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Invention:New Cancer Drugs that Force Cancer Cells to Self-Destruct

Connection:

I know about immunotherapy. Immunotherapy uses the body’s own immune system to fight disease and can manipulate the body’s natural systems to combat cancer. This discovery uses the cells’ self-destruct mechanism. Both approaches uses the body’s defenses to fight cancer.

Extend:

From the research, I learned that they artificially link two proteins, activating genes responsible for cell death within cancer cells. This extends my thinking that with more ways to cure cancer, the number of people getting cancer may rapidly decrease.

Challenge:

I wonder how this method ensures only cancer cells self-destruct without harming normal cells, since protein manipulation might affect many cell types. I also wonder if there will be any side effects, and if so, how serious they might be.

Source: https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2024/10/protein-cancer.html

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Our bodies divest themselves of 60 billion cells every day through a natural process of cell culling and turnover called apoptosis.

These cells - mainly blood and gut cells - are all replaced with new ones, but the way our bodies rid themselves of material could have profound implications for cancer therapies in a new approach developed by Stanford Medicine researchers.

They aim to use this natural method of cell death to trick cancer cells into disposing of themselves. Their method accomplishes this by artificially bringing together two proteins in such a way that the new compound switches on a set of cell death genes, ultimately driving tumor cells to turn on themselves. The researchers describe their latest such compound in a paper published Oct. 4 in Science.

The idea came to Gerald Crabtree, MD, a professor of development biology, during a pandemic stroll through the forests of Kings Mountain, west of Palo Alto, California. As he walked, Crabtree, a longtime cancer biologist, was thinking about major milestones in biology.

One of the milestones he pondered was the 1970s-era discovery that cells trigger their own deaths for the greater good of the organism. Apoptosis turns out to be critical for many biological processes, including proper development of all organs and the fine-tuning of our immune systems. That system retains pathogen-recognizing cells but kills off self-recognizing ones, thus preventing autoimmune disease.

"It occurred to me, Well gee, this is the way we want to treat cancer," said Crabtree, a co-senior author on the study who is the David Korn, MD, Professor in Pathology. "We essentially want to have the same kind of specificity that can eliminate 60 billion cells with no bystanders, so no cell is killed that is not the proper object of the killing mechanism."

Gerald Crabtree

Traditional treatments for cancer - namely chemotherapy and radiation - often kill large numbers of healthy cells alongside the cancerous ones. To harness cells' natural and highly specific self-destruction abilities, the team developed a kind of molecular glue that sticks together two proteins that normally would have nothing to do with one another.

Flipping the cancer script

One of these proteins, BCL6, when mutated, drives the blood cancer known as diffuse large cell B-cell lymphoma. This kind of cancer-driving protein is also referred to as an oncogene. In lymphoma, the mutated BCL6 sits on DNA near apoptosis-promoting genes and keeps them switched off, helping the cancer cells retain their signature immortality.

The researchers developed a molecule that tethers BCL6 to a protein known as CDK9, which acts as an enzyme that catalyzes gene activation, in this case, switching on the set of apoptosis genes that BCL6 normally keeps off.

"The idea is, Can you turn a cancer dependency into a cancer-killing signal?" asked Nathanael Gray, PhD, co-senior author with Crabtree, the Krishnan-Shah Family Professor and a chemical and systems biology professor. "You take something that the cancer is addicted to for its survival and you flip the script and make that be the very thing that kills it."

This approach - switching something on that is off in cancer cells - stands in contrast to many other kinds of targeted cancer therapies that inhibit specific drivers of cancer, switching off something that is normally on.

"Since oncogenes were discovered, people have been trying to shut them down in cancer," said Roman Sarott, PhD, a postdoctoral scholar at Stanford Medicine and co-first author on the study. "Instead, we're trying to use them to turn signaling on that, we hope, will prove beneficial for treatment."

Nathanael Gray

When the team tested the molecule in diffuse large cell B-cell lymphoma cells in the lab, they found that it indeed killed the cancer cells with high potency. They also tested the molecule in healthy mice and found no obvious toxic side effects, even though the molecule killed off a specific category of of the animals' healthy B cells, a kind of immune cell, which also depend on BCL6. They're now testing the compound in mice with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma to gauge its ability to kill cancer in a living animal.

