# data[].attributes.body
Each small group will have 30 minutes to read recent articles about a topic related to sustainability.

Each group will then create a video presentation.

Presentation Each presentation should
• Summarize the article and present the key points
• Discuss how the topic of the article relates to each of the Three Pillars of Sustainability
• Provide at least one example of how the topic of the article relates to your life

# data[].attributes.body
Each small group will have 30 minutes to read recent articles about a topic related to sustainability. You will then create a video presentation.

Each group will then create a video presentation.

# data[].attributes.body
Each small group will have 30 minutes to read recent articles about a topic related to sustainability.

Each group will then create a video presentation.

Presentation Each presentation should
• Summarize the article and present the key points
• Discuss how the topic of the article relates to each of the Three Pillars of Sustainability
• Provide at least one example of how the topic of the article relates to your life

# data[].attributes.body
Each small group will have 30 minutes to read recent articles about a topic related to sustainability.

Each group will then create a video presentation.

Presentation Each presentation should
• Summarize the article and present the key points
• Discuss how the topic of the article relates to each of the Three Pillars of Sustainability
• Provide at least one example of how the topic of the article relates to your life

# data[].attributes.headline
Questions to Answer about Articles in your Summary

# data[].attributes.subject
Questions to Answer about Articles in your Summary

# data[].attributes.body
1. What are 3 water issues that Mongolia is facing as a country?
2. What are 3 causes for each of those issues?
3. Who are the people that are most affected by these issues?
4. What are some solutions to these issues?

# data[].attributes.headline
Got Water? – The Looming Water Scarcity Problem in Mongolia

# data[].attributes.subject
Got Water? – The Looming Water Scarcity Problem in Mongolia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Soil pollution is also at its all-time high due to irresponsible water management. Climate crisis is increasing the frequency of floods which further shifts a polluted mixture of soil, trash, possible human feces from the gers , and rainwater into the inner cities. This directly affects underground water quality in the ger districts and throughout the entire city.
How the climate crisis impacts the water crisis.
Mongolia is a heavy user of coal, due to its limited central heating option - which is directly connected to the water system. Mongolia's air pollution gets up to an index of AQI 1200 during January, its coldest month. An AQI of 0-50 is recommended by the World Health Organization.

In the annual Global Climate Risk Index, Mongolia came in at eighth place. Average temperatures had increased by 2.14 degrees Celsius, and more than two-thirds of the area was affected by desertification by the year 2018. Mongolian policymakers are only starting to notice the smaller effects of climate change - harsher winters and intense internal migration.

Whenever the winters are too severe, local herders' animals must rely on food reserves rather than grazing. However, insufficient supply makes the animals weaker and they eventually die from starvation or freezing. Often these animals die out in large numbers, causing what the locals calls a "dzud." To survive in the world's coldest capital Ulaanbaatar, the herders who have lost all their livestock are forced to use coal to stay warm. The positive feedback loop of this effect continues to grow.

As Ulaanbaatar's population grows, there will likely be more and more families who will depend on the antiquated wells that contribute to the climate crisis. With 1.5 million residents, Ulaanbaatar is sustaining a population three times its planned capacity. With no domestic solution in sight, we need outside interest and support to cope with the coming years of the climate crisis.
How can we help?
Mongolia's issues are deeply structural and call for a rooted and well-planned change. Amplified by climate change, weather events such as dzud will only increase in numbers. Water is running out. We need your help now.

I'm working with Girl Rising to produce a short multimedia film to document and raise awareness about this issue. You can stay in touch with Girl Rising and my future work through their webpage. You can also write to your local government officials to make better policies that tackle the global climate crisis. A global climate effort, can make a lasting impact on the well-being of nations across the world, including Mongolia.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Got Water? - The Looming Water Scarcity Problem in Mongolia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This past week, devastating floods hit Eastern Uganda, sweeping away homes, submerging bridges and roads, and trapping fleeing victims. The waters took the lives of at least 24 people. These floods are the direct result of rising global emissions and are just one example of how the African continent

# data[].attributes.headline
Seeing the invisible: Disrupting groundwater monitoring in Mongolia

# data[].attributes.subject
Seeing the invisible: Disrupting groundwater monitoring in Mongolia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Seeing the invisible: Disrupting groundwater monitoring in Mongolia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Ask anyone in Mongolia what water means to them, and you are likely to hear "supreme treasure" or "blue gold." The government has referred to water even as "priceless wealth." Water has significant cultural and economic value in Mongolia, yet the common perception of the country'

# data[].attributes.headline
The United States Government and the Government of Mongolia Break Ground on Water Recycling Plant in Ulaanbaatar

# data[].attributes.subject
The United States Government and the Government of Mongolia Break Ground on Water Recycling Plant in Ulaanbaatar

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
ULAANBAATAR, Mongolia (August 25, 2022) - The President of Mongolia Ukhnaa Khurelsukh was joined today by the Millennium Challenge Corporation's (MCC) Acting Vice President of Compact Operations, Cameron Alford, and the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, Daniel Kritenbrink, to break ground on a water recycling plant - the first of its kind in Mongolia .

"I am proud to be here in this beautiful city with President Khurelsukh to advance critical water infrastructure and affirm the strong partnership between the United States and Mongolia," said Alford. "Ulaanbaatar is one of the world's most water-scarce cities, and it is extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. This plant will contribute to providing a safe and sustainable supply of water to households and businesses, while also strengthening the capital city's climate resilience and water security."

In less than three decades, the population of Ulaanbaatar has nearly tripled in size, increasing the demand on the city's water supply. The city now faces imminent water shortages that pose a significant threat to its residents and Mongolia's economy. The advanced water recycling plant - which is scheduled to begin construction this month - is an example of MCC's commitment to countering climate change. The water recycling plant will help enhance Mongolia's climate resilience and ensure a safe and sustainable supply of water to households and businesses in the capital city by freeing up 15 million cubic meters of fresh water per year for the people of Ulaanbaatar.

"[E]verybody knows that water is a source for all living beings, and its significance is vital for human life," said Mongolian President Khurelsukh at the groundbreaking celebration. " By recycling water, Mongolians will now help Mother Nature in the natural rebirth of water . We are becoming eco-friendlier and more responsible."

In 2018, the Government of Mongolia and MCC signed a compact agreement to invest $462 million in total in the country's water sector - $350 million from MCC and $111.8 million from the Mongolian government, one of the largest partner country contributions in the history of MCC. A significant portion of the Water Recycling Plant funding is made possible by the Government of Mongolia - a critical investment that will significantly enhance the impact of the overall compact.

The compact will increase the available water supply in Ulaanbaatar by 80 percent through three integrated components:

The construction of both new groundwater wells downstream of Ulaanbaatar and a state-of-the-art advanced water purification plant to remove contaminants and ensure that drinking water is ready for widespread municipal use;

The construction of a new wastewater recycling plant and pipelines to provide high-quality recycled water that can be used by industry; and,

Strengthening the Mongolian government's capacity through technical assistance and the implementation of policy reforms that improve the long-term sustainability of Ulaanbaatar's water supply.

The Millennium Challenge Corporation is an independent U.S. government agency working to reduce global poverty through economic growth. Created in 2004, MCC provides time-limited grants and assistance to countries that meet rigorous standards for good governance, fighting corruption and respecting democratic rights.
###

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The United States Government and the Government of Mongolia Break Ground on Water Recycling Plant in Ulaanbaatar

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
ULAANBAATAR, Mongolia (August 25, 2022) - The President of Mongolia Ukhnaa Khurelsukh was joined today by the Millennium Challenge Corporation's (MCC) Acting Vice President of Compact Operations, Cameron Alford, and the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, Daniel Kritenbrink, to break ground on a water recycling plant - the first of its kind in Mongolia .

# data[].attributes.headline
As More Land Turns to Desert, Fights Erupt Over Water

# data[].attributes.subject
As More Land Turns to Desert, Fights Erupt Over Water

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
DALANZADGAD, UMNUGOVI PROVINCE, MONGOLIA - The scorching sun glares at them from directly above, and everything under their feet is parched, dusty and barren. The sheep and goats squeal and squeak, their nostrils sunken, their eyes glazed. Batbaatar Tsedevsuren, a herder with more than two decades of experience, knows this is how his animals behave when extremely thirsty.

He has walked with his 700 animals for several days in Mongolia's Gobi desert in search of water and green pastures, when suddenly Batbaatar sees a well, and a fellow herder sitting on its edge. He comes closer with a smile, he later recalls, but the herder doesn't reciprocate. "There is no water in the well," the other herder quickly says. Batbaatar knows that isn't true, and that the herder is just acting stingy. But he can't afford a fight.

Located in the south of the country, the Gobi desert region has become a site of conflict among herders fighting over access to water. Because of natural and human-made causes - including climate change and mining - water bodies in Umnugovi, Mongolia's largest province in the desert, are shrinking at an alarming pace. It's forcing residents to consider whether their traditional nomadic herding lifestyle can survive this shock.

The number of water bodies that dried up in the province increased tenfold in the decade from 2007 to 2018, according to census data from the National Statistics Office of Mongolia. This drying-up brings with it an increase in the frequency of droughts and a shrinking of the region's pastureland. With low rainfall or no rains at all, some places in the region have become nearly uninhabitable. Gantumur Sugir, a herder in the region's Gurvantes soum, is one who has decided to move out. Because of a shortage of pastures, and no rains in the soum for three years now, he says it's impossible for any living being to remain.

