# data[].attributes.body
Why is Stockholm Syndrome a coping mechanism?
This defense mechanism is mainly used when someone is unable to escape the situation, rely on others for help, or fight back. Some experts believe it is an adaptive response that helps a victim maintain hope, empathy, and limit the negative psychological effects of the trauma.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
What Is Stockholm Syndrome? Symptoms, Causes And Treatment

# data[].attributes.body
Are there treatment options?
Since it is not a mental disorder, there is no evidence that a specific cure exists for this phenomenon. What is usually done in these cases is to give trauma therapy for a long time, where the person is helped to understand what happened and eventually break the bond created with the aggressor.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What Is Stockholm Syndrome?

"In the simplest terms, Stockholm syndrome refers to the experience of a victim having positive feelings towards their perpetrator," says Melissa Goldberg Mintz, a licensed clinical psychologist in Houston, Texas and author of Has Your Child Been Traumatized?

From a psychological perspective, if you can identify with the person holding you captive or abusing you-so someone whose motives you can relate to, or feel some type of sympathy or compassion towards-it may feel a lot less terrifying than someone who seems truly unredeemable or evil, she explains.

Noel Hunter, a clinical psychologist and director of MindClear Integrative Psychotherapy in New York City, explains that this psychological defense may also allow for survival among some victims who learn to develop a close attachment with their abuser.

"When a caregiver or a person on whom a person relies for food, safety and shelter is also one's abuser, the victim is trapped," says Dr. Hunter. "They can't attack their caregiver or risk pushing them away as they are completely dependent on this person. At the same time, they are being tortured and/or abused."

To justify abuse, Dr. Hunter says the victim may idealize their caregiver and view any inflicted torture as their own fault. "The victim takes on a mindset that is almost symbiotic with the abuser in order to please the caregiver and get in their good graces," explains Dr. Hunter. "They may believe that the more they bond with the abuser, the less likely they are to be abused, and this is often the case."

How Did Stockholm Syndrome Get Its Name?

Stockholm syndrome got its name in 1973, just one year before the Patty Hearst kidnapping, after a botched bank robbery in Stockholm, Sweden led to hostages bonding with their captors.

This response was perplexing, as it seemed the bank employees bonded rather closely with the robbers or, at the very least, trusted them after nearly a week spent together. Since then, Stockholm syndrome is often used to describe situations where victims feel protective of or have some level of affection for their abusers or captors

What Causes Stockholm Syndrome?

The key to the development of Stockholm syndrome is the victim's sense of isolation and the emotional connection that the abuser fosters (intentionally or unintentionally), explains Carla Manly, a clinical psychologist, author and trauma expert in Sonoma County, California. "A perceived or actual unavailability of outside support is also critical to the development of Stockholm syndrome," says Dr. Manly.

A 2018 study analyzing personal interviews with female sex workers across India notes four main criteria for Stockholm syndrome, including:

Perceived threat to survival

Showing of kindness from a captor

Isolation from other perspectives

Perceived inability to escape

"As with any form of trauma, some individuals are more at risk than others simply due to factors such as personality, mental health issues and perceived impact of the traumatic event," adds Dr. Manly.

Despite what it may look like to those outside the situation, she also says those affected by Stockholm syndrome are not "weaker" than those who don't develop it. "It's simply that a confluence of factors made them more susceptible to this syndrome," she explains.

Some elements that can contribute to Stockholm syndrome, according to Dr. Manly, include:

Personality

Genetics

Mental health history

Situational factors of the crime

Dr. Hunter points out that causes of Stockholm syndrome essentially depend upon an abuser and being or feeling trapped by the situation. "Everyone has different temperaments-mitigating factors like other supportive authority figures and past experiences contribute to their overall sense of power and confidence (though this can be broken down over time)," she says.

FEATURED PARTNER OFFER

Risk Factors of Stockholm Syndrome

Not every victim will develop Stockholm syndrome as a coping strategy.

Some factors that might influence why it happens in some situations and not others, according to Dr. Goldberg Mintz, include:

The duration of captivity

The amount of interaction with the perpetrator

Coping styles of the victim

Beyond that, Stockholm syndrome is not exclusive to kidnappings-it can also be a coping mechanism or emotional response for those in abusive situations, whether domestic abuse, child abuse or human trafficking. It can also be related to abusive work situations or even certain coach-athlete dynamics.