Because the technique relies on the cells' natural supply of BCL6 and CDK9 proteins, it seems to be very specific for the lymphoma cells - the BCL6 protein is found only in this kind of lymphoma cell and in one specific kind of B cell. The researchers tested the molecule in 859 different kinds of cancer cells in the lab; the chimeric compound killed only diffuse large cell B-cell lymphoma cells.

And because BCL6 normally acts on 13 different apoptosis-promoting genes, the researchers hope their strategy will avoid the treatment resistance that seems so common in cancer. Cancer is often able to rapidly adapt to therapies that target only one of the disease's weak spots, and some of these therapies may stop cancer from growing without killing the cells entirely. The research team hopes that by blasting the cells with multiple different cell death signals at once, the cancer will not be able to survive long enough to evolve resistance, although this idea remains to be tested.

"It's sort of cell death by committee," said Sai Gourisankar, PhD, a postdoctoral scholar and co-first author on the study. "And once a cancer cell is dead, that's a terminal state."

Crabtree and Gray, both members of the Stanford Cancer Institute, are co-founders of a biotech startup, Shenandoah Therapeutics, that aims to further test this molecule and a similar, previously developed molecule in hopes of gathering enough pre-clinical data to support launching clinical trials of the compounds. They also plan to build similar molecules that could target other cancer-driving proteins, including the oncogene Ras, which is a driver of several different kinds of cancer.

The study was funded by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, the National Institutes of Health (grants CA276167, CA163915, MH126720-01 and 5F31HD103339-03), the Mary Kay Foundation, the Schweitzer Family Fund, the SPARK Translational Research Program at Stanford University and Bio-X at Stanford University.

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Scientists glue two proteins together, driving cancer cells to self-destruct

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Stanford researchers hope new technique will flip lymphoma protein's normal action - from preventing cell death to triggering it.

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Invention:

A mind-reading chip in human’s brain

Connect:

The research about a mind-reading chip in the human brain connects to my knowledge of the nervous system and how neurons communicate.

Extend:

This research extends my thinking that the device could enable humans to control advanced robots one day. This shows that humans can enhance their thinking abilities with the help of AI in the future.  This makes it easier for us to work with robots directly in everyday life.

Challenge:

The thing that I will challenge is the privacy of this surgery. Since this technology can be used by the others, we can’t ensure that the contents are used responsibly. Therefore, I wonder if there are some methods to protect the data collected from humans. Also, how long will it take for these technologies to become safe, effective, and widely available? I wonder whether the public will accept and trust this technology because this is quite new and might have some risks using it.

Source: https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cewk49j7j1po

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CUHK proves its self-developed oral microencapsulated live bacteria formula SIM03 improves disease severity and quality of life in children with eczema

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CUHK SIM03 eczema

connection: I have always known about the existence of eczema, but I  didn't know that eczema can help me improve my  health, in addition to gut health.

Extend :

In the article,  Francis Chan said that if lacks Bifidobacteria, so the baby will have eczema. I realized that if is that the presence, absence, or imbalance of gut bacteria can lead to certain bodily conditions or symptoms. what we often think is that you may have a lot of bacteria in your food, but you won't get sick,because due to stomach acid destroying these bacteria. microencapsulation is a method to protect bacteria so they can survive stomach acid and reach the gut alive.This method allows for effective bacterial supplementation, potentially restoring healthy gut flora.

Challenge:

This concept is currently at a preliminary stag , and has yet been tested through large-scale clinical trials to validate its safety.

First, Don’t know if they can find so many baby for a large-scale clinical trial.

Second, baby, their immune system and gastrioimtestinal system is different from adults, and they don’t know how to talk, so when you do some evaluation, they cannot  directly tell your the symptoms. And every baby is different, some are more developed, some are less developed. Eg. A two-month old and a three-month old may respond differently to the same intervention, maybe they cannot have the same bacteria in the body.

Third, they have to determine the safe age to have the bacteria ( eg. New born baby ) won’t be good, because their immune system are not suppose to absorb these bacteria. ( eg. Two-month old ) may not be suitable, because their gastrointestinal system only absorbs milk.

In conclusion, I think they have to do this experience without causing any harm to the baby is the biggest challenge.