Almost everyone in the area has a story to tell of a river they grew up with disappearing or on its way to disappearing. Streaming along the south of this province's Bayandalai soum is Dalai Bulag - a spring in danger of drying up as its flow decreases each year. "When I was a child, Dalai Bulag was too wide to jump across," says Ganbold Sumiya, who grew up drinking its water. "Now, the width of the river is so narrow that you can cross it in one step."

In Gobi - famous for the largest dinosaur fossil reservoir in the world and home to black-tailed gazelles and wild asses - climate change is manifesting itself in ways big and small. According to the "Atlas of Desertification in Mongolia, 2020," published by the National Agency of Meteorology and Environment, the amount of precipitation during summers has decreased. In fact, the report says there are times when the region doesn't get any rain at all for years. The number of days with winds and storms has increased, as has the aridity. And the land area affected by desertification has increased significantly.

"It is becoming difficult to herd animals as the rivers keep drying up," says Bat-Erdene Shinekhuu, head of the province's Food and Agriculture Department. "Pastures are scarce, water is drying up ... The herders have to keep working harder to prevent their animals from dying."

If this continues, herder Gantumur - who has moved more than 300 kilometers (185 miles) in search of pastures - says "our nomadic heritage of animal husbandry, which is rare in the world, will disappear."

Traditionally, Mongolia has a nomadic pastoralist culture. Raising livestock is the main driver of its economy, employing 1 in 4 Mongolians, according to an International Monetary Fund report. Since livestock is the main source of livelihood for herders, they have tried to raise more animals to increase their income. Before 1990, when Mongolia transitioned to a free market economy, livestock was managed and tightly controlled by the state. Since privatizing, the number of animals in Mongolia has tripled to 70 million, according to the IMF, and the number has been increasing year by year with no regulatory body to keep it in check.

With nearly 98% of Umnugovi province now moderately or severely affected by desertification and land degradation, livestock herders can't afford to be sedentary. In normal times, when the rains are adequate, herders move between two and four times a year. Recently, however, the herders have had to move more often because of the scarcity of water. Although there are 5,184 pasture wells, the number of cattle per well is two to three times higher than the standard. A well that once watered 500 animals "is now watering only 200 camels," says Bat-Erdene, head of the province's Food and Agriculture Department.

Families try to guard or fight for their share of water as they seek to hold on to this generations-old profession. Meanwhile, the reality of climate change looms over the region - way more than it does in most parts of the world. Mongolia is one of the 10 countries most affected by global warming and climate change due to its geographic location and extreme continental climate, according to an Asian Development Bank report. Over the last 80 years, the average temperature in Mongolia has warmed by 2.25 degrees, making it almost three times higher than the global average. Even a one-degree rise is a substantial change, says Batbold Dorjgurkhem, Mongolia director for the World Wide Fund for Nature, an international environmental organization. The situation in Mongolia, and specifically in the Gobi region, thus becomes "very destructive," he says.

Herders also must deal with another party in this water tug-of-war: the mining industry. Currently, 14 companies are engaged in mineral extraction in the region and there are three major mining projects operating here. The extraction of coal and fluorspar, an important raw material for the industry that is used in the smelting of iron, consumes a lot of water, says Myagmar Shar, head of the Water Agency, a government implementing body. "Remember that here, water in itself is a kind of mineral."

The mining companies say that there is no denying that mining consumes a lot of water, but they blame government policies for the water shortage.

related article

Could the Gobi Desert See a Red Deer Comeback?
click to read
"If the government makes the right policies and the water users act honestly, there would be no need to use groundwater and deplete the resources," says Bat-Amgalan Barbaatar, an environmental specialist for the Tavantolgoi mine.

But the Water Agency's Myagmar dismisses the accusation, saying it is unacceptable to solely blame government policies. He says on several projects, the government is stuck due to the lack of funding. "Our country is burdened with debt and has reached its maximum borrowing limit ... so we are unable to start any big projects," Myagmar says.

In May, Prime Minister Oyun-Erdene Luvsannamsrai held a meeting in the province and acknowledged that "herders are in an extremely difficult situation." He introduced the Blue Horse project, which aims to increase the accessibility of water in Gobi by building water pipelines to the region and establishing multipurpose reservoirs on major rivers, such as the Orkhon, Tuul and Kherlen, to collect rain and floodwater. The local government is working to increase the region's pasture irrigation supply - which was at 58% in 2021 - to 70% by 2025.

But with uncertainty driving the everyday lives of these herders, fights over water have become frequent. Batbaatar has already been threatened several times, once with a warning that, if he came closer to a well again, he would be greeted with a rifle.

"In the past, local herders used to come and greet those who are on the move with tea," he says. "Nowadays, when you see a person approaching, you are afraid that the person is coming to chase you away from their wells and pastures."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
As More Land Turns to Desert, Fights Erupt Over Water

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
DALANZADGAD, UMNUGOVI PROVINCE, MONGOLIA - The scorching sun glares at them from directly above, and everything under their feet is parched, dusty and barren. The sheep and goats squeal and squeak, their nostrils sunken, their eyes glazed. Batbaatar Tsedevsuren, a herder with more than two decades of experience, knows this is how his animals behave when extremely thirsty.

# data[].attributes.headline
Lake Changes in Inner Mongolia over the Past 30 Years and the Associated Factors

# data[].attributes.subject
Lake Changes in Inner Mongolia over the Past 30 Years and the Associated Factors

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Lakes are nodes for interactions between the various components of the terrestrial surface system. As they serve as important freshwater reservoirs, flood-regulating reservoirs, and species gene pools on Earth, lakes play irreplaceable roles in maintaining the ecological balance of watersheds, conserving water sources, holding soil and water, preventing floods and droughts, regulating climate, and maintaining biodiversity [ 1, 2, 3]. China has a vast territory and contains a large number of lakes, including 2759 lakes with individual areas of more than 1 km ² and a total combined area of 91,019.6 km ², according to the Records of Chinese Lakes [ 4]. These lakes are mainly distributed in five major lake areas: the East Plain, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, Mongolia-Xinjiang Plateau, and Northeast Plain and mountains [ 5, 6]. In recent years, climate change and continuous rapid socioeconomic development coupled with irrational exploitation by humans have prompted lake shrinkage and even disappearance [ 7, 8, 9]. Statistics [ 10] show that the areas of 229 lakes in China with individual areas greater than 10 km ² have shrunk by a total of 13,776 km ², including 89 dried-up lakes that had a combined area of 4289 km ². In addition, nearly 1000 natural lakes in China have disappeared due to the country's nationwide lake reclamation project.

Inner Mongolia, located on the Mongolian Plateau within the hinterland of the Eurasian continent, mostly comprises arid and semi-arid zones, with a typical mid-temperate monsoon climate. Owing to its special geographical conditions, it is home to several particularly vulnerable lake ecosystems in China [ 11, 12]. In recent years, the areas of the lakes in this region have been shrinking due to climate change and human activities, and some lakes have even dried up. For example, a study by Academician Fang focusing on the shrinkage of lakes on the Mongolian Plateau [ 13] revealed that the number of lakes in Inner Mongolia has decreased by 145 (34.0%) over the past 30 years, whereas the total area of lakes has decreased by about 30.3%, from 4160 km ² around 1987 to 2901 km ² in 2010, exhibiting a rapidly decreasing trend. Furthermore, numerous studies conducted in Inner Mongolia and lakes have found stark decreases in the total lake areas over the past 50 years. Zhang et al. [ 14] found that the lake area in the hinterland of the Badain Jaran Desert decreased by 3.69 km ² during 1973-2010. In another study, Wang et al. [ 15] showed that the area of the Wuliangsuhai Lake decreased by about 20 km ² during 1960-2010. Liu et al. [ 16] discovered that the area of the Daihai Lake decreased by 89.01 km ² during 1976-2015. Bai et al. [ 17] found that the area of the lakes in the Hunsandake Sandy Land decreased by 198.62 km ² during 1969-2013. In their study, Yang et al. [ 18] reported that the area of the Dalai Nur Lake decreased by 25 km ² during 1985-2014. Additionally, Zhao et al. [ 19] showed that the area of the Hulun Lake decreased by 436.06 km ² during 1986-2012. Jia et al. [ 20] found that the area of lakes in the dune-meadow ecotone of the Horqin Sandy Land decreased by 9.378 km ² during 1986-2012.

Along with the declining water levels and shrinkage of the lake areas in Inner Mongolia, wetland area shrinkage, lake water imbalance, land desertification, and eco-environmental deterioration are becoming increasingly severe problems. In fact, the lakes are gradually proving themselves to be the most vulnerable, influential, and difficult-to-manage geographical unit in terms of the interactions between human society and the natural environment [ 21, 22, 23]. In this study, we examined 546 lakes in Inner Mongolia using multi period remote sensing data, measured the lake number, area, and distribution during seven specific years since 1990, analyzed the lakes' change characteristics, and discussed the impacts of climate change and human activities on these changes, as well as the precipitation, temperature data, and the main modes of human production activities in Inner Mongolia. The findings from this study can improve our understanding of the current situation and the changing lake trends in this region. Notably, this is important for maintaining human survival and environmental security in the region.