This mindset can happen in any situation where "a person who is in a position of authority or power over another and in which the victim feels trapped and dependent upon their abuser," says Dr. Hunter.

Here are some specific situations where Stockholm syndrome may develop.

Child abuse: "It can be hard for a child-especially a young one-to see their parent in a negative light, even if their parent is hurting them," says Dr. Goldberg Mintz. Looking at child sexual abuse, one older study from 2005 suggests that although not all victims of child sexual abuse will become victims of Stockholm syndrome, it can often occur, especially if they experience ongoing abuse. The study also suggests that an unexplainable bond between the victim and abuser can continue into adulthood.

Relationships at home: While this can be a situation where a victim is physically abused by someone in their life, there are other forms of abuse where this dynamic can happen. "This could look like one partner berating another for eating habits, or even restricting their food intake," says Dr. Goldberg Mintz. "While many people would push back against this type of behavior, or at least have some negative feelings about it-particularly if they do not have any history around eating issues-Stockholm syndrome dynamics might look like feeling grateful that their partner cares so much about their health, or turning around and reprimanding a friend who expresses concern over how they are treated in their relationship."

Relationships at work: "For many people, our identities and self-worth can be wrapped up in our jobs," says Dr. Goldberg Mintz. "So, we can be vulnerable to these sorts of dynamics in the workplace." For example, this could look like a boss or employer who doesn't respect your boundaries. "Consider a boss sending an employee a ton of work while they are out on a sick day, and an employee who is understanding or even feels good about this, theorizing their boss simply relies on them and values them so much," she says. "Workplace cultures that prioritize productivity over well-being might be especially vulnerable to this dynamic."

Coach-athlete relationships: In the case of an abusive athletic coach, Dr. Goldberg Mintz explains "eager players might reframe emotional abuse as 'passion' or belief in the players' intrinsic abilities, rather than seeing it as something harmful." When this type of abuse gets tied to successful results (i.e., winning a game), Dr. Goldberg Mintz says it can be even easier to justify. One 2018 study supports this theory, suggesting that when young athletes justify the behavior of their abusive coaches, a mindset to defend or sympathize with them may develop, which can be indicators of Stockholm syndrome.

Sex trafficking: In situations where victims need their abuser for means of basic survival (food, water, shelter, etc.), like in sex or human trafficking, a victim may exhibit the main criteria for Stockholm syndrome. This emotional development is sometimes called trauma bonding. A 2021 review looking at trauma bonds in sex trafficking situations, particularly ones with an imbalance of power that favors the trafficker, found an urgent need for professionals to develop interventions for trauma bonding in trafficking and post-trafficking situations.

Signs of Stockholm Syndrome

It bears repeating that Stockholm syndrome is not a defined disorder in the DSM-5 TR with specific "symptoms" and criteria, notes Dr. Hunter.

"It is a much looser description of a psychological phenomenon," she says.

Still, there are some signs to consider, particularly in domestic abuse situations. Dr. Hunter says these could include:

A strong feeling like you aren't yourself or are doing things that don't feel like yourself

Feeling depressed and helpless

Urges of or actual behaviors of self-harm

Feeling that others don't "get" your relationship

Wanting to always defend someone whom others say is hurting you

Getting angry at friends or loved ones for trying to protect you

More generally, feelings of anxiety, fear and shame

Those affected by Stockholm syndrome have a marked tendency to defend their oppressors, according to Dr. Manly. "Despite the untenable nature of their experiences, they will focus on the [positive] attributes of the victimizer and the situation," she says. "Although the individual may display a positive or flat affect, the victim may demonstrate signs of fear, anxiety, depression or overt trauma (hyperreactivity, emotional dysregulation) if separated from or asked to align against the oppressor."

Prioritize Your Mental Health

Get Started With 20% Off

Treatment Options for Stockholm Syndrome

Since Stockholm syndrome isn't an actual diagnosis, there aren't any evidence-based interventions for its treatment, according to Dr. Goldberg Mintz. "At the same time, if there is trauma associated with this, treating the trauma with therapy could be helpful," she says

Stockholm syndrome usually requires long-term trauma therapy to work toward acknowledging what has happened, to see that it was abuse and to build empowerment and awareness around the fact that the individual is no longer trapped, adds Dr. Hunter. This work, she says, can help slowly break down the enmeshment between the victim and their abuser, and to work through both the trauma and their own behaviors and perceived shame.