Source :https://www.med.cuhk.edu.hk/press-releases/cuhk-proves-its-self-developed-oral-microencapsulated-live-bacteria-formula-sim03-improves-disease-severity-and-quality-of-life-in-children-with-eczema

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The double helix

Discovery: The structure of DNA, as famously unveiled by the double helix model in 1953, is a twisted ladder consisting of two antiparallel strands, each made of a sugar-phosphate backbone forming the sides of the ladder. The "rungs" of the ladder are formed by nitrogenous bases—Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C)—which pair specifically via hydrogen bonds: A always with T, and G always with C. This complementary base pairing is the key to DNA's primary function: serving as the hereditary material that stores and transmits genetic instructions for an organism. When a cell divides, the double helix "unzips," and each single strand acts as a template for the synthesis of a new, complementary strand, a mechanism that allows for the accurate replication and stable inheritance of genetic information across generations.

Connect: I personally have always been fascinated and interested in biology no matter if it’s animals or plants or just organisms in general and I think it’s very interesting to see the structure of DNA as I recently found out that any two people on earth would have almost 99.9% of identical DNA. so this is all just very interesting and fascinating to me.

Extend:

This was honesty have fascinating to learn about since for some reason I’ve always presumed that each humans DNA would be very different but apparently not. And act that the adenine and thymine will always have the same amount and they always pair with each other, and same goes for the guanine and cytosine. And was super interesting to see the process of james Watson and Francis of discovering the double helix.

Challenge:

As I have only slightly grasp and skimmed the basics would like to know more about it in detailed when I have time.

Source: http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/discovery-of-dna-structure-and-function-watson-397

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Discovery: Stomach Acid Can Dissolve Metal

Connect: Stomach acid discovery connects to my knowledge about digestive system and the role of mucus in safeguarding tissues from corrosive substances.

Extend: This research extends my thinking by introducing how mucus is really important to us since it acts as a physical barrier that keeps the hydrochloric acid separate from the lining of your stomach and also contains bicarbonate that can neutralize hydrochloric acid.

Challenge: I think it challenges me since it uses scientific terms like "glycoproteins" and "peritonitis" which may require background knowledge to fully understand and it also contains detailed explain about how stomach acid interacts with tissues and the role of mucus involves a long process that can be hard to follow without a clear structure.

Source:

https://www.iflscience.com/stomach-acid-can-dissolve-metal-so-how-does-it-stay-in-our-stomachs-77550

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Invention: growing a spine

Connect: this invention connects with my knowledge of vertebrate and spine.

Extend: this article extends my understanding of vertebrate development and I think it’s very amazing that we know how to grow a spine and we can think of prevention for spinal birth defects which I used to think it is a thing that we can’t change.

Challenge: I would like to know how to prevent the spinal birth defects, will it have limitations or side effects.I also want to know if it can help people with spine injuries both since birth or due to accident and how can this invention help them.Another thing is that can it help animals too?

Source:https://scitechdaily.com/scientists-successfully-grow-human-spine-in-the-lab/

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One of the importance of studying biology is to develop our ability to think and solve problems scientifically. Do some research on the biology-related discoveries or inventions of the recent 5 years that help solving problems.

Upload one representative photo or diagram that is self-explanatory about the discovery or invention (local, national or global issues). Use thinking routine "Connect, Extend Challenge", or other suitable thinking routine to write a reflection within 100 words. Include the source of your finding.

Connect - How is the discovery or invention connected to something you know about?
Extend - What new ideas or impressions do you have that extended your thinking in new directions?
Challenge - What is challenging or confusing? What do you wonder about?

Score of 0 - 3 marks will be given to CA.

One bonus mark will be given to the most inspiring and interesting one.

Groups based on class numbers
Odd numbers: Discovery / Invention involving Human
Even numbers: Discovery / Invention involving Other Organisms

An Example is given below.

Write you class no. and your name as the title of the post (e.g. 30 Eddie)

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Invention:

'Tooth regrowth' medicine

Connect: The tooth regrowth research connects to my knowledge of dental treatments and regenerative medicine.

Extend: This research extends my thinking by introducing the concept of a third set of teeth in humans and the potential for inducing tooth regeneration through medication.