Inner Mongolia is located along the northern border of China, extending obliquely from the northeast to the southwest in a narrow fashion, with a length of about 2400 km from east to west and spanning more than 1700 km from north to south at its maximum, covering a total area of 1.183 million km ². Due to its geographical location and topography, the entire region has a complex and diverse climate, dominated mainly by a temperate continental monsoon climate with an annual precipitation of 100-500 mm and generally more than 2700 h of sunshine per year.

There are more than 1000 rivers in Inner Mongolia, of which 107 have a watershed area of more than 1000 km ² each. The Yellow River, Argun River, Nengjiang River, and West Liaohe River are the four major rivers. The lakes in Inner Mongolia span a large geographical area and are scattered throughout the region, but they are mainly located in the Hulun Buir Plateau, the West Liaohe Plain, the Xilingole Plateau, the Wulanchabu Plateau, the Hetao Plain, and the Ordos Plateau, as well as in the hilly areas. Most of the lakes in Inner Mongolia are small and shallow. A few are freshwater lakes, but most are salt lakes. Only a few lakes that receive river runoff and groundwater recharge have large surface areas and depths. In particular, the only lake with an area greater than 1000 km ² is the Hulun Lake; the Buir Lake has an area of 500-1000 km ² and is shared by China and Mongolia; the other large lakes are the Wuliangsuhai Lake, Dalinuoer Lake, Chagannor Lake, Daihai Lake, and Huangqihai Lake, which have areas ranging from 100-500 km ². Notably, more than 80% of the lakes in Inner Mongolia are salt lakes, making this an important distribution area of salt lakes in China.

3.1. Data Sources

Landsat thematic mapper/enhanced thematic mapper/orbital land imager (TM/ETM/OLI) remote sensing images with 30 m resolution and covering the entire region were collected for 29 consecutive years (1989-2018). In order to estimate the maximum area of each lake in each year, the high-water period from June-August in Inner Mongolia was selected as the monitoring period for all years. To better analyze the change process and development trend of the lakes throughout a certain period of time and to consider the lake changes between different years, seven years (1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2018) were selected for region-wide data analysis. The meteorological data were obtained from the China Meteorological Data Sharing Network, and the annual average precipitation and temperature data were procured from 69 meteorological stations active across the region from 1970-2017.

3.2. Lake Analysis

Due to the cloudy weather characteristic of the high-water period from June-August, images with low or no cloud cover for a given geographical site within this period could only be obtained by synthesizing images of the same geographical site during the same period over 3 consecutive years. For example, the synthesized images for 1995 were based on the raw images acquired in June-August of 1994, 1995, and 1996 (though mainly 1995), and the synthesized images for 2018 were based on the raw images acquired in 2017 and 2018, primarily during the period of May-August.

By analyzing 7 years' image data, such as by feature image construction, water sample selection, intelligent detection of water bodies, classification post-processing (removal and correction of false spots), manual editing optimization, and summary statistics, information on 546 lakes was compiled from the lake images captured by Landsat. The water census data for 2010 and 1:250,000 geological maps were used as references. Of the 546 lakes, 468 were included in the census data and 78 were new lakes identified by interpretating the remote sensing images.

4.1. Changes in the Area of the Lakes

The total lake areas in 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2018 are listed in Table 1. It is evident that the total lake area generally exhibited a decreasing trend, with a decrease of 859.43 km ² (17.31%) during 1990-2010, i.e., from 4965.35 km ² in 1990 to 4105.92 km ² in 2010. The lake areas increased slightly during 2010-2018, with an increase of 186.46 km ² (4.54%). In summary, the net decrease during 1990-2018 was 672.97 km ², with a mean annual decrease of 24.03 km ² (13.55%).

From 1990 to 2018, the total area of the lakes with individual areas of >1 km ² exhibited a general decline, decreasing from 4905.24 km ² in 1990 to 4014.97 km ² in 2010, and then rebounding to 4187.45 km ² in 2018, with a net decrease of 14.63%. Among these lakes, the following trends were observed: (1) The total area of one lake with an area of >500 km ² decreased and then increased, reaching a minimum in 2010 and then rebounding and essentially recovering to its normal state. (2) The total area of six lakes with individual areas of 100-500 km ² decreased annually and reached a minimum in 2015, with a net decrease of 563.82 km ² (45.84%). (3) Conversely, the total area of 25 lakes with individual areas of 10-100 km ² generally increased, with a net growth of 125.86 km (21.62%). (4) The total areas of 50 lakes with individual areas of 5-10 km ² and of 243 lakes with individual areas of 1-3 km ² exhibited decreasing trends, shrinking by 175.2 km ² and 87.34 km ² (48.85% and 21.45%), respectively. (5) Lastly, the total area of 58 lakes with individual areas of 3-5 km ² exhibited a minimal net change, as the lakes experienced an increase from 1990-2000, a decrease from 2000-2010, and then a rebound from 2010-2018.

During the period of 1990-2018, the total area of the lakes with individual areas of <1 km ² generally increased, from 60.11 km ² in 1990 to 104.93 km ² in 2018, a net increase of 74.56%.

4.2. Changes in the Number of Lakes

The analysis results ( Table 2) revealed that the total number of lakes with individual areas of >1 km ² increased and then subsequently decreased during 1990-2018, increasing from 384 in 1990 to 397 in 2000, and then decreasing to 323 in 2010 and 301 in 2018, with net decreases of 61 (15.9%) and 83 (21.6%) during 1990-2010 and 1990-2018, respectively. Additionally, the total number of lakes in 2018 was 29.5% lower than that reported in 1987 [ 13]. Compared with the data for 1987, the following changes were observed in 2018: (1) The number of lakes with individual areas of >500 km ² remained unchanged (i.e., one). (2) Conversely, the number of lakes with individual areas of 100-500 km ² decreased from six to three. (3) The number of lakes with individual areas of 10-100 km ² remained basically unchanged. (4) Additionally, the number of lakes with individual areas of 5-10 km ² decreased annually, with a total decrease of 24 since 1990. (5) The number of lakes with individual areas of 3-5 km ² fluctuated. (6) Lastly, the number of lakes with individual areas of 1-3 km ² decreased the most (by 57), accounting for 68.67% of the total decrease in the combined number of lakes.

From 1990 to 2018, the number of lakes with individual areas of <1 km ² increased, from 129 in 1990 to 226 in 2018, a net gain of 75.19%. In particular, the number of lakes with water surface areas of <0.5 km ² decreased from 69 in 1990 to 59 in 2000, and then rose to 119 in 2018, a net increase of 72.46%. The number of lakes with water surface areas of <0.2 km ² (nearly or completely dried-up) also exhibited a decreasing-increasing trend, i.e., initially decreasing from 44 in 1990 to 31 in 2000, and then rebounding to 63 in 2018, with an overall net increase of 43.18% in 1990-2018.

4.3. Changes in Lakes in Different Geomorphological Units

Inner Mongolia is divided into eight geomorphological units, namely, the Daxinganling Mountains, the West Liaohe Plain, the northern Inner Mongolian Plateau, the Yinshan Mountains, the Hetao Plain, the Ordos Plateau, the Alxa Plateau, and the deserts [ 24, 25], with each unit having a characteristic pattern of temporal variations in the number and area of its lakes ( Figure 1).

As for the temporal variations in the number of lakes within the different geomorphic units ( Table 3), during 1990-2018, the number of lakes with individual areas of >1 km ² decreased in the northern Inner Mongolian Plateau region, the desert zone, the West Liaohe Plain, the Yinshan Mountains, and the Daxinganling Mountains. Among these regions, the number of lakes in the West Liaohe Plain experienced the most significant decrease of 79 to 36 (54.43%), followed by that on the northern Inner Mongolian Plateau, which declined from 149 to 117 (21.47%). The temporal trend associated with the number of lakes within the desert zone consisted of two stages. Stage 1 involved an annually increasing trend during 1990-2000, with an overall increase of eight in the entire desert region, four of which occurred in the Mu Us Desert. Stage 2 was characterized by an annually decreasing trend during 2000-2018, with an overall decrease of 17 throughout the entire desert region, where the greatest decrease (of four lakes) occurred in the Hunshandake Desert. The overall trend associated with the number of lakes within the Yinshan Mountains also consisted of two stages. In Stage 1, the number of lakes increased during 1990-2005; in stage 2, it decreased during 2005-2018. The number of lakes on the Hetao Plain, the Ordos Plateau, and the Alxa Plateau all increased, with the Alxa Plateau experiencing the largest gain of seven lakes (87.5%), from eight in 1990 to 15 in 2018.

As is shown by the temporal distribution of the lake areas throughout the different geomorphological units ( Table 4), the total area of the lakes with individual areas of >1 km ² decreased during 1990-2018, except for that on the Hetao Plain and the Ordos Plateau, where the total area remained generally stable. In particular, the lake area on the West Liaohe Plain decreased most significantly, by nearly 50% (i.e., 49.18%). During 1990-2010, the total area of the lakes with individual areas of >1 km ² decreased by different degrees depending on the geomorphological units, with the greatest reduction occurring on the northern Inner Mongolian Plateau, where the lake area decreased from 3121.81 km ² to 2527.85 km ² (19.03%). During 2010-2018, the lake area continued to decline in the Daxinganling Mountains, the West Liaohe Plain, the Yinshan Mountains, and the desert zone. Specifically, the Yinshan Mountains experienced the largest decrease of 54.98 km ² (24.41%), from 225.25 km ² to 170.27 km ². Contrastingly, on the northern Inner Mongolian Plateau, the total lake area increased by 189.09 km ² (7.48%), from 2527.85 km ² to 2716.94 km ².