More specifically, Dr. Manly adds that those affected by Stockholm syndrome generally require focused trauma treatment through modalities like eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) or other trauma-focused practices.

How to Get Help for Stockholm Syndrome

Someone experiencing Stockholm syndrome should find psychological support immediately. This may be challenging, says Dr. Manly, as those affected by Stockholm syndrome often don't see the need to receive treatment due to the nature of this coping mechanism.

"If you find that you are struggling to get out of an abusive relationship or are having difficulties functioning, it's time to ask for help," says Dr. Hunter.

"This is especially so if you are having thoughts of hurting yourself," she adds. "Reaching out for any help, even from family or friends, is a great place to start. Ideally, find a local trauma therapist specializing in abuse."

Connect With A Counselor

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What Is Stockholm Syndrome? Symptoms, Causes And Treatment

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
What Is Stockholm Syndrome? Symptoms, Causes And Treatment

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
What Is Stockholm Syndrome? Symptoms, Causes And Treatment

# data[].attributes.body
Is the Stockholm Syndrome a mental health condition?
Contrary to popular thinking, this phenomenon is not defined as a mental health condition. Is considered an emotional and mental response by the American Psychiatric Association.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What Is Stockholm Syndrome?

"In the simplest terms, Stockholm syndrome refers to the experience of a victim having positive feelings towards their perpetrator," says Melissa Goldberg Mintz, a licensed clinical psychologist in Houston, Texas and author of Has Your Child Been Traumatized?

From a psychological perspective, if you can identify with the person holding you captive or abusing you-so someone whose motives you can relate to, or feel some type of sympathy or compassion towards-it may feel a lot less terrifying than someone who seems truly unredeemable or evil, she explains.

Noel Hunter, a clinical psychologist and director of MindClear Integrative Psychotherapy in New York City, explains that this psychological defense may also allow for survival among some victims who learn to develop a close attachment with their abuser.

"When a caregiver or a person on whom a person relies for food, safety and shelter is also one's abuser, the victim is trapped," says Dr. Hunter. "They can't attack their caregiver or risk pushing them away as they are completely dependent on this person. At the same time, they are being tortured and/or abused."

To justify abuse, Dr. Hunter says the victim may idealize their caregiver and view any inflicted torture as their own fault. "The victim takes on a mindset that is almost symbiotic with the abuser in order to please the caregiver and get in their good graces," explains Dr. Hunter. "They may believe that the more they bond with the abuser, the less likely they are to be abused, and this is often the case."

How Did Stockholm Syndrome Get Its Name?

Stockholm syndrome got its name in 1973, just one year before the Patty Hearst kidnapping, after a botched bank robbery in Stockholm, Sweden led to hostages bonding with their captors.

This response was perplexing, as it seemed the bank employees bonded rather closely with the robbers or, at the very least, trusted them after nearly a week spent together. Since then, Stockholm syndrome is often used to describe situations where victims feel protective of or have some level of affection for their abusers or captors

What Causes Stockholm Syndrome?

The key to the development of Stockholm syndrome is the victim's sense of isolation and the emotional connection that the abuser fosters (intentionally or unintentionally), explains Carla Manly, a clinical psychologist, author and trauma expert in Sonoma County, California. "A perceived or actual unavailability of outside support is also critical to the development of Stockholm syndrome," says Dr. Manly.

A 2018 study analyzing personal interviews with female sex workers across India notes four main criteria for Stockholm syndrome, including:

Perceived threat to survival

Showing of kindness from a captor

Isolation from other perspectives

Perceived inability to escape

"As with any form of trauma, some individuals are more at risk than others simply due to factors such as personality, mental health issues and perceived impact of the traumatic event," adds Dr. Manly.

Despite what it may look like to those outside the situation, she also says those affected by Stockholm syndrome are not "weaker" than those who don't develop it. "It's simply that a confluence of factors made them more susceptible to this syndrome," she explains.

Some elements that can contribute to Stockholm syndrome, according to Dr. Manly, include:

Personality

Genetics

Mental health history

Situational factors of the crime

Dr. Hunter points out that causes of Stockholm syndrome essentially depend upon an abuser and being or feeling trapped by the situation. "Everyone has different temperaments-mitigating factors like other supportive authority figures and past experiences contribute to their overall sense of power and confidence (though this can be broken down over time)," she says.

FEATURED PARTNER OFFER

Risk Factors of Stockholm Syndrome

Not every victim will develop Stockholm syndrome as a coping strategy.