Challenge: The timeline for development is a challenge, as clinical trials start in 2024 and general use is expected by 2030. Safety, effectiveness, limitations, and side effects of the treatment remain uncertain. Incorporating the tooth regrowth medicine into dental practices and its long-term impact are also areas of wonder.

Source: The Mainichi
https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20230609/p2a/00m/0sc/026000c#:~:text=The%20tooth%20regrowth%20medicine%20is,and%20then%20permanent%20adult%20teeth.

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OSAKA -- A Japanese research team is making progress on the development of a groundbreaking medication that may allow people to grow new teeth, with clinical trials set to begin in July 2024.

The tooth regrowth medicine is intended for people who lack a full set of adult teeth due to congenital factors. The team is aiming to have it ready for general use in 2030.

In prior animal experiments, the medicine prompted the growth of "third-generation" teeth following baby teeth and then permanent adult teeth.

"The idea of growing new teeth is every dentist's dream. I've been working on this since I was a graduate student. I was confident I'd be able to make it happen," said Katsu Takahashi, lead researcher and head of the dentistry and oral surgery department at the Medical Research Institute Kitano Hospital in the city of Osaka.

Anodontia is a congenital condition that causes the growth of fewer than a full set of teeth, present in around 1% of the population. Genetic factors are thought to be the major cause for the one-tenth of anodontia patients who lack six or more teeth, a condition categorized as oligodontia. These conditions are also known as tooth agenesis. People who grow up with tooth agenesis struggle with basic abilities like chewing, swallowing and speaking from a young age, which can negatively impact their development.

After completing a dentistry degree, Takahashi went on to graduate studies in molecular biology at Kyoto University in 1991. Afterwards, he studied in the U.S.

Around that time, research around the world had begun to pinpoint genes that, when deleted, would cause genetically modified mice to grow fewer teeth. "The number of teeth varied through the mutation of just one gene. If we make that the target of our research, there should be a way to change the number of teeth (people have)," Takahashi said of his thoughts at the time.

Global attention

It was around 2005, when he delved further into the subject at Kyoto University after returning to Japan, that he began to see a bright path for his continued research. The researchers found that mice lacking a certain gene had an increased number of teeth. A protein called USAG-1, synthesized by the gene, was found to limit the growth of teeth. In other words, blocking the action of that protein could allow more teeth to grow.

Takahashi's research team narrowed their focus onto USAG-1, and developed a neutralizing antibody medicine able to block the protein's function. In experiments in 2018, mice with a congenitally low number of teeth were given medicine that resulted in new teeth coming through. The research results were published in a U.S. scientific paper in 2021, and gained much attention as the beginnings of the world's first tooth regeneration medicine.

Work is now underway to get the drug ready for human use. Once confirmed to have no ill effects on the human body, it will be aimed at treating children aged 2 to 6 who exhibit anodontia. "We hope to pave the way for the medicine's clinical use," Takahashi said.

Medicine could be game-changer

If successful, a drug to regenerate teeth may be a game-changer for the entire field of dentistry.

Animals including sharks and some reptile species can continuously regrow teeth. It's been assumed that humans only grow two sets of teeth in their lifetime, but in fact, there is evidence that we also have the "buds" for a third set.

Around 1% of the population exhibits the converse of anodontia: hyperdontia, a congenital condition causing a higher-than-normal number of teeth. According to research by Takahashi's team, one in three such cases manifests as the growth of a third set of teeth. Takahashi believes that in most cases, humans' ability to grow a third set was lost over time.

When the researchers applied the drug to ferrets, they grew an additional seventh front tooth. As the new teeth grew in between the existing front teeth and were of the same shape, the medicine is thought to have induced the generation of third-set teeth in the animals.

When treatment of teeth is no longer possible due to severe cavities or erosion of the dental sockets, known as pyorrhea, people lose them and need to rely on dental appliances such as dentures. The ability to grow third-generation teeth could change that. "In any case, we're hoping to see a time when tooth-regrowth medicine is a third choice alongside dentures and implants," Takahashi said.

For further information or inquiries about Takahashi's research, please visit https://www.kitano-hp.or.jp/toothreg/ (in Japanese).