4.4. Changes in Lakes in Different Climatic Zones

According to the climate zoning scheme for China, Inner Mongolia is divided into five climate zones: mid-temperate arid, mid-temperate semi-arid, mid-temperate semi-humid, mid-temperate humid, and cold temperate humid zones [ 26]. The studied lakes were mainly distributed in the mid-temperate arid, mid-temperate semi-arid, and mid-temperate semi-humid zones ( Figure 2); the temporal variations in the number and area of the lakes exhibited different trends depending on the climate zones ( Table 5).

In the mid-temperate arid zone, the number and area of the lakes displayed increasing trends. During 1990-1995, the number of lakes increased rapidly from 106 to 119 (10.9%), and the area of the lakes increased from 627.86 km ² to 642.80 km ². Conversely, during 1995-2010, the number of lakes fluctuated, diminishing slightly from 119 to 116, and the total area of the lakes decreased from 642.80 km ² to 583.82 km ². During 2010-2018, the number of lakes increased from 116 to 125 (7.2%), and the area of the lakes grew by 25.13% or 146.71 km ², from 583.82 km ² to 730.53 km ².

In 1990, the number and area of the lakes in the mid-temperate semi-arid zone accounted for 75.8% and 91.4%, respectively, of those in the entire region. During 1990-2000, the number of lakes remained relatively stable, decreasing from 389 to 390, while the area of lakes increased from 4292.06 km ² to 4366.05 km ². During 2000-2010, both the number and area of the lakes declined, with the number of lakes decreasing from 390 to 385 and their total area shrinking by 20.2% (881.24 km ²), from 4366.05 km ² to 3484.81 km ². After 2010, the number and area of the lakes gradually steadied, with the number stabilizing at a lower value of 384 and the area at a slightly higher value of 3515.46 km ².

Both the number and area of the lakes in the mid-temperate semi-humid zone varied only slightly. The number of lakes remained at 18 for each year, except in 1995 and 2015 when the number was 17. The area stabilized between 40 and 50 km ² in each year, except for 2010, which had a low value of 37 km ².

5.1. Impact of Climatic Conditions on Lakes

5.1.1. Precipitation

Over the past 50 years, the precipitation inclination rates at 69 meteorological stations in Inner Mongolia ( Figure 3) were positive in the western region and in parts of northeast, indicating increased precipitation in these areas. In contrast, the precipitation inclination rate was negative in central Inner Mongolia and in the Hailar district in the northeast, indicating decreased precipitation in these areas. The specific rates of increase or decrease in the precipitation varied among the areas.

An interdecadal analysis of the precipitation measured by all the meteorological stations in Inner Mongolia over the past 40 years ( Figure 4) revealed that the precipitation trends in the entire region were as follows: (1) Compared with the 1970s, the 1980s saw a precipitation decrease throughout most of Inner Mongolia, except for an increase at five stations in the northeast. (2) Compared with the 1980s, in the 1990s, the precipitation increased throughout most the region (by 0-50 mm), except for some areas in northeastern Inner Mongolia. (3) Unlike in the 1990s, in the 2010s, the precipitation declined throughout most the region to varying degrees, especially in the eastern region where the decrease was as large as 100-161.5 mm; however, a limited number of areas experienced a slight increase in precipitation. (4) After 2010, the precipitation increased (to varying degrees) throughout most of the region, except for a limited number of areas. This trend in precipitation is consistent with the dynamics in the number and area of the lakes during the 1990-2018 period.

5.1.2. Temperature

The temperature inclination rates in Inner Mongolia over the last 50 years ( Figure 5) were positive across all the meteorological stations, indicating that, throughout the entire region, the temperature continuously increased over the nearly 50-year period from 1970-2017. Notably, the temperature increased at an average rate of 0.043 °C/a, and it increased by more than 2 °C in some areas. The slope of the increasing temperature trend varied among the regions. It was relatively high (0.3-0.5 °C/10 a) in central and western Inner Mongolia, where the temperature increased rapidly, whereas in the northeastern region, the slope of the increasing trend was relatively small, and the temperature rose slowly.

The decade-average temperature was calculated for each meteorological station in Inner Mongolia, and the differences between the average values for two successive decades were calculated to compare the trend in temperature changes within each region over the different decades ( Figure 6). Compared with the 1970s, the 1980s saw temperature increases throughout most of Inner Mongolia, with an average increase of less than 0.5 °C; however, some of the meteorological stations recorded temperature decreases. Compared with the 1980s, in the 1990s, the temperature increased throughout the entire Inner Mongolia, with an average increase of more than 0.75 °C. This phenomenon was more pronounced in Hailar, Manzhouli, Xinbaerhuzuoqi, Xinbaerhuyouqi, and other areas in the northeast, where the increases were large (>1 °C). Unlike in the 1990s, in the 2000s, the temperatures continued to increase throughout most areas in Inner Mongolia; however, the increase was relatively small (mostly below 0.5 °C). After 2010, western Inner Mongolia experienced a slight increase in temperature, whereas the temperature decreased in both central and northeastern Inner Mongolia. In general, the temperature in Inner Mongolia has continuously risen in almost all areas of the region since the 1980s, with particularly drastic increases in the 1990s, yet some areas experienced a certain temperature decrease after 2010.

As described above, a warm-dry climate trend characterized by significant and sustained increases in temperature and decreases in precipitation was typical post 1990s and served as the main driver of the lake changes [ 27]. The climate change pattern coincided with the overall pattern of the lake changes. (1) The number and area of the lakes reached minimum values during 2000-2010, when the region experienced the warmest and driest weather. (2) The lake area rebounded to some extent from 2010-2015 and during subsequent years when the region experienced increases in precipitation and decreases in temperature. The extreme events caused by climate change may cause future deterioration of the area of the lakes [ 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34].

5.2. Impact of Human Activities on Lakes

Human activities are one of the important drivers of lake changes in arid and semi-arid regions; the main activities inducing the lake decline in Inner Mongolia include the high scale of water conservancy projects (such as reservoirs), increased water consumption, excessive industrial water consumption (such as coal mining), and increased water consumption for irrigation [ 12]. This study discusses the impact of these activities on lake changes from three perspectives.

5.2.1. Water Resource Regulation

Water regulation has both positive and negative impacts on lakes [ 35, 36]. For example, there have been successful examples of anthropogenic interventions maintaining lake ecology; however, ecological problems associated with severe lake shrinkage after reservoir construction have also been reported. In Inner Mongolia, water regulation has become a powerful intervention measure for the artificial regulation of storage for most lakes. Based on field investigation, relevant national policies and news reports, and analysis of the driving factors of typical lake changes, we concluded that the seven large lakes with individual areas of >100 km ² are mainly regulated artificially, except for Dalinuoer Lake, which is still chiefly controlled by natural factors ( Table 6).

The construction of reservoirs in endorheic basins imparts an important impact on the lakes. As of 2007, there were 61 large reservoirs in Inner Mongolia, including 10 reservoirs in endorheic basins. In 1990, the Wulagai Gobi Lake had a water area of 257.91 km ²; however, by 2005 it had completely dried up due to the construction of the Wulagai reservoir. The lake area was maintained at about 140 km ² after the construction [ 37, 38]. Water conservancy projects in the upper reaches of the Heihe River in the Gansu Province caused the East Juyanhai Lake and West Juyanhai Lake on the Alxa Plateau to disappear in 1992 and 1961, respectively [ 39]. In 2000, the national inter-provincial water diversion policy was implemented for the Heihe River and led to a significant increase in the areas of these two lakes [ 40]. The East Juyanhai Lake has maintained a near constant water area since August 2004. Notably, by 2016, its water area was stable at about 40 km ² [ 41]. The area of West Juyanhai Lake reached 128.65 km ² in 2005 and has been maintained at 60.36 km ² since 2018. In the 1950s, the Huangqihai Lake was a natural freshwater lake with an area of 130 km ². After 37 reservoirs with a total storage capacity of 51.18 million m ³ were built on the inflowing rivers in the 1960s and 1970s, the surface water supply to the Huangqihai Lake was basically cut off. Combined with the decrease in precipitation, this led to the lake's disappearance in 2008. This dried-up state lasted until 2012, when the lake water area recovered to 26.75 km ² due to heavy precipitation [ 42]. However, the salinity increased to more than 7.79 g/L, turning the one freshwater lake into a saltwater lake [ 43].

The Hasuhai Lake, Wuliangsuhai Lake, and Hulun Lake are all maintained through water diversion projects. Both the Hasuhai Lake and Wuliangsuhai Lake are oxbow lakes of the Yellow River. The Hasuhai Lake is replenished using the Minsheng Canal to divert water from the Yellow River. The Wuliangsuhai Lake is maintained using key water control projects of the Hetao Irrigation District, which divert the ice-melt flood water of the Yellow River and intermittent irrigation water. Alternately, the Hulun Lake is refilled through a water resource allocation and water environment management project (which diverts river water to the lake). Notably, these efforts have restored the wetlands and improved the ecological environment surrounding the lake.