Some factors that might influence why it happens in some situations and not others, according to Dr. Goldberg Mintz, include:

The duration of captivity

The amount of interaction with the perpetrator

Coping styles of the victim

Beyond that, Stockholm syndrome is not exclusive to kidnappings-it can also be a coping mechanism or emotional response for those in abusive situations, whether domestic abuse, child abuse or human trafficking. It can also be related to abusive work situations or even certain coach-athlete dynamics.

This mindset can happen in any situation where "a person who is in a position of authority or power over another and in which the victim feels trapped and dependent upon their abuser," says Dr. Hunter.

Here are some specific situations where Stockholm syndrome may develop.

Child abuse: "It can be hard for a child-especially a young one-to see their parent in a negative light, even if their parent is hurting them," says Dr. Goldberg Mintz. Looking at child sexual abuse, one older study from 2005 suggests that although not all victims of child sexual abuse will become victims of Stockholm syndrome, it can often occur, especially if they experience ongoing abuse. The study also suggests that an unexplainable bond between the victim and abuser can continue into adulthood.

Relationships at home: While this can be a situation where a victim is physically abused by someone in their life, there are other forms of abuse where this dynamic can happen. "This could look like one partner berating another for eating habits, or even restricting their food intake," says Dr. Goldberg Mintz. "While many people would push back against this type of behavior, or at least have some negative feelings about it-particularly if they do not have any history around eating issues-Stockholm syndrome dynamics might look like feeling grateful that their partner cares so much about their health, or turning around and reprimanding a friend who expresses concern over how they are treated in their relationship."

Relationships at work: "For many people, our identities and self-worth can be wrapped up in our jobs," says Dr. Goldberg Mintz. "So, we can be vulnerable to these sorts of dynamics in the workplace." For example, this could look like a boss or employer who doesn't respect your boundaries. "Consider a boss sending an employee a ton of work while they are out on a sick day, and an employee who is understanding or even feels good about this, theorizing their boss simply relies on them and values them so much," she says. "Workplace cultures that prioritize productivity over well-being might be especially vulnerable to this dynamic."

Coach-athlete relationships: In the case of an abusive athletic coach, Dr. Goldberg Mintz explains "eager players might reframe emotional abuse as 'passion' or belief in the players' intrinsic abilities, rather than seeing it as something harmful." When this type of abuse gets tied to successful results (i.e., winning a game), Dr. Goldberg Mintz says it can be even easier to justify. One 2018 study supports this theory, suggesting that when young athletes justify the behavior of their abusive coaches, a mindset to defend or sympathize with them may develop, which can be indicators of Stockholm syndrome.

Sex trafficking: In situations where victims need their abuser for means of basic survival (food, water, shelter, etc.), like in sex or human trafficking, a victim may exhibit the main criteria for Stockholm syndrome. This emotional development is sometimes called trauma bonding. A 2021 review looking at trauma bonds in sex trafficking situations, particularly ones with an imbalance of power that favors the trafficker, found an urgent need for professionals to develop interventions for trauma bonding in trafficking and post-trafficking situations.

Signs of Stockholm Syndrome

It bears repeating that Stockholm syndrome is not a defined disorder in the DSM-5 TR with specific "symptoms" and criteria, notes Dr. Hunter.

"It is a much looser description of a psychological phenomenon," she says.

Still, there are some signs to consider, particularly in domestic abuse situations. Dr. Hunter says these could include:

A strong feeling like you aren't yourself or are doing things that don't feel like yourself

Feeling depressed and helpless

Urges of or actual behaviors of self-harm

Feeling that others don't "get" your relationship

Wanting to always defend someone whom others say is hurting you

Getting angry at friends or loved ones for trying to protect you

More generally, feelings of anxiety, fear and shame

Those affected by Stockholm syndrome have a marked tendency to defend their oppressors, according to Dr. Manly. "Despite the untenable nature of their experiences, they will focus on the [positive] attributes of the victimizer and the situation," she says. "Although the individual may display a positive or flat affect, the victim may demonstrate signs of fear, anxiety, depression or overt trauma (hyperreactivity, emotional dysregulation) if separated from or asked to align against the oppressor."

