students (Kuder, 2020).

Cochlear implants, unlike hearing aids, are surgically implanted devices that directly stimulate the auditory nerve, allowing individuals to perceive sound. Research has shown that early implantation can significantly improve language and literacy development in children. However, cochlear implants require extensive post-surgical speech and language training, and their use remains a controversial topic within the deaf community. Some argue that implants reinforce the idea that deafness is a condition that needs to be “fixed,” which can create identity struggles for children growing up between the deaf and hearing worlds (Kuder, 2020).

Educators play a critical role in supporting students who use these technologies. Teachers should ensure that hearing aids are functioning correctly, provide accessible learning environments, and offer research-based guidance to families considering cochlear implants. By understanding both the benefits and limitations of these technologies, educators can help create an inclusive and supportive educational experience for students with hearing impairments (Kuder, 2020).

Other resource to learn more about it:

https://www.infanthearing.org/ehdi-ebook/2018_ebook/8%20Chapter8Amplificiation2018.pdf

https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/cochlear-implants/about/pac-20385021

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Neuromotor Disabilities and Traumatic Brain Injuries

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Neuromotor Disabilities and Traumatic Brain Injuries

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Children with neuromotor disabilities and brain injury have disabilities that are the result of developmental neurological disorders or traumatic brain injury. In most cases, their physical disability is the primary difficulty they face. However, many individuals with neuromotor disorders and traumatic brain injury have speech and/ or language difficulties as well. (Kuder, 2020)

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What is traumatic brain injury (TBI)?

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) happens when a sudden violent event damages the brain. It's a common cause of disability and death in adults. Almost half of TBIs are from falls. Other common causes of TBI are motor vehicle accidents, violence, and sports. The damage may be just in 1 area of the brain. Or it may be in more parts of the brain. The severity of a brain injury can vary. It may be a mild concussion. Or it may be a severe injury that results in coma or death.

What are types of TBI?

TBI includes a variety of types of injuries to the brain.

A TBI may be either of these:

Closed brain injury. This is when there is an injury to the brain but no break in the skull. It is caused by a fast forward or backward movement and shaking of the brain inside the hard skull. It can result in bruising or tearing of brain tissue and blood vessels. Closed brain injuries are usually caused by car accidents, falls, and in sports. Brain injury in babies can be caused by a form of child abuse where a baby is shaken hard. It is known as abusive head trauma. It is also called shaken baby syndrome.

Penetrating brain injury. This injury is when there is a break in the skull. An object such as a sharp tool or a bullet pierces the brain.

And it may be either of these:

Primary brain injury. This is when injury to the brain is complete at the time of impact. This happens at the time of the motor vehicle accident (MVA), gunshot wound, or fall.

Secondary brain injury. This is when changes happen hours or days after the primary brain injury. There are a series of tissue changes in the brain. These cause more damage.

What is diffuse axonal injury (DAI)?

The brain has long connected nerve fibers called axons. Diffuse axonal injury is the tearing of these nerve fibers. This can happen when the brain suddenly shifts inside the hard skull. It can cause a minor concussion. Or it can cause a mild to severe coma if many parts of the brain are affected. The changes in the brain are often so small they may not be seen on a CT or MRI scan.

What are the symptoms of TBI?

Some brain injuries are mild. Symptoms go away over time with proper care. Others are more severe. These may cause permanent disability. The long-term results of brain injury may need lifelong care. Symptoms of brain injury may include the below.

Changes in hearing, vision, taste, smell, and touch

Loss of feeling or more feeling in body parts

Left- or right-side neglect

Trouble understanding where limbs are in relation to the body

Vision problems

Problems with daily life

Trouble knowing how to do some common actions, like brushing your teeth (apraxia)

Trouble with dressing, bathing, and eating

Problems with organization, shopping, or paying bills

Can't drive a car or operate machinery

Problems with social contact

Trouble with social skills and relationships

Trouble making and keeping friends

Trouble understanding and responding to social interaction

Can the brain heal after TBI?

Most studies suggest that once brain cells are damaged, they don't regrow. But recovery after brain injury can take place. In some cases, other areas of the brain make up for the injured tissue. In other cases, the brain learns to reroute function around the damaged areas. Healthcare providers can't predict the amount of recovery at the time of injury. It may be unknown for months or even years. The rate of recovery varies. It depends on the amount of inflammation and damage. Recovery from a severe brain injury often takes long-term treatment and rehab. (See below.)

What is coma?

Coma is when a person is not awake or aware for a period of time. A person may move around or respond to pain. Or they may not move or respond at all. Not all people with brain injury are in a coma. The type and length of a coma vary a lot. It depends on where and how severe the brain injury is. Some people come out of coma and have a good recovery. Others have problems that cause ongoing issues with daily life.

