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Chapter 1: A Twenty-First-Century Definition of Dyslexia

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Chapter 1: A Twenty-First-Century Definition of Dyslexia

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1. Neurobiological: Dyslexia is a brain-based learning disability affecting reading and spelling

2. Phonological Deficit: It’s connected to difficulty with speech sound processing

3. Unexpected Difficulty: Reading struggles don’t match cognitive abilities or instruction

4. Secondary Issues: It can cause comprehension, vocabulary, and knowledge growth

5. Specific Learning Disability: Dyslexia is a type of specific learning disability, and students qualify for special education services

6. Cognitive Strengths: Individuals with dyslexia may have strengths in reasoning, problem solving, and critical thinking

7.  Scientific Understanding: Great progress has been made in understanding dyslexia’s cognitive and neurobiological aspects

8. Early Diagnosis: Early intervention is crucial for success

9. Universal Impact: Dyslexia affects all backgrounds equally

10. Hereditary: It runs in families and often occurs with other conditions

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1. Neurobiological Disorder: Dyslexia is linked to brain patterns affecting phonological and orthographic processing

2. Key Brain Regions: The left temporo-parietal and occipitotemporal regions are connected to dyslexia

3. Brain measurements: Amount of chemicals in certain parts contribute to dyslexia

4. Neural Signatures: High risk children show dyslexia related brain patterns before learning to read

5. Cross Language Consistency: Neural signatures of dyslexia are present across languages and writing systems

6. Reading Intervention: Can alter brain patterns to resemble students who are not dyslexic

7. Prediction: Neural signatures predict reading outcomes for dyslexic students

8. Gifted Students: Gifted students with low reading abilities show brain patterns of dyslexia

9. Misdiagnosis: Gifted students may be misidentified as not having dyslexia

10. Research: Neural signatures are reliable and change with intervention

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Chapter 3: Dyslexia as a Language-Learning Disability 

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Chapter 3: Dyslexia as a Language-Learning Disability 

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Dyslexia is a specific type of language-learning disability that adversely affects an individual's written language skills, particularly reading and written expression. It is characterized by difficulties in word-level reading, including decoding and spelling.

Language Components

The concept of language can be understood through the model provided by Bloom and Lahey, which identifies three major components:

1. Form: This includes phonology (sound system), morphology (structure of words), and syntax (sentence structure).

2. Content: This refers to semantics, which is the meaning of words and sentences.

3. Use: This encompasses pragmatics, which involves the functional and socially appropriate use of language.

Characteristics of Dyslexia

- Phonological Processing Deficits: Most individuals with dyslexia exhibit a core deficit in phonological processing, which includes phonological memory, phonological awareness, and rapid naming.

- Single-Word Decoding Issues: Dyslexia primarily affects the ability to decode words accurately and fluently, which is linked to weaknesses in phonological processing.

- Spelling Difficulties: Spelling is almost always impacted in individuals with dyslexia.

Language Disorders

According to the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, a language disorder is an impairment in the comprehension and/or use of spoken, written, or other symbol systems. Dyslexia is a subset of language disorders that specifically affects reading and writing abilities.

The Simple View of Reading

This model posits that reading comprehension relies on both efficient word recognition and language comprehension. Dyslexia is distinguished from other reading disabilities, such as specific reading comprehension deficits, which involve accurate word identification but poor comprehension.

Phonological Awareness

Phonological awareness is crucial for learning to read and spell. It involves recognizing and manipulating the sound structure of language, which includes:

- Phonemic Awareness: The ability to manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) within words.

- Phonological Memory: The ability to hold phonological information in working memory, which is essential for decoding unfamiliar words.

- Rapid Naming: The ability to quickly name letters, numbers, or objects, which is linked to efficient word identification.

Impact of Speech and Language Deficits

Students with dyslexia may have a history of delayed speech or language development, which can manifest as articulation difficulties or challenges in receptive and expressive language skills. Early oral language problems often lead to later reading and writing difficulties, highlighting the reciprocal relationship between spoken and written language development.

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Chapter 4: Characteristics of Dyslexia by Age Group-Strengths and Weakness

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Chapter 4: Characteristics of Dyslexia by Age Group-Strengths and Weakness

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Dyslexia is a complex learning disability that exists on a continuum, ranging from mild to severe. Understanding its characteristics can help in early identification and intervention. Below are key symptoms and indicators categorized by age group.

Key Characteristics of Dyslexia

1. Inability to Sound Out New Words: Individuals often struggle to decode unfamiliar words, which can be assessed using nonwords. Letter-sound knowledge is a precursor to this skill and can be evaluated as early as age three.

2. Limited Sight-Word Vocabulary: Difficulty in automatically recognizing common words can hinder reading fluency and comprehension. Letter-name knowledge can also be assessed early.

3. Listening Comprehension Exceeds Reading Comprehension: Many individuals find it easier to understand spoken material than written text. This discrepancy can indicate the severity of decoding issues.

4. Inadequate Response to Effective Instruction: Poor reading may not solely be due to a lack of instruction; it’s essential to document responses to effective teaching strategies.