Prioritize Your Mental Health

Get Started With 20% Off

Treatment Options for Stockholm Syndrome

Since Stockholm syndrome isn't an actual diagnosis, there aren't any evidence-based interventions for its treatment, according to Dr. Goldberg Mintz. "At the same time, if there is trauma associated with this, treating the trauma with therapy could be helpful," she says

Stockholm syndrome usually requires long-term trauma therapy to work toward acknowledging what has happened, to see that it was abuse and to build empowerment and awareness around the fact that the individual is no longer trapped, adds Dr. Hunter. This work, she says, can help slowly break down the enmeshment between the victim and their abuser, and to work through both the trauma and their own behaviors and perceived shame.

More specifically, Dr. Manly adds that those affected by Stockholm syndrome generally require focused trauma treatment through modalities like eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) or other trauma-focused practices.

How to Get Help for Stockholm Syndrome

Someone experiencing Stockholm syndrome should find psychological support immediately. This may be challenging, says Dr. Manly, as those affected by Stockholm syndrome often don't see the need to receive treatment due to the nature of this coping mechanism.

"If you find that you are struggling to get out of an abusive relationship or are having difficulties functioning, it's time to ask for help," says Dr. Hunter.

"This is especially so if you are having thoughts of hurting yourself," she adds. "Reaching out for any help, even from family or friends, is a great place to start. Ideally, find a local trauma therapist specializing in abuse."

Connect With A Counselor

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What Is Stockholm Syndrome? Symptoms, Causes And Treatment

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
What Is Stockholm Syndrome? Symptoms, Causes And Treatment

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
What Is Stockholm Syndrome? Symptoms, Causes And Treatment

# data[].attributes.body
Is the Stockholm Syndrome only for kidnapping situations?
No, it can be a coping mechanism or emotional response to any abusive situation (which means it’s more common than we think), whether domestic violence, child abuse, abusive work situations or even coach-athletes relations.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What Is Stockholm Syndrome?

"In the simplest terms, Stockholm syndrome refers to the experience of a victim having positive feelings towards their perpetrator," says Melissa Goldberg Mintz, a licensed clinical psychologist in Houston, Texas and author of Has Your Child Been Traumatized?

From a psychological perspective, if you can identify with the person holding you captive or abusing you-so someone whose motives you can relate to, or feel some type of sympathy or compassion towards-it may feel a lot less terrifying than someone who seems truly unredeemable or evil, she explains.

Noel Hunter, a clinical psychologist and director of MindClear Integrative Psychotherapy in New York City, explains that this psychological defense may also allow for survival among some victims who learn to develop a close attachment with their abuser.

"When a caregiver or a person on whom a person relies for food, safety and shelter is also one's abuser, the victim is trapped," says Dr. Hunter. "They can't attack their caregiver or risk pushing them away as they are completely dependent on this person. At the same time, they are being tortured and/or abused."

To justify abuse, Dr. Hunter says the victim may idealize their caregiver and view any inflicted torture as their own fault. "The victim takes on a mindset that is almost symbiotic with the abuser in order to please the caregiver and get in their good graces," explains Dr. Hunter. "They may believe that the more they bond with the abuser, the less likely they are to be abused, and this is often the case."

How Did Stockholm Syndrome Get Its Name?

Stockholm syndrome got its name in 1973, just one year before the Patty Hearst kidnapping, after a botched bank robbery in Stockholm, Sweden led to hostages bonding with their captors.

This response was perplexing, as it seemed the bank employees bonded rather closely with the robbers or, at the very least, trusted them after nearly a week spent together. Since then, Stockholm syndrome is often used to describe situations where victims feel protective of or have some level of affection for their abusers or captors

What Causes Stockholm Syndrome?

The key to the development of Stockholm syndrome is the victim's sense of isolation and the emotional connection that the abuser fosters (intentionally or unintentionally), explains Carla Manly, a clinical psychologist, author and trauma expert in Sonoma County, California. "A perceived or actual unavailability of outside support is also critical to the development of Stockholm syndrome," says Dr. Manly.

A 2018 study analyzing personal interviews with female sex workers across India notes four main criteria for Stockholm syndrome, including:

Perceived threat to survival

Showing of kindness from a captor

Isolation from other perspectives

Perceived inability to escape

"As with any form of trauma, some individuals are more at risk than others simply due to factors such as personality, mental health issues and perceived impact of the traumatic event," adds Dr. Manly.

Despite what it may look like to those outside the situation, she also says those affected by Stockholm syndrome are not "weaker" than those who don't develop it. "It's simply that a confluence of factors made them more susceptible to this syndrome," she explains.