5.2.2. Groundwater Extraction and Agricultural Irrigation

The groundwater distribution is extremely uneven in Inner Mongolia [ 44]. The West Liaohe Plain and the Hetao Plain are the richest in groundwater resources and also have the highest degree of groundwater exploitation. In contrast, the northern Inner Mongolian Plateau and the Alxa Plateau are the areas with the poorest groundwater resources.

The lakes on the Hetao Plain are mainly located in the Yellow River Diversion Irrigation Zone, where the extent of groundwater exploitation is limited, and thus, groundwater extraction has a small impact on the plain's lakes. Conversely, the Hubao area is subject to a high degree of groundwater exploitation. In this area, the number of lakes is small, and the hydraulic link between the lakes and groundwater is weak. Therefore, groundwater extraction has a minimal impact on the lakes.

The West Liaohe Plain contains a large number of lakes, and its groundwater is the main source of drinking water for humans and animals. Furthermore, the plain's groundwater is the primary source for agricultural irrigation, with agricultural water consumption accounting for about 81% of the total groundwater extraction [ 45]. Notably, there is a close hydraulic link between the groundwater and surface water on the West Liaohe Plain. Additionally, as the surface water runoff gradually declined over the years, the exploitation of groundwater increased. This groundwater extraction has impacted the plain's lakes, but the degree varies among lakes.

In addition to the continuous temperature increases and precipitation decreases (i.e., natural factors) [ 46], the severe shrinkage of Daihai Lake is largely attributed to the development of irrigated agriculture within the area (an anthropogenic factor). Irrigation water consumption was once as high as 40 million m ³/a or more, which is nearly the multi-year average natural runoff recharge received by the lake. This resulted in severe water imbalance within the Daihai Lake and rapid shrinkage of the lake area.

5.2.3. Water Consumption for Mining and Power Plants

Coal mining has the following major impacts on lakes [ 47, 48]. (1) Coal mining drains groundwater, and the subsequent decline in the groundwater table may lead to lake water leakage in areas where the lakes have close hydraulic links with the groundwater. (2) Coal mining causes surface subsidence and/or fractures throughout the lake area, thereby leading to lake water leakage. (3) Mine drainage pollutes the lake water.

Analysis of the lakes' spatial distribution in relation to the coal mining zones ( Figure 7) revealed that the average distance between coal mines and lakes was only 43.72 km, with 54 lakes located less than 10 km from the nearest mining sites. Furthermore, 132 lakes were within 5 km of nationally planned mining zones, and 166 lakes were within 10 km ( Table 7). The Hulun Buir Plateau, the northern Inner Mongolian Plateau, the Ordos Plateau, and the West Liaohe Plain all contain a large number of coal mines, as well as the largest number of lakes within 5 km and 10 km of these mining zones.

According to the annual statistical bulletins on national economic and social development in Inner Mongolia during 2000-2018 [ 49], the amount of coal mined in Inner Mongolia increased continuously during 2002-2012, and then decreased after 2014 ( Figure 8). The areas of the lakes within 10 km of the mining zones on the Hulun Buir Plateau, the Northern Plateau of Inner Mongolia, the Ordos Plateau, and the West Liaohe Plain ( Figure 9) decreased to various extents after 2000, though this decreasing trend slowed or even slightly reversed after 2010. This indicates that, to some degree, the lake area within 10 km of mining zones coincided with the fluctuations in the amount of coal mining.

The impact of a coal mining zone on a nearby lake is closely related to the hydrogeological conditions of both the lake and the mining zone. Thus, there is a need to conduct investigations and research on these coal mining zones. Regarding the use of water by power plants, as an example, the Daihai power plant uses water from Daihai Lake as the cooling circulating water, which consumes 10 million m ³ per year and has become one of the main drivers of the shrinkage of Daihai Lake [ 46].

From 1990-2018, the number and area of the lakes in Inner Mongolia significantly decreased, reaching minimums by 2010. Specifically, from 1990 to 2018, the total lake area exhibited a net decrease of 672.97 km ² (13.55%), and the number of lakes with individual areas of >1 km ² decreased by 83 (21.61%). This decreasing trend in lake area has slowed in recent years; however, the long-term decreasing shifts in both the number and area of the lakes are still apparent.

With respect to the distribution of the lakes throughout the different geomorphological units, lake shrinkage mainly occurred on the northern Inner Mongolian Plateau, in the desert zone, on the West Liaohe Plain, in the Yinshan Mountains, and in the Daxinganling Mountains. Among these regions, the lake shrinkage was the most severe on the West Liaohe Plain, where the number and area of the lakes decreased by 54.43% and 49.18%, respectively, followed by the northern Inner Mongolian Plateau, where the number and area of the lakes decreased by 21.47% and 19.03%, respectively.

With respect to the distribution of the lakes within the different climatic zones, the lake shrinkage was primarily seen in the mid-temperate semi-arid zone, decreasing by 776.6 km ² (18.09%). In contrast, the number and area of the lakes in the mid-temperate arid zone increased by 19 lakes and 102.67 km ², respectively. The lakes in the mid-temperate semi-humid zone remained relatively stable, with only small changes in both the number and area of the lakes.

The combined effects of the natural conditions and anthropogenic disturbances were the main causes of the lake shrinkage. The warm-dry climate trend characterized by increasing temperatures and decreasing precipitation was the main driver of the lake changes; however, the additional impacts of water regulation projects, agricultural irrigation, mining development, and population growth cannot be ignored. The factors associated with the lake shrinkage varied geographically, and thus there is a need to conduct more detailed lake-specific analysis and research.

Methodology, J.S.; validation, Z.W. and W.W.; formal analysis, J.G.; investigation, Y.Z. and Z.W.; resources, J.S.; data curation, Z.W.; writing-original draft preparation, J.G. and W.W.; writing-review and editing, J.S.; visualization, Z.W.; supervision, Y.Z.; project administration, J.G. and Y.Z.; funding acquisition, J.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This study was financially supported by the Basic Scientific Research Project (Grant No. SK201903) and National Key Research and Development Subject (Grant No. 2019YFC0409201).

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

We would like to thank LetPub and Editage ( www.editage.cn accessed on 2 October 2022) for its linguistic assistance during the preparation of this manuscript.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

1. Wang, S.M.; Dou, H.S. A Directory of Lakes in China; Science Press: Beijing, China, 1998. [Google Scholar]

2. Tao, S.L.; Fang, J.Y.; Zhao, X.; Zhao, S.Q.; Shen, H.H.; Hu, H.F.; Tang, Z.Y.; Wang, Z.H.; Guo, Q.H. Rapid loss of lakes on the Mongolian Plateau. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2015, 112, 2281-2286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

3. Chen, Y. Study on the Evolution Mechanism of Lake-Groundwater System in Desert Coal Mining Area: A Case Study in Bojianghaizi Basin. Master's Thesis, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China, 2021. [Google Scholar]

4. Xia, M.H. Study on Evolution and Ecological Response of Groundwater-Lake System in Hulunberier Grassland Coal Mining Area. Master's Thesis, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China, 2020. [Google Scholar]

5. Statistical Bulletin of National Economic and Social Development in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. Available online: https://www.nmg.gov.cn/tjsj/sjfb/tjsj/tjgb/index.html (accessed on 30 August 2022).

Publisher's Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Lake Changes in Inner Mongolia over the Past 30 Years and the Associated Factors

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Lakes are important water resources in Inner Mongolia and play essential roles in flood storage, water source maintenance, aquaculture, water volume regulation, and the regional ecological balance. However, most lakes in Inner Mongolia have undergone significant shrinkage over the past few decades.

# data[].attributes.headline
Mongolia builds capacity to analyze chemical contamination of soil and water

# data[].attributes.subject
Mongolia builds capacity to analyze chemical contamination of soil and water

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Boasting an area of 1.5 million square miles filled with just 3.3 million people, Mongolia is the world's most sparsely populated country. It has experienced rapid industrial development and urbanization in the last three decades, including in its capital city of Ulaanbaatar, home to an estimated 40 per cent of its residents.

But this growth has not been matched by adequate chemicals and waste management strategies, creating serious threats to environmental and human health from the country's cities to its sprawling countryside.

The Mongolian government estimates that its hazardous waste generation is 27,000 to 54,000 tons per year and that much of this waste is not disposed of properly. As a party to the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm conventions, as well as the Minamata Convention, Mongolia is committed to getting on the right track.

Its recently launched project, supported by the United Nations Environment Programme's (UNEP's) Chemicals and Waste Management Programme, marks a concrete step in fulfilling its obligations under these agreements and securing a sustainable future for its citizens.

The first aim of the three-year project is to review the current state of hazardous waste production and management, including what types of waste are being generated and how they are being treated and disposed of.

This will be documented in households, commercial units, institutions, industries, agricultural production, construction, and disposal and treatment facilities. As part of the review, gender-based analyses will also be conducted to better understand how gender affects susceptibility to hazardous impacts.