(Japanese original by Mirai Nagira, Science & Environment News Department)

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World's 1st 'tooth regrowth' medicine moves toward clinical trials in Japan - The Mainichi

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OSAKA -- A Japanese research team is making progress on the development of a groundbreaking medication that may allow people to grow new teeth, with c

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Discovery :

A hormone that silences the immune system may unlock new cancer treatments

Connect:

this connects to what I already know about cancer therapy, for example, radiotherapy which works by killing the DNA of cancer cells from the outside by radiation.

Extend:

This discovery extends my understanding by showing that the first immune cells to arrive in a tumour ( myeloid cells ) are quickly corrupted from fighters to supporters, which introduces new potential treatments for autoimmune diseases.

Challenge:

the challenge is translating this from mice to humans, since it’s still unknown if blocking a hormone pathway is safe for a healthy function in the body. Furthermore, ensuring that a treatment only targets the tumours micro environment without causing widespread immunosuppression is a major hurdle.

Source: sciencedaily.com

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2025/09/250921091002.htm

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Discovery:

The creation of “Giant Panda Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells”

Connect:

This discovery involves the making of induced pluripotent stem cells from pandas’ skin cells. The stem cells can be nudged into becoming any kind of cell in the body, which can be used to fix damaged tissues. The discovery connects to me as I have always been fascinated about how stem cells can help heal injuries or grow new tissues. It can also help advance the overall stem cell science, which could enhance our understanding applied to human medicine, improving our lives.

Extend:

This discovery extends my thinking of what effects it has on the animals’ lives, it can help protect endangered species. Although pandas are no longer considered endangered, they are still a vulnerable species. Since these stem cells can develop into any cell type, it could produce panda offspring in the lab, which might help with breeding efforts, increasing the population of pandas, especially because pandas in captivity don’t mate naturally. Moreover, stem cells allow scientists to study panda diseases and develop treatments, improving the health and survival of the species. In addition, the stem cells might be able to regenerate tissues, which could treat injured or aging pandas by replacing their damaged cells.

Challenge:

The challenge of this discovery is how can they develop into healthy reproductive cells? Scientists are still figuring out the best way to turn the panda stem cells into fully functional reproductive cells that can successfully create giant panda embryos and baby pandas. Another concern is that panda stem cells are fragile and can lose their abilities quickly due to ‘stem cell aging’ and difference from their natural environment, so how can they be kept alive to work for a long time?

Source:

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/giant-panda-skin-cells-turned-stem-cells

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Discovery: “Rhino IVF”

Connect: The rhino IVF research connects to my knowledge of fertility methods. I had read an article (article 2) about a fertility procedure — In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) — before, which is similar to the procedure used for fertility in northern white rhinos.

Extend: This research extends my thinking as I assumed that using the traditional method of IVF facilitates the best fertility for all organisms. However, the number of fresh sperm in such rhinos is low (from article 3), resulting in a reduced chance of natural fertilisation. Therefore, I have discovered that Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) is more effective as each healthy sperm is injected into a mature egg, which increases fertility rates.

Challenge: The challenges in the discovery involve collecting eggs and placing embryos in the two-tonne animals since the reproductive tract is almost 2m inside them. I wonder whether implementing the ICSI is entirely effective in combating rhino extinction, since the main cause of extinction is the consumption of rhino horns by humans, rather than some evolutionary pressure. (From article 1)

Sources: BBC, Medpark Hospital, Tsavotrust

Article 1:

https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-68064432

Article 2:

https://www.medparkhospital.com/en-US/lifestyles/what-are-the-differences-between-ivf-and-icsi

Article 3:

https://tsavotrust.org/why-is-it-so-hard-to-get-rhinos-pregnant/

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Discovery:

Detergent-like proteins. In recent years, scientists have discovered that non-immune system cells are well armed to fight infection. Researchers from Yale University have found a powerful weapon in our body cells — a protein that acts like a detergent to clean some hidden bacteria in our cells, just like how dish washing detergent cleans up the oil grease from kitchen utensils.

Connect: This protein (APOL3) reminds me about in daily life, how kitchen detergent cleans oil grease. I believe that these proteins tend to protect us from some small bacteria that might make us feel sick.

Extend: This discovery tells me that our body can make proteins that work like 'detergent' and clean our body cells from different bacteria that are hiding inside human cells which extends my thinking. I now understand why humans might accidentally ate something that was infected but somehow not being sick (rarely).