Some elements that can contribute to Stockholm syndrome, according to Dr. Manly, include:

Personality

Genetics

Mental health history

Situational factors of the crime

Dr. Hunter points out that causes of Stockholm syndrome essentially depend upon an abuser and being or feeling trapped by the situation. "Everyone has different temperaments-mitigating factors like other supportive authority figures and past experiences contribute to their overall sense of power and confidence (though this can be broken down over time)," she says.

FEATURED PARTNER OFFER

Risk Factors of Stockholm Syndrome

Not every victim will develop Stockholm syndrome as a coping strategy.

Some factors that might influence why it happens in some situations and not others, according to Dr. Goldberg Mintz, include:

The duration of captivity

The amount of interaction with the perpetrator

Coping styles of the victim

Beyond that, Stockholm syndrome is not exclusive to kidnappings-it can also be a coping mechanism or emotional response for those in abusive situations, whether domestic abuse, child abuse or human trafficking. It can also be related to abusive work situations or even certain coach-athlete dynamics.

This mindset can happen in any situation where "a person who is in a position of authority or power over another and in which the victim feels trapped and dependent upon their abuser," says Dr. Hunter.

Here are some specific situations where Stockholm syndrome may develop.

Child abuse: "It can be hard for a child-especially a young one-to see their parent in a negative light, even if their parent is hurting them," says Dr. Goldberg Mintz. Looking at child sexual abuse, one older study from 2005 suggests that although not all victims of child sexual abuse will become victims of Stockholm syndrome, it can often occur, especially if they experience ongoing abuse. The study also suggests that an unexplainable bond between the victim and abuser can continue into adulthood.

Relationships at home: While this can be a situation where a victim is physically abused by someone in their life, there are other forms of abuse where this dynamic can happen. "This could look like one partner berating another for eating habits, or even restricting their food intake," says Dr. Goldberg Mintz. "While many people would push back against this type of behavior, or at least have some negative feelings about it-particularly if they do not have any history around eating issues-Stockholm syndrome dynamics might look like feeling grateful that their partner cares so much about their health, or turning around and reprimanding a friend who expresses concern over how they are treated in their relationship."

Relationships at work: "For many people, our identities and self-worth can be wrapped up in our jobs," says Dr. Goldberg Mintz. "So, we can be vulnerable to these sorts of dynamics in the workplace." For example, this could look like a boss or employer who doesn't respect your boundaries. "Consider a boss sending an employee a ton of work while they are out on a sick day, and an employee who is understanding or even feels good about this, theorizing their boss simply relies on them and values them so much," she says. "Workplace cultures that prioritize productivity over well-being might be especially vulnerable to this dynamic."

Coach-athlete relationships: In the case of an abusive athletic coach, Dr. Goldberg Mintz explains "eager players might reframe emotional abuse as 'passion' or belief in the players' intrinsic abilities, rather than seeing it as something harmful." When this type of abuse gets tied to successful results (i.e., winning a game), Dr. Goldberg Mintz says it can be even easier to justify. One 2018 study supports this theory, suggesting that when young athletes justify the behavior of their abusive coaches, a mindset to defend or sympathize with them may develop, which can be indicators of Stockholm syndrome.

Sex trafficking: In situations where victims need their abuser for means of basic survival (food, water, shelter, etc.), like in sex or human trafficking, a victim may exhibit the main criteria for Stockholm syndrome. This emotional development is sometimes called trauma bonding. A 2021 review looking at trauma bonds in sex trafficking situations, particularly ones with an imbalance of power that favors the trafficker, found an urgent need for professionals to develop interventions for trauma bonding in trafficking and post-trafficking situations.

Signs of Stockholm Syndrome

It bears repeating that Stockholm syndrome is not a defined disorder in the DSM-5 TR with specific "symptoms" and criteria, notes Dr. Hunter.

"It is a much looser description of a psychological phenomenon," she says.

Still, there are some signs to consider, particularly in domestic abuse situations. Dr. Hunter says these could include:

A strong feeling like you aren't yourself or are doing things that don't feel like yourself

Feeling depressed and helpless

Urges of or actual behaviors of self-harm

Feeling that others don't "get" your relationship

Wanting to always defend someone whom others say is hurting you

Getting angry at friends or loved ones for trying to protect you

More generally, feelings of anxiety, fear and shame

Those affected by Stockholm syndrome have a marked tendency to defend their oppressors, according to Dr. Manly. "Despite the untenable nature of their experiences, they will focus on the [positive] attributes of the victimizer and the situation," she says. "Although the individual may display a positive or flat affect, the victim may demonstrate signs of fear, anxiety, depression or overt trauma (hyperreactivity, emotional dysregulation) if separated from or asked to align against the oppressor."