This initial project activity will help establish baseline information on the country's hazardous waste and its effects on the population, which is key for making effective policy decisions surrounding waste management.

Mongolia is developing national standards and methods for sampling and analyzing hazardous waste in soil and water. Photo: UNEP

In 2013, the Mongolian Academy of Sciences, in collaboration with the UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and the Global Environment Facility (GEF), established an analytical laboratory. Amongst other things, the laboratory works on testing polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in oils used to insulate electrical equipment. It also monitors efforts to mitigate PCB contamination for equipment used in Mongolia.

Through this project, Mongolia is now working to expand the capacity of the laboratory, by developing national standards and methods for sampling and analyzing hazardous wastes, such as hazardous pesticides in soil and water.

This institutional growth will be made possible by learning from the experiences and best practices of other countries and training national researchers to enhance their sampling and analytical capacities.

The project's second aim is to provide awareness-raising and training for stakeholders responsible for hazardous waste management, including those representing government and non-governmental organizations, industries, companies, academic institutes, and communities.

This will be achieved by organizing training workshops, practical fieldwork, online tools, and the dissemination of training materials and handouts. The main topics will include a review of the baseline information on hazardous waste management in the country; types, sources, disposal and treatment options for hazardous waste; international best practices; and legal requirements of international conventions the country has ratified.

After the training, these stakeholders will be empowered to disseminate knowledge on hazardous waste management to people in their specific areas of operation or responsibility.

As part of both UNEP's and the Mongolian government's commitment to ensuring gender equity in this project, gender considerations will be interwoven into all activities. The project team will collect data that helps paint a clearer picture of how hazardous waste might affect women and men in different ways.

As a special cross-cutting initiative, a participatory management approach on hazardous waste will be piloted in one community area. The project will strive for equal participation among women and men, with the long-term goal of reducing the disproportionate impacts women may experience as a result of hazardous waste mismanagement.

At the end of the project, Mongolia hopes the impacts of its efforts to protect communities and natural resources will be felt by people and wildlife across its expansive terrain.
For further information please contact the Special Programme Secretariat at unepchemicalsspecialprogramme@un.org

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Mongolia builds capacity to analyze chemical contamination of soil and water

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Boasting an area of 1.5 million square miles filled with just 3.3 million people, Mongolia is the world's most sparsely populated country. It has experienced rapid industrial development and urbanization in the last three decades, including in its capital city of Ulaanbaatar, home to an estimated 40 per cent of its residents.

# data[].attributes.body
1. What are three reasons that air pollution is so bad in Mongolia?
2. Who is mostly affected?
3. What are some possible solutions?

• Discuss how the topic of the article relates to each of the Three Pillars of Sustainability
• Provide at least one example of how the topic of the article relates to your life

# data[].attributes.headline
Ulaanbaatar residents face worst air quality in the world

# data[].attributes.subject
Ulaanbaatar residents face worst air quality in the world

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
On October 23, 2020, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia registered the worst air quality in the world according to IQAir AirVisual air quality index (AQI). Registering at an air quality index of 203, the city has average AQI readings between 100-200 since October 11. Despite a government ban on burning raw coal, the city still experienced a steep decline in air quality as colder nights have descended on the north Asian capital city.

The city topped Lahore, Pakistan; Delhi, India; Chengdu, China; and Belgrade Serbia, all cities with unhealthy air quality at the time the Mongolian capital city registered at 203. The AQI level was part of a live city ranking of 100 cities recorded around 8 PM Ulaanbaatar Time.
Pictured: Ranked listing of cities around the world and their AQIs on Friday, October 23. The time listed is 5AM PST.
Dangerously high air quality levels can have a direct impact on human health. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia air pollution levels have registered as dangerous on the Air Quality Index (AQI):

101-150: Classified as "unhealthy for sensitive groups.�� People most affected by poor air quality should limit their exertion outdoors.

151-200: Within this range, air quality is deemed "unhealthy," a threat to sensitive demographics. It's also harmful to the general public.

201-300: This AQI range is considered "very unhealthy," and sensitive groups are encouraged to limit outdoor activities. There are health risks for anyone outdoors when air quality reaches this level.

Pictured: the IQAir AirVisual air quality index (AQI), based on US AQI standards per the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Ulaanbaatar ranked 48th on the list of most polluted cities (PM2.5) for 2019, with the worst air quality registered from January through March and October through December. Overnight temperatures in October, 2020 have dropped from a low of 20 degrees Fahrenheit on October 1st, just 4 degrees Fahrenheit on October 13th. ¹

Mongolia ranked 3rd among reported nations in the IQAir 2019 World Air Quality Report, with an average PM2.5 concentration of 62 (µg/m ³) weighted by population, equating to an AQI of 154. PM2.5 concentration was 6 times above the World Health Organization (WHO) annual exposure recommendation of 10 µg/m ³.

Pictured: Hourly air quality index (AQI) data for Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia from Thursday, September 24 to Friday morning, October 23rd.

Why does Mongolia have air pollution?

Ulaanbaatar's poor air quality in winter is most frequently connected to Mongolia's dominant heating practices in a city with some of the coldest winters of any world capital. Air pollution in Mongolia has been attributed in studies to seasonal solid fuel combustion. ²

Raw coal is burned in city districts within traditional gers, portable circular one-room homes made from a wooden frame and felt. Stoves or boilers located in the center of the home send exhaust through a chimney and out a flap at the top of the dome.

Coal is preferred in winter due to the longer lasting burn provided in comparison to biomass materials such as dung or wood. Raw coal-burning in the gers is attributed as the city's primary source of pollution. The WHO estimates that 80 percent of the city's winter air pollution comes from the gers, where an estimated 60 percent of city dwellers reside. ³

According to WHO health and environmental officer Dr Delgermaa Vanya, "the coal used in the stoves is a primary cause of Ulaanbaatar's air pollution, much worse than other sources of pollution such as cars and trucks or waste burning."

Other sources of regional air pollution include coal-fired power plants, dust from unpaved roads, and motor vehicle exhaust.

47 percent of the country's population lives in Ulaanbaatar, up from around 27 percent in 1989. ⁴ The city population has boomed, with an estimated 1.4 million people in 2018. Rural Mongolians have moved to Ulaanbaatar to find better jobs, living conditions, health services, education services, or for family. Increasingly harsh winters and severe droughts have taken their toll on migratory herding, as livestock may be lost or herders are forced to travel greater distances for pastureland, causing herders to move to the city for more stable work.

The Ger districts, found on the outskirts of the city, are largely off the grid due to a lack of infrastructure. Residents have been forced to make due without running water, sewage, central heating, and in some cases, electricity. Even those city migrants who have access to electricity still tend to use coal-, wood-, or dung-fired stoves for heating and cooking due to the lower cost.

Contributing to Ulaanbaatar's struggle with air pollution is its location. The city was built in a valley, a geographic liability that's led to a thermal inversion effect. Cool air and pollutants stay closer to the ground below, trapped by a layer of warmer air above. Salt Lake City is prone to the same affect.

The Mongolian government began a ban on raw coal burning in May, 2019. Raw coal has generally been cheap and obtainable for the city's poorer residents; keeping a ger warm and cooking meals when the external temperatures drop below freezing has been an essential priority. Recognizing the urgency to reduce air pollution and still permit essential household functions, the government has committed to expanding infrastructure. As a transitional step, the government distributed more fuel-efficient semicoke briquettes as an alternative to raw coal.

Poor air quality in Mongolia can lead to numerous health issues

Coal combustion creates PM2.5, an airborne pollutant measuring only ≤25 microns in diameter. Though tiny, they can do significant damage to the human system through inhalation. Coarse particles (PM10-2.5) can be irritants to the eyes, nose and throat. ⁶ Finer particulates go deep into the lungs and heart, and bloodstream. Potential negative health impacts include:

asthma aggravation

respiratory symptoms

increased hospitalizations

increased mortality rates from cardiovascular and respiratory diseases

lung cancer

Those with pre-existing heart and lung conditions, the elderly, and children are considered most vulnerable to adverse health effects; children can struggle with reduced lung growth rate and long-term function.

Apart from creating high levels of PM2.5, raw coal burning also releases sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and carbon monoxide into the atmosphere.
The IQAir major city ranking features 100 major cities with a population of more than 300,000 people. Cities have been selected to represent a wide range of countries to allow global contrast. The ranking is updated hourly and is based on a comparative level of air quality across major cities at any given hour. To compare cities using their annual mean air quality levels, visit IQAir's World's Most Polluted Cities list.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia: World's worst air quality | IQAir

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
On October 23, 2020, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia registered the worst air quality in the world according to IQAir AirVisual air quality index (AQI). Registering at an air quality index of 203, the city has average AQI readings between 100-200 since October 11.

# data[].attributes.headline
Toxic Winter: The ‘Slow Violence’ of Air Pollution in Mongolia

# data[].attributes.subject
Toxic Winter: The ‘Slow Violence’ of Air Pollution in Mongolia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Advertisement
As the crisp winter air flows across Inner Asia each year, a simmering threat resurfaces in Mongolia's capital city of Ulaanbaatar.