Challenge: I would say the challenges are some of the proteins might not be able to detect which cell is good or bad. There is also a research that says this protein contains protein-truncating variant that has been associated with an increased risk of chronic kidney disease.

Source: https://www.drugtargetreview.com/news/96174/detergent-like-apol3-protein-shown-to-kill-bacteria-in-human-cells/#:~:text=Researchers%20have%20revealed%20that%20the%20protein%20APOL3,detergents%20that%20kill%20bacteria%20inside%20human%20cells.

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Researchers have revealed that the protein APOL3 acts as a detergent in human cells, potentially leading to new antibacterial treatments.

A team at Yale University, US, have identified a product of IFN-γ-stimulated genes, known as APOL3, that act as detergents that kill bacteria inside human cells. Their findings reveal a previously unknown defence mechanism against bacteria that could lead to new antibacterial treatments.

Many of the body's defences against infections operate outside of host cells, however some bacterial pathogens can hide inside host cells to avoid these defences. To help catch these intracellular lurkers, immune cells secrete a molecular signal called interferon-gamma (IFN-γ). In addition to stimulating immune cells, IFN-γ also prompts non-immune cells to activate, or express, many genes. This leads to the death of the invading bacteria, but researchers have been unsure of how this occurs.

The team, led by Dr John MacMicking, therefore explored which products of IFN-γ-stimulated genes might kill bacteria inside the host cell. They infected cultured human cells with a strain of Salmonella, which can replicate within host cells and found that exposing the cells to IFN-γ hindered the bacteria's ability to replicate within the cells.

The team then used CRISPR gene-editing techniques to disable various genes in the human cells. They looked for genes whose expression was stimulated by IFN-γ and that led to increased bacterial replication when disabled. The apolipoprotein L3 (APOL3) gene met both criteria. The researchers found that silencing APOL3expression allowed Salmonella to replicate in various cell types. These included cells from the lining of the intestines and blood vessels and from connective tissues.

APOL3belongs to a group of six genes, of which the functions of most are unknown. Under a microscope, the team observed the APOL3 protein coating the surface of Salmonella bacteria. Within hours, APOL3 penetrated the bacterial cell membranes.

To better understand how APOL3 interacts with cell membranes, the researchers created artificial membranes that resembled bacterial membranes. Cell membranes consist of oily molecules called lipids that do not dissolve in water.

The study showed that APOL3 acted like a detergent, working with other proteins to break up the lipids and dissolve the membranes. Disabling APOL3's ability to dissolve cell membranes also destroyed its ability to kill Salmonella. Cholesterol inhibited membrane breakdown, causing APOL3 to attack bacterial membranes while avoiding the host cell membranes.

According to the team, these findings reveal how non-immune cells defend against infections. They also identify a novel mechanism used by the body to kill bacteria. The researchers note that they are still a long way from being able to develop therapies based on these results. Nonetheless, MacMicking hopes that the findings could one day lead to improved tools for fighting infections.

The study was published in .

By Drug Target Review

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Detergent-like APOL3 protein shown to kill bacteria in human cells

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Researchers have revealed that the protein APOL3 acts as a detergent in human cells, potentially leading to new antibacterial treatments.

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3D Bioprinting uses living cells, biomaterials, and biochemicals to create functional human tissues and organs, just like how you would 3D print with plastic to create anything you’d like. This invention has the chance to revolutionize the fields of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

Connect: 3D Printing was invented in 1984 and popularized around 2009, but this relatively new invention is already widespread and I’m sure most of us know about it by now. We have also used it in past years by printing out nametags. I know I haven't written much in this part but I've still got a lot to learn in biology, like the different types of stem cells that can be used for bioprinting. (73)

Extend: I think humanity has come a long way since discovering fire. Being able to extract cells is already amazing, but utilizing it to 3D print out human tissues and organs is revolutionary. I think governments should invest more into this instead of making nukes and wars. Organ trafficking is still a very real thing in some countries, so it would be great to have a chance to make it no longer needed. Also, animal testing is still a big problem. If 3d bioprinting is popularized, there may no longer be a need for animals to suffer under us. (98)