TBI rehabilitation (rehab)

Rehab after a TBI starts soon after the injury. The success of rehab depends on many things, such as:

Rehab helps to improve the person's abilities at home and in the community. The goal of brain injury rehab is to help the person get to the highest level of function and independence. And rehab programs work to help the overall quality of life.

Types of brain injury rehab programs include:

The TBI rehab team

The brain injury rehab team helps the injured person and their family. They help set goals for recovery. The team may include any of these:
Online Medical Reviewers:

Joseph Campellone MD

Melinda Murray Ratini DO

Raymond Kent Turley BSN MSN RN

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Traumatic Brain Injury - Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics - Golisano Children’s Hospital - University of Rochester Medical Center

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Traumatic brain injury (TBI) happens when a sudden violent event damages the brain. It’s a common cause of disability and death in adults. Almost half of TBIs are from falls. Other common causes of TBI are motor vehicle accidents, violence, and sports. The damage may be just in 1 area of the brain. Or it may be in more parts of the brain. The severity of a brain injury can vary. It may be a mild concussion. Or it may be a severe injury that results in coma or death.

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Interventions/Implications when teaching students with Neuromotor Disabilities or Students with Traumatic Brain Injuries

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Interventions/Implications when teaching students with Neuromotor Disabilities or Students with Traumatic Brain Injuries

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Implications for intervention (Students with Neuromotor Disabilities)

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Implications for intervention (Students with Neuromotor Disabilities)

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Intervention for children with motor disorders, such as those with cerebral palsy, has traditionally focused on speech therapy, particularly on developing the muscles needed for swallowing, vocal production, and articulation. However, while speech therapy remains a crucial component of support, it can often be slow to produce results and may be frustrating for both the child and the therapist. Therefore, intervention should extend beyond speech therapy to incorporate a range of communicative and literacy-based activities.

For children with neuromotor disorders, engaging in literacy-based activities can offer significant benefits. These activities might include listening to stories, watching videos, or using computer word-processing programs designed for minimal motor movement. These tools can help children communicate more effectively and express themselves despite physical limitations. Additionally, it is essential to create an environment that fosters interaction by ensuring that children have plenty of opportunities to engage with others. Teachers play a key role by encouraging communication, setting up appropriate positioning, and participating in communicative exchanges themselves (Kuder, 2020).

By broadening the scope of intervention to include these activities, educators can help children with neuromotor disorders enhance both their communication skills and their overall literacy development, providing them with more opportunities to connect and participate meaningfully in their education.

https://statelibrary.ncdcr.gov/teaching-strategies-motor-impairments/download?attachment

https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/jengle/chapter/introduction-to-neuromotor-disorders-2/

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Mayci Hogg in Speech therapy at Wisconsin Hyperbaric Center

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Intervention of Traumatic Brain Injuries

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Intervention of Traumatic Brain Injuries

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In chapter 12 of the book Teaching Students with Language and Communication Disabilities we can learn that prevention remains the most effective strategy for head injury. Actions such as wearing seat belts, using bicycle helmets, and appropriate sports gear, along with efforts to minimize drunk driving and child abuse, can significantly reduce the occurrence of brain injuries. However, despite preventive measures and educational campaigns, the rate of head injuries remains high. Given the increasing trend toward inclusive education, it is likely that teachers will have students with TBI in their classrooms at some point. Returning to school after such an injury is often challenging, both for the student and the teacher. Changes in cognitive abilities, behavior, language, and academic skills—such as reading and writing—can affect the child. Additionally, physical issues like headaches and trouble staying alert may arise (Harrington, 1990).

Telzrow (1987) proposed 10 key elements for an educational program tailored to children with TBI, including the creation of a controlled environment, ensuring low pupil-teacher ratios with the support of aides, and providing intensive and repetitive instruction to help students learn at their own pace. Teachers should also emphasize the process of learning, focusing on attention and memory development. Behavioral strategies such as task analysis and progress measurement are essential, along with integrated therapies that incorporate speech and physical therapy into the classroom setting. Other interventions may include simulation experiences to help transfer learned skills and the use of cuing, fading, and shadowing to guide the child through new tasks or environments. Additionally, readjustment counseling may support the child’s transition, and building a home-school liaison is crucial to ensure family involvement and support.

Students may also require accommodations, like sitting closer to the teacher or using a peer helper, as well as frequent breaks to prevent fatigue. Technological tools, such as FM wireless communication systems, electronic organizers, or word-processing software, may help these students manage attention difficulties and organizational challenges (Bowen, 2005). For children with language impairments, a variety of services, such as speech therapy, specialized reading and writing programs, or augmentative communication devices, may be necessary. Teachers must adjust their language to the child’s level of comprehension and create interactive opportunities for communication with peers.

Here we can find some other intervention and other resouces:

https://www.brainline.org/article/classroom-interventions-students-traumatic-brain-injuries

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What Schools Need to Know About Children with Brain Injury

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