Prioritize Your Mental Health

Get Started With 20% Off

Treatment Options for Stockholm Syndrome

Since Stockholm syndrome isn't an actual diagnosis, there aren't any evidence-based interventions for its treatment, according to Dr. Goldberg Mintz. "At the same time, if there is trauma associated with this, treating the trauma with therapy could be helpful," she says

Stockholm syndrome usually requires long-term trauma therapy to work toward acknowledging what has happened, to see that it was abuse and to build empowerment and awareness around the fact that the individual is no longer trapped, adds Dr. Hunter. This work, she says, can help slowly break down the enmeshment between the victim and their abuser, and to work through both the trauma and their own behaviors and perceived shame.

More specifically, Dr. Manly adds that those affected by Stockholm syndrome generally require focused trauma treatment through modalities like eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) or other trauma-focused practices.

How to Get Help for Stockholm Syndrome

Someone experiencing Stockholm syndrome should find psychological support immediately. This may be challenging, says Dr. Manly, as those affected by Stockholm syndrome often don't see the need to receive treatment due to the nature of this coping mechanism.

"If you find that you are struggling to get out of an abusive relationship or are having difficulties functioning, it's time to ask for help," says Dr. Hunter.

"This is especially so if you are having thoughts of hurting yourself," she adds. "Reaching out for any help, even from family or friends, is a great place to start. Ideally, find a local trauma therapist specializing in abuse."

Connect With A Counselor

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What Is Stockholm Syndrome? Symptoms, Causes And Treatment

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
What Is Stockholm Syndrome? Symptoms, Causes And Treatment

# data[].attributes.body
What does the Stockholm Syndrome do to a person?
Victims who develop Stockholm Syndrome develop positive feelings towards the Pearson abusing them or holding them hostage and in some cases they might want to protect them.
Noel Hunter, (a clinical psychologist and director of MindClear Integrative Psychotherapy in New York City) explains that this psychological defense may also allow for survival among some victims who learn to develop a close attachment with their abuser.

# data[].attributes.body
This Stockholm syndrome definition does not include the term “love”, it focuses on how the victim starts to identify with their captor and tries to form a positive relationship with them. It is not love, that the victim feels, he or she turns to positivity in order to survive. Love is unconditional and is far from the abusive dynamic between a victim and a kidnapper.

# data[].attributes.body
Some key pieces seem to increase the likelihood of a Stockholm syndrome. These include:

Being in an emotionally charged situation for a long time

Being in a shared space with the hostage-taker with poor conditions (e.g. not enough food, physically uncomfortable space)

When hostages are dependent on a hostage-taker for basic needs

When threats to life are not carried out (e.g. mock executions)

When hostages haven’t been dehumanized
• Personality
•Genetics
•Mental health history
•Situational factors of the crime

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Stockholm syndrome is a psychological coping response to captivity and abuse. Learn more about what causes it, symptoms of Stockholm syndrome, and more.

# data[].attributes.body
Stockholm syndrome isn’t a psychological diagnosis. Instead, it is a way of understanding the emotional response some people have towards a captor or abuser.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Stockholm syndrome is a psychological coping response to captivity and abuse. Learn more about what causes it, symptoms of Stockholm syndrome, and more.

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
“Síndrome de Estocolmo” El robo de Norrmalmstorg Pt. 1

# data[].attributes.body
This phrase was created in 1976, Sweden. The name arose after the strange relationship between the thieves of a bank and three hostages who worked in it

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
“Síndrome de Estocolmo” El robo de Norrmalmstorg Pt. 1

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
El 23 de agosto de 1973, Jan-Erik Olsson entró en un banco sueco con la intención de tomar como rehenes a un puñado de empleados. Durante el infame enfrentamiento de seis días, las relaciones creadas entre los captores y los cautivos inspiraron la frase “Síndrome de Estocolmo”. Learn more about your…

# data[].attributes.body
It refers to the bond that can develop between hostages and their captors in hostage-taking and kidnapping situations. In some cases, hostages may develop sympathies for their captors and their cause — and even turn against the police.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
STOCKHOLM (AP) - It's a common term these days, deployed to describe the bond that victims of kidnappings or hostage situations sometimes develop with their captors: "Stockholm syndrome." And it got its name 50 years ago this week, during a failed bank robbery in Sweden's capital.