Challenge: While 3D bioprinting is promising to many, there's still a long long way to go until it can be routinely used to produce functional organs for transplantation. Personally, I believe this cannot be mass produced, because there's simply not enough money, and also it is difficult to guarantee good quality human tissues and organs, especially ones that are vital to us. Organs like hearts are also very intricate, and I think it would be challenging to replicate a functional one. But who knows, technology is always developing. There are also ethical and legal arguments against 3d bioprinting, but I think if it can save lives, who cares if the human is still a human. At least they are alive. (119)

Source:National Library of Medicine https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10525297/

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Discovery of pain killers:

Painkillers were discovered to help relieve pain from injuries, illnesses, and surgeries. As people learned more about medicine, they recognized the need for effective ways to manage pain. Early remedies included natural substances like willow bark and opium. In the 19th century, morphine was extracted from opium, providing strong pain relief. Later, aspirin was created which changed how pain was treated. Researchers then developed new painkillers by studying how pain works, leading toward NSAIDs and opioids.

Connection:

Painkillers are a part of our everyday lives, as most of us have used them for headaches or other aches and pains. Their invention is significant because they provide relief and improve our quality of lives.

Extend:

This article helps me understand pain management better. It's amazing how we've gone from natural remedies to advanced medications that target pain.

Challenge:

Though the invention of painkillers are wonderful, I still can’t help but wonder about their safety when it comes to the long term usage of it. It makes me wonder on what are the common side effects when taken regularly? As we depend on these medications for relief. Us understanding the consequences of their extended use is crucial for making decisions for the management of these pain medications

Source

https://www.drugfreeworld.org/drugfacts/painkillers/a-short-history.html

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Invention: COVID-19 vaccine / mRNA vaccine

Connection: When faced with certain sicknesses, vaccines are very effective because some of them contain genetic instructions which helpscells make protein.and they help give your immune system long term protection, and it connects to me because without vaccines, my body wouldn’t be as strong and healthy as I am now.

Extend: this vaccine (mRNA vaccine) can also be used for other diseases other than Covid 19, even possibly a more deadly disease like cancer, then this vaccine can be studied further and be a great use and help for the future.

Challenge: mRNA vaccine has decades of history for its development, and making it can take quite a long time, the challenge is about how long of protection can they provide and how can scientists preserve them well, if this vaccine will be widely used in the future then how can we address the side effects it can cause as well

sources: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9305267/

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9917162/

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✉✉ Corresponding author: kluoum.edu.mo Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.

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Recipients of COVID-19 vaccines face challenges of SARS-CoV-2 variants

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The coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) has been rampant since 2019, severely affecting global public health, and causing 5.75 million deaths worldwide. So far, many vaccines have been developed to prevent the infection of SARS-CoV-2 virus. However,…

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Discovery: mRNA Vaccine Technology (e.g. COVID-19 vaccines)

this technology basically instructs our own cells to make a harmless piece of the virus (the spike protein), which then triggers an immune response to prepare the body for the real virus

Reflection

Connect: this connects to my prior knowledge of vaccines introducing a weakened germ to train the immune system, mRNA vaccines achieve the same goal but in a completely different way

Extend: it extended my thinking about using our own cellular machinery as a drug factory. This isn't just for viruses, but also for new cancer treatments and therapies for genetic diseases

Challenge: I wonder about the long-term effects and how we can improve the stability of mRNA, as it requires extremely cold storage. The speed of its development was incredible, but can this process be a blueprint for future pandemics? And like doesn’t this kind of vaccination makes our body react, getting new type of allergies or problems? Is there ways to prevent?

Source: https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/therapy/mrnavaccines/

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Invention: Non-addictive painkillers

Connect: I know that painkillers or opioids are highly addictive and that some people use them as drugs

Extend: I learnt that addictive painkillers, mainly opioids, work by binding to brain receptors to reduce pain signals but can lead to high dependency on drugs, addiction, and consequent in dangerous side effects like slowed breathing and heart rate. Non-addictive painkillers can also reduce pain but by other mechanisms that prevent the risk of addiction but can also cause side effects like gastrointestinal issues, ulcers, bleeding, and kidney or liver damage with long-term use

Challenge: I wonder if they’d be able to come up with a non-addictive painkiller that doesn’t vcause as many side effects

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Invention:

“Infrared contact lenses allow people to see in the dark.” Neuroscientists and materials scientists have created contact lenses that enable infrared vision in both humans and mice by converting infrared light into visible light.