Ulaanbaatar is home to 1.5 million people, half of Mongolia's population. Despite its relatively small population, the city consistently ranks among the world's most polluted cities. This year is no exception. On December 1, Ulaanbaatar's Air Quality Index was 169, showing "unhealthy" air pollution levels with a particulate matter (PM) 2.5 concentration 18 times the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended level. It has remained well into unhealthy levels through December 7.

Ulaanbaatar is the coldest capital city in the world. Temperatures regularly fall well below -20 degrees Celsius. As a result, most of the population living in gers, traditional Mongolian yurts belonging mostly to migrants from the countryside, burn raw coal for heat as they do not have access to the central electricity grid of the capital. This practice has been identified as the main cause of Ulaanbaatar's air pollution.

The city's topography doesn't help either. Ulaanbaatar is located in the narrow valley of the Bogd mountain on the Tuul river. This geography creates a thermal inversion layer above the city, which traps its toxic air.

Diplomat Brief

Weekly Newsletter
N Enjoying this article? Click here to subscribe for full access. Just $5 a month.

Get briefed on the story of the week, and developing stories to watch across the Asia-Pacific.

This recurring phenomenon of toxic winter air in Ulaanbaatar can be best understood as a form of " slow violence." This term was coined by literary scholar Rob Nixon in 2011 to describe the non-spectacular, sometimes even invisible, ways in which the most marginalized communities are being threatened by environmental degradation and anthropogenic climate change. Slow violence challenges the mainstream understanding of violence as immediate, explosive, or spectacular and, instead, sees violence as happening when people are denied basic needs through social, economic, and/or political structures such as institutionalized forms of racism, sexism, and classism.

The invisibility of toxic air pollution and its gradual accumulation over time makes it an excellent candidate for the "slow violence" analysis. In fewer places is this issue more pertinent than in Ulaanbaatar.

Understanding toxicity as a form of slow violence reveals some of the challenges involved in measuring and addressing air pollution. Air pollution is most commonly measured in terms of the amount of inhalable particulate matter in the atmosphere, especially the concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10. These scientific definitions of toxicity are derived from measurements made by satellite technology or remote sensing. While these methods can be very useful, they ignore the embodied experiences and health implications of this slow violence on a daily basis - factors that the idea of slow violence attempts to emphasize.

The toxicity of Ulaanbaatar's winter air has very serious health implications for its population, particularly for children. Pneumonia is the second leading cause of death for children under 5, and children in Ulaanbaatar have 40 percent lower lung functioning capacity than children in rural areas of the country. Air pollution has also been strongly correlated with a decrease in delivered-infant conception rates during the winter months, demonstrating overall negative effects on reproductive health.
Advertisement
In order to address these health concerns, the government of Mongolia has shown sustained efforts to reduce air pollution in the capital, but the impacts are debatable. In May 2019, for the first time in history, the government implemented a ban on raw coal use. Instead, the government provided a form of processed coal product called briquettes, which burn for longer and don't release fumes.

Despite initial hopes that this policy would be the silver bullet to solving air pollution in Mongolia, the long-term benefits of this policy have been widely contested. With the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent economic shutdown, lower-income households resorted to burning various forms of cheap dirty fuel, which significantly contributed to Ulaanbaatar's horrific 2020 air quality, once again ranked the worst in the world.

With colder weather conditions expected in January and February, PM2.5 concentrations in the Mongolian capital could be up to 40 times higher than the WHO standard. There is no doubt that reducing the city's raw coal consumption is a necessary step forward for improving air quality in Ulaanbaatar. Nevertheless, the slow violence analysis points out that toxic harm arises from systems of inequality and, unfortunately, also has disproportionate effects on the more at-risk members of the population.

Reducing poverty rates in the city and facilitating the integration of marginalized ger households into the city's central energy infrastructure would be the real milestone for achieving healthier levels of air quality in Ulaanbaatar.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Toxic Winter: The 'Slow Violence' of Air Pollution in Mongolia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Advertisement As the crisp winter air flows across Inner Asia each year, a simmering threat resurfaces in Mongolia's capital city of Ulaanbaatar. Ulaanbaatar is home to 1.5 million people, half of Mongolia's population. Despite its relatively small population, the city consistently ranks among the world's most polluted cities.

# data[].attributes.headline
Air pollution slowly killing Mongolian children

# data[].attributes.subject
Air pollution slowly killing Mongolian children

# data[].attributes.headline
Questions to answer about Recycling in Mongolia

# data[].attributes.subject
Questions to answer about Recycling in Mongolia

# data[].attributes.body
1. Does Mongolia have a recycling program in Mongolia?
2. What are the negative effects of not recycling?
3. Why is recycling important for the future?
4. What are the effects of plastics in Mongolia?

# data[].attributes.headline
Questions to Answer about Food Systems in Mongolia?

# data[].attributes.subject
Questions to Answer about Food Systems in Mongolia?

# data[].attributes.body
1. What are some problems that Mongolia when it comes to food safety?
2. What are some other issues related to food in Mongolia?
3. What are some possible solutions to these problems?

# data[].attributes.headline
The EU-funded ‘Sustainable Plastic Recycling in Mongolia’ project is helping to improve waste management in Mongolia

# data[].attributes.subject
The EU-funded ‘Sustainable Plastic Recycling in Mongolia’ project is helping to improve waste management in Mongolia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Please click here if you are not redirected within a few seconds.

In Mongolia, we do not have a recycling system in place, therefore, almost all waste is collected and dumped at unofficial and uncontrolled landfills, after which it is burned. "Аbout 300 million tonnes of plastic waste is produced every year. That's nearly equivalent to the weight of the entire human population.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Please click here if you are not redirected within a few seconds. In Mongolia, we do not have a recycling system in place, therefore, almost all waste is collected and dumped at unofficial and uncontrolled landfills, after which it is burned. "Аbout 300 million tonnes of plastic waste is produced every year.

# data[].attributes.headline
Towards a Circular Economy: Addressing Plastic Waste Management in Mongolia through SWITCH-Asia SPRIM

# data[].attributes.subject
Towards a Circular Economy: Addressing Plastic Waste Management in Mongolia through SWITCH-Asia SPRIM

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Towards a Circular Economy: Addressing Plastic Waste Management in Mongolia through SWITCH-Asia SPRIM › Resource Library | SWITCH-Asia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
International Plastic Bag Free Day , is a global initiative that aims to curb the use of plastic bags and promote a living without throwaway plastic goods by looking for safer alternatives. Although plastic goods have made our life more convenient, their negative environmental impact is tremendous throughout the life cycle.

# data[].attributes.headline
Mongolia is in top ten countries that produces the most plastic waste per person says, market researcher

# data[].attributes.subject
Mongolia is in top ten countries that produces the most plastic waste per person says, market researcher

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Mongolia is in top ten countries that produces the most plastic waste per person says, market researcher

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Mongolia is one of the 10 top countries that produces the most plastic waste per capita. Each person on average generates 137,58 kg of plastic waste per year according to new market research on recycled plastic products in Mongolia. Caritas Czech Republic Mongolia published the first of its kind mar…

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Helping To Eliminate Single-Use Plastics In Mongolia - Eternal Landscapes

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
It is easy to feel that companies in the travel and tourism sector have inflated claims about their 'green' credentials in order to capitalise and profit. We're a small, specialist tour operator without stakeholders or investors and we're limited by our resources - both time and economic.

# data[].attributes.headline
Mongolia transforms food system to ensure safer food, increase health security

# data[].attributes.subject
Mongolia transforms food system to ensure safer food, increase health security

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
People's health relies on an adequate supply of safe, affordable and nutritious food. When food is labelled incorrectly, produced or packaged in unsanitary conditions or not stored at appropriate temperatures people are at risk of foodborne illnesses.

And, when food is in short supply due to factors, such as climate change, a weak supply chain or economic instability, malnutrition and food insecurity can increase, threatening a country's health security.

Mongolia has faced the challenge of food insecurity and the food regulatory system. An estimated 1 in 4 Mongolians experience moderate or severe food insecurity, and a large portion of the food available on the market, such as fresh fruits and vegetables, is imported. Additionally, the existing system has not yet been standardized for food inspection and food businesses, and this may increase food safety risks across the production chain.

"All of us have a role to play to ensure that the food we consume is safe and will not cause damages to our health. From farm to plate, food safety is everyone's business," says Dr Sergey Diorditsa, WHO Representative to Mongolia.

Strengthening food safety at all levels

Over the past decade, the Government of Mongolia, with support from WHO and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), has been working to improve intersectoral cooperation at both local and national levels in order to ensure food safety and control outbreaks of foodborne diseases across the country.

Since food safety is a shared responsibility among multiple stakeholders in Mongolia, including the National Security Council, National Committee on Food Safety, Ministry of Health and Sports, and Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Public Health Institute, General Agency for Specialized Inspection, as well as business and consumers, WHO supported key stakeholders in the country to develop the "Cross-Sector Strategy on Ensuring Food Security (2016-2021)" in 2015.

The strategy has strengthened legal frameworks for the food sector, enhanced food safety coordination and data sharing, developed food safety control mechanisms, strengthened surveillance, and increased overall public awareness about food safety.
Food inspectors conduct a risk-based inspection at a food centre in Mongolia. Photo courtesy of the Mongolia General Agency for Specialized Investigation.