Signs of Dyslexia by Age Group

Preschool-Age Children

- Delay in speech or unclear articulation

- Difficulty recognizing their name in print

- Challenges with nursery rhymes and rhyming patterns

- Lack of interest in books

- Trouble understanding directionality in reading

Kindergarten Through First Grade

- Inability to create rhymes or manipulate sounds in words

- Difficulty separating compound words and individual sounds

- Confusion over letters and sounds

- Reluctance to read and reliance on pictures for comprehension

Second Grade Through Third Grade

- Omission of grammatical endings in reading and writing

- Avoidance of reading aloud

- Trouble with common high-frequency words and spelling

- Frequent reading errors and reliance on context for guessing

Fourth Grade Through Eighth Grade

- History of poor reading skills and error patterns

- Difficulty with multisyllabic words and reading comprehension

- Struggles with vocabulary and spelling

- Avoidance of reading for pleasure and challenges with written tasks

High School Through College

- Persistent reading and spelling difficulties

- Slow reading pace and avoidance of reading aloud

- Difficulty with notetaking and imprecise language in speech

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Chapter 9: Students with Emotional or Behavioral Needs

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Chapter 9: Students with Emotional or Behavioral Needs

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1. Emotional Characteristics: There are five emotional disorders that pertain to teachers including anxiety disorder, depression, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and schizophrenia.

2. Behavioral Characteristics: Students with emotional and behavioral disorders either internalize or externalize their behaviors.

3. Intellectual or Academic Characteristics: Most students with EMD have low IQ scores, causing lower grades and even low graduation rates.

4. Biological Causes: Genetics influence a child's temperament.

5. Environmental Causes: Teachers reported they did not feel prepared to teach social skills, develop and implement behavioral interventions, or implement peer-mediated interventions for students with EMD. Families of students with EBD may face educational or financial problems.

6. Evaluating Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders: To determine if a student can be classified with EMD, evaluation is conducting observing the student's inability to learn, inability to build or maintain relationships, inappropriate behavior, unhappiness or depression, and physical symptoms or fears.

7. Including Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders: Students with EDB are at a high risk of not being included in general educational classrooms.

8. Educating Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders: Being mindful is a way to be open to progressing in academics and in extracurricular and other school activities, which is the core of an appropriate education.

9. Mindfulness for Educators and Students: Five types of mindful literacy can be incorporating in education - physical, mental, emotional, social, and global literacy.

10. Teaching Social and Emotional Competence: Skills including self-control, problem solving, play skills, academic success, and self-esteem are taught.

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Chapter 10: Students with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

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Chapter 10: Students with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

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1. Executive Function: Four major executive function deficits include working memory, goal-directed attention and persistence, inhibition, and problem-solving challenges.

2. Intellectual Functioning: Intellectual functioning is not completely disabling, however, it is a factor nonetheless.

3. Academic Achievement: Students with ADHD have lower academic achievement and half of students with ADHD have a learning disability.

4. Behavioral, Emotional, and Social Characteristics: Children with ADHD are 11 times more likely to experience oppositional defiant disorder and/or conduct disorder, have difficulty regulating emotions, and have less close friends plus more rejection.

5. Including Students with ADHD: Students with ADHD make up 2/3 of the students in other health impairments category. The majority of students with ADHD spend their time in general educational classrooms.

6. Educating Students with ADHD: Many students with ADHD have protection via Section 504which supports students that need help in school.

7. Guidelines for Teachers: Allow students time for breaks. useUse color coding for binders and notebooks per subjects. Pair the student with a classmate who is goal-directed. Use timers and provide time for work completion.

8. Medication as Treatment: Over 2/3 of students with ADHD took medication to treat ADHD.

9. Stimulant Medication: Stimulant medication is the most common and most effective. Side effects include lack of appetite, increased fatigue during the day, headaches, and mood/anxiety challenges.

10. Non-stimulant Medication: Non-stimulants may be less effective and may take longer to reach maximum benefit.

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Chapter 11: Effective Approaches for Teaching Students with Dyslexia

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Chapter 11: Effective Approaches for Teaching Students with Dyslexia

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Not all students with dyslexia will require special education, educational services will be provided in general education for students with dyslexia who are not in special education.

Evidence Based Instruction:

Activities, strategies, or interventions that have statistically proven effects on improving students performance

Appropriate and intensive strategies can be used in early grades to continue students on the track to success in reading

Teachers who are well-trained in these effective strategies can increase students reading skills

Structured Literacy:

Term for reading instruction identified by International Dyslexia Association.

Simultaneous Multisensory:

Every language task has at least two sensory pathways

Ex: Copying (for writing) - Visual to Kinesthetic-Motor

Simultaneous Multisensory strategies strengthen connections and memory

Direct and Explicit:

All concepts in structured literacy are taught directly with constant interactions between students and teacher

Skills are practiced with teacher feedback with the goal of independence

Structured:

Instructions are step-by-step

Teachers must individualize instruction and continue assessments using formal and informal tools

Sequential and Cumulative:

Concepts and Skills are presented in a way that follows logical order of language

Instruction is scaffolded

New concepts taught are always related to past concepts

What is Taught:

Structure of language at all levels

Speech sound system (Phonology)

Writing system (Orthology)

Meaningful parts of words (Morphology)

Sentence structure (Syntax)

Meaning relationships between words, phrases, sentences (Semantics)

Who Can Support Students with Dyslexia:

General education teachers

Credentialed reading specialists

Speech-language pathologists

Special education teachers

Assistive technology specialists with expertise in learning disabilities

Accommodations:

Reducing homework, allowing typewritten or spoken work, extending time to complete assignment

For math, allowing use of a calculator, breaking down steps

Give students access to audiobooks, extra time, allowing student to volunteer to read out loud rather than call on them

Reduce number of words on spelling lists, give access to spell-check, not deducting points for spelling errors

Extra time during testing, allowing oral answers, quiet testing area

For writing, minimize need of copying, offer speech to text software, graphic organizers