The Stockholm syndrome - initially dubbed "Norrmalmstorg syndrome," after the square where the bank heist took place - has since been used in connection with hostage-takings around the world, including the kidnapping of newspaper heiress Patty Hearst in the 1970s.

Here's a look at Stockholm syndrome and how it got its name.

WHAT IS STOCKHOLM SYNDROME?

It refers to the bond that can develop between hostages and their captors in hostage-taking and kidnapping situations. In some cases, hostages may develop sympathies for their captors and their cause - and even turn against the police. Rather than a diagnosis of a disorder, experts describe it as a psychological coping mechanism used by some hostages to endure being held captive and abused.

HOW DID IT GET ITS NAME?

The term can be traced back to Swedish criminologist and psychiatrist Nils Bejerot, who advised police in a standoff during a bank robbery in the Swedish capital in August 1973. During the standoff, some of the hostages appeared to side with the hostage-takers and against the police, a phenomenon Bejerot called "Norrmalmstorg syndrome." Internationally, it became known as Stockholm syndrome.

Bejerot's daughter, Susanne says her father, who died in 1988, never thought the term would gain such traction worldwide. "He didn't understand that it would become such a big thing," she said Wednesday.

WHAT HAPPENED DURING THAT BANK ROBBERY?

On Aug. 23, 1973, convicted thief Jan-Erik Olsson, 32, tried to rob a bank in downtown Stockholm while on furlough from prison. Police responded quickly, and a standoff ensued.

Olsson, armed with a submachine gun, took four bank employees hostage and demanded 3 million kronor, a bulletproof vest and a getaway car. He also demanded that his former jail mate, Clark Olofsson, be released from prison and brought to the bank. Authorities agreed.

The drama played out on live television in Sweden as police tried to persuade Olsson and Olofsson to surrender. Even Prime Minister Olof Palme got involved in the negotiations.

At one point, a hostage, Kristin Enmark, told Palme over the telephone that she was afraid of the police, not of the two criminals. She appealed to authorities to meet their demands. Enmark later said she had developed a bond with Olofsson, whom she saw as the guarantor of her safety.

Two police officers were injured with gunshot wounds during the standoff, which ended on Aug. 28 when police, using tear gas, stormed the bank, arrested Olsson and Olofsson and freed the hostages.

WHAT ARE OTHER EXAMPLES OF STOCKHOLM SYNDROME?

One of the most well-known cases happened the following year, 1974, when Patty Hearst, the 19-year-old granddaughter of a wealthy newspaper magnate was kidnapped in the United States by the Symbionese Liberation Army, an unknown armed revolutionary group.

Two months later, questions concerning Hearst's ties to her captors - and the notion of Stockholm syndrome - arose after Hearst declared her allegiance to the SLA, denounced her family and posed for a photograph carrying a weapon in front of the SLA flag. She was arrested in 1975 and was sentenced to seven years in prison. President Jimmy Carter commuted her sentence in 1979. She was later pardoned by President Bill Clinton.

Stockholm syndrome has also been applied in the context of victims of domestic violence or childhood sexual abuse who develop connections with their abusers.

REAL OR MYTH?

Stockholm syndrome isn't listed as a diagnosis by the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders or the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. Some experts question whether it's a psychological condition at all or just a survival strategy - rational choices made by some people as they face extreme danger.

In the U.S. some law enforcement experts have said the phenomenon is rare and overpublicized by the media. But it still features frequently in popular culture, including books, films and music, and has entered the English lexicon as an informal term for people who forge unexpected bonds with others who treat them badly.

Stockholm syndrome inspired movies like the 2013 thriller " " with Kate Winslet, Josh Brolin and Gattlin Griffith and the 2018 film " " with Ethan Hawke and Noomi Rapace. The latter recounted the failed 1973 bank heist. It's also the title of songs by bands including One Direction, Muse and Blink-182.

___

Olsen reported from Copenhagen, Denmark. AP Medical Writer Carla K. Johnson contributed from Washington state.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What is Stockholm syndrome? It all started with a bank robbery 50 years ago

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This week marks 50 years since a failed bank robbery that gave rise to Stockholm syndrome, a term used to describe the bond that victims of kidnappings or hostage situations sometimes develop with their captors.

# data[].attributes.body
Stocoholm Syndrom