Introducing a risk-based inspection system

Over the past few years, a key area of the Government's work, in partnership with WHO and FAO, has been improving the food safety inspection system. Previously, business operators were responsible for their food products at every stage of the food chain with little external oversight and only general food regulations to follow. Although the Government worked to strengthen its food law in 2012 to include new external oversight on inspections, there was no system in place for verifying and coordinating inspections or recording good practices.

In 2010, the country developed a risk-based inspection system that has worked to reduce the number of ineffective inspections, standardize national inspection tools, and train both business operators and inspectors how to improve food safety. To build the country's food inspection capacity, WHO trained 42 inspectors in 2015, which has reduced ineffective inspections by 25% and reduced the number of high-risk food facilities by 19%. Additionally, WHO is working with the country to further assess its inspection and monitoring system and to develop risk-based inspection manuals to support training.

"Prior to implementing the risk-based inspection system, food businesses and inspectors were often on opposite sides. One seen as the punisher and the other as the violator," says Gerelmaa Lkhaasuren, senior state inspector of health, General Agency for Specialized Investigation. "However, today food businesses and inspectors work jointly to create a foundation to reduce food safety risks and have prioritized teaching over punishment. As a result, the number of violations has been reduced."

Securing the future food supply

While Mongolia has made great strides in improving food safety, it is now continuing to enhance the food sector. Under the President of Mongolia's initiative on "food supply and food safety", the country is working to develop agricultural clusters and food production complexes. This initiative aims to secure the domestic supply of food but support the country to become a food exporter.

On World Food Safety Day 2022, Mongolia hosted, "The National Forum on "Food supply and safety - Food production," organized jointly by the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Light Industry, FAO and WHO, which was attended by 800 participants from across the country. The aim of the forum was to further advocate for actions to increase food security and ensure a steady food supply in the years to come.

"Today, food security and food safety are becoming more and more pressing issues," says Enkhmaa Deleg, head of analysis and information division, National Security Council. "In the next 5 years, Mongolians will make a food revolution by fully meeting our domestic needs with 19 main types of food products such as meat products, dairy products, potatoes, carrots, cabbage, turnip, onions, garlic, beets, flour products, greenhouse vegetables, eggs, butter, salt, chicken and vegetable oil."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Mongolia transforms food system to ensure safer food, increase health security

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
People's health relies on an adequate supply of safe, affordable and nutritious food. When food is labelled incorrectly, produced or packaged in unsanitary conditions or not stored at appropriate temperatures people are at risk of foodborne illnesses.

# data[].attributes.headline
Opening the Path Towards Sustainable Food Systems in Mongolia

# data[].attributes.subject
Opening the Path Towards Sustainable Food Systems in Mongolia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Opening the Path Towards Sustainable Food Systems in Mongolia › Resource Library | SWITCH-Asia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Switching on the Green Economy (SOGE), new SWITCH-Asia project launched

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
It is probably not an exaggeration to say that the future of food is looking more and more uncertain as we deal with the challenges posed by pandemics, conflicts, and natural disasters. Last few years have really tested the resilience and exposed the inequalities and vulnerabilities there are in our food systems. The war in Ukraine in prompted further price increase in global markets affecting the affordability of healthy diets. The challenges have been more severe for the countries that significantly depend on global markets for meeting food security needs, such as Mongolia.

Over the past couple of decades, Mongolia's food production system has advanced significantly, however the sustainability of these gains remains fragile. Although, food and agriculture has been among the most resilient sectors, the prices of major food items rose more than 20% and this had adverse impact on the most vulnerable in society. Agricultural productivity is falling, new diseases are emerging, frequency of climatic shocks is increasing, natural disasters and conflicts are causing displacement, migration, social conflicts and in some cases severe psychological stress.

Human and livestock footprints and increasing impacts from mining operations are driving significant land degradation and desertification, biodiversity losses, and deterioration of water quality and supply. More than 75 percent of natural grassland has been degraded, and about 25 percent are in extremely degraded state which would require a long natural recovery period. Nutrition security remains out of reach of most Mongolians with the co-existence of multiple forms of malnutrition, including obesity. While, nearly one in four Mongolians experiences moderate or severe food insecurity, the number of people who are obese or who suffer from food-related diseases have been increasing; 55 percent of Mongolians are overweight, and 20 percent are obese. At 32 percent, Mongolia has the second highest levels of premature mortality among low middle income countries.

Almost 50% of Mongolians are not able to afford a healthy diet
According to the National Nutrition Survey carried out 5 years ago, 90% of children in Mongolia under 5 years suffered from vitamin D deficiency or insufficiency, and 95% of pregnant women were insufficient in their vitamin D levels. The prevalence of vitamin A deficiency in children under 5 years was found to be 9.5%. 27% of children 2-59 months and 21% of pregnant women were anemic.

These micronutrient deficiencies are imposing growing burden of cardiometabolic risks. In global studies comparing diets and NCD risk across countries, Mongolia ranked 1st among all countries in the fraction of cardiovascular mortality attributable to dietary imbalances. At the same time, almost 50% of Mongolians are not able to afford a healthy diet. Further, as a result of a growing number of recent crises, declines in the cost of a healthy diet have stalled and there is a risk that costs are increasing.

The health of our food systems affects the health of our bodies, our environment, our economies and our cultures. Thus, the challenge for food system transformation is not only to produce sufficient and nutritious food, but also to contribute to a sustainable planet while generating sustainable livelihoods, preserving ecosystems, and contribute to climate change, territorial integrity and peace.
We need to achieve more with the same public resources and increase the availability and affordability of healthy diets
There is the need to accelerate progress towards economic diversification. This requires massive investment in infrastructure, market access, strengthening of local food supply chains, better integration of herders, small producers and SMEs in the value chains, technological innovations, shift from quantity to quality, and better branding of agro-ecological products. Building cooperation and synergy with different types of institutions and organizations, non-governmental organizations, as well as the private sector can be a driving force to boost markets, consumers, and farmers.

On October 16 th of every year, World Food Day is celebrated and one of the purposes is to draw public attention to the functions and dysfunctions of our food systems. We need to continue the discussions as transforming food systems represents one of the most powerful ways to make progress towards achievin g all Sustainable Development Goals. The multiple and interconnected challenges we faced and keep facing call for an innovative mindset and new ways of working to transform food systems and put an end to hunger and poverty. The government needs to start thinking how they can reallocate their existing public budgets to make them more cost-effective and efficient in reducing the cost of nutritious foods. We need to achieve more with the same public resources and increase the availability and affordability of healthy diets, with sustainability, leaving no one behind.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
By Vinod Ahuja, Food and Agriculture Organization Representative in MongoliaIt is probably not an exaggeration to say that the future of food is looking more and more uncertain as we deal with the challenges posed by pandemics, conflicts, and natural disasters.

# data[].attributes.headline
Young Mongolians Stand for a Healthy Future

# data[].attributes.subject
Young Mongolians Stand for a Healthy Future

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Child participants explained that children usually receive an average of 3,500 MNT of pocket money from their parents for lunch. According to their experience, the only affordable food they can buy during short class breaks with this money is easily available junk food as chips, lollipops, coke. "Our studies show a high rate of micronutrient deficiencies among not only children, but across the entire Mongolian population,"says Mr. Kouassi-Komlan.

MP Bulgantuya Khurelbaatar, the initiator of the Teen Parliament Programme, emphasized the need for well-balanced, nutritious and good quality lunches in schools across all grades. Currently, in public schools, only children from 1-5 grades are served hot meals for lunches, the quality of which is widely criticized by parents and the larger public.

"First things first", says Ariun Galbadrakh, mother of four, "I make sure my children drink plenty of water. Taking water bottles to schools is a must. And secondly, I taught my children how to cook from the early age, introducing to them all the healthy and nutritious ingredients that they can use in preparing tasty meals."

"Until today I didn't realize that food is so important for health," says 16-years old Duurenjargal, a secondary school pupil from Ulaanbaatar. "I have a sweet tooth and always preferred sugary foods. But now, after getting all of this information, I understood that it is much better and smarter to prepare healthy meals with ingredients available at home, not necessarily expensive vegetables, but using meat, potatoes and carrots. With some little fantasy one can cook delicious dishes." Duurenjargal is excited to share his newly acquired knowledge with his friends at school.

As noted by the Speaker of the Mongolian Parliament, Zandanshatar Gombojav, the strength of youth advocates is in the passion and devotedness with which they share the new knowledge with their peers. "You've successfully advocated for clean air and climate change mitigation during the first Programme under this initiative. Now let's do the same great job on promoting healthy diets and continue advocating for SDGs," said Mr Zandanshatar Gombojav, addressing his young friends.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Young Mongolians Stand for a Healthy Future

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Child participants explained that children usually receive an average of 3,500 MNT of pocket money from their parents for lunch. According to their experience, the only affordable food they can buy during short class breaks with this money is easily available junk food as chips, lollipops, coke.

# data[].attributes.headline
Post Videos Here and answer the questions in the purple box. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Post Videos Here and answer the questions in the purple box. 

# data[].attributes.body
Khan podcast Host: Maralgoo Ft: Nandin and BoldEnkh

# data[].attributes.body
Ontario air pollution in Mongolia
Group members—Burte Khaliun and Tselmuun

# data[].attributes.body
Binderiya.B, Khulan.G, Egshiglen.B