Connection:

This invention connects to my knowledge of how an image is formed in human eyes and the light-sensitive cells on the retina, which are cone cells and rod cells.

Extend:

This invention extends my thinking of what wavelengths are and how nanoparticles affect them. In this invention, the nanoparticles absorb infrared light and convert it into wavelengths that are visible to mammalian eyes. The nanoparticles specifically enable the detection of "near-infrared light," which is infrared light beyond what humans can already see. It also extends my thinking on how technology can break through some inborn and genetic abilities of our senses.

Challenge:

Something I would challenge about this invention is that the safety and long-term effects are uncertain. Since the contact lenses are made from new nanoparticles, there might be a potential threat to human eyesight when seeing things in the dark. Furthermore, maybe humans may see in the dark in the short term, but will the contact lenses be long-lasting? Are the contact lenses able to be used multiple times or is it just a one-use product?

Source:

https://phys.org/news/2025-05-infrared-contact-lenses-people-dark.html

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Infrared contact lenses allow people to see in the dark, even with their eyes closed

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Neuroscientists and materials scientists have created contact lenses that enable infrared vision in both humans and mice by converting infrared light into visible light. Unlike infrared night vision goggles, the contact lenses, described in the journal Cell, do not require a power source—and they enable the wearer to perceive multiple infrared wavelengths. Because they’re transparent, users can see both infrared and visible light simultaneously, though infrared vision was enhanced when participants had their eyes closed.

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Invention: Antibiotics from fungi

Endophytic Fungi as a Source of Antibacterial Compounds—A Focus on ...

Connect: I only knew that an antibiotic is a type of medicine that stops the growth of a bacteria, but never knew that fungi could produce antibiotics.

Extend: This research extends my thinking by introducing the concept of how an endophytic be a source of antibacterial compound. And now i see fungi as a powerful ally in medicine.

Challenge: It was confusing to learn that fungi, could produce antibiotics, instead of just decomposing in the environment. However the process of isolating useful compounds from fungi seems to be very complex and confusing, and I wonder how the scientists figure it out.

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Endophytic Fungi as a Source of Antibacterial Compounds—A Focus on ...

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Discovery:'Yellow slime mold' grows in patterns like Tokyo's subway system

Connect: I find this organism to be complex and fascinating. It is a single celled organism, not an animal, plant or fungus. It has no heart or brain or nervous system, yet its able to solve complex optimization puzzles, all while creating a branching network of yellow mold. You'd usually expect this behavior to come from a more intelligent, multi cellular organism, such as a dog or a crow. But seeing it come from a yellow skin inside a petri-dish that probably isn't even aware of its own existence makes me feel both amazed, and a little scared of just how smart it can be.

Extend: I think that the discovery of the capabilities of this 'Yellow slime mold' could be pretty helpful. In the study, the scientists spread out some oat flakes across the petri-dish, in order to replicate some of the most frequented places in the extremely efficient Tokyo subway system. In just the few days, the mold expanded, and ended up replicating the subway system to a scarily accurate degree. If we can replicate this strange network formation system, it could be used as an algorithm to create efficient and optimized paths, which will aid network constructing.

Challenge: How come this strange mold, which is a single cellular organism, so intelligent? Are there other capabilities it has that we must aren't aware about yet?

Source:https://blogs.ubc.ca/communicatingscience2017w211/2018/01/29/brainless-slime-mold-grows-in-pattern-like-tokyos-subway-system/

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Kola nut: From nanofertilizer to protecting metals from corrosion—research finds new uses for the valuable plant

Connect: This information is connected to my previous knowledge of how the kola nuts had been used in folk medicine to treat fever, coughs, or other illnesses in Africa. This passage also connects to my knowledge about how the nut provides beneficial chemicals.

Extend: This passage extended my knowledge by discovering that the kola nut  provided chemicals that catalyzed the formation of nanoparticles, hence introducing more potential uses for the kola nut, including promoting the growth of vegetables, producing biofuel, dyes, and much more.

Challenge: There is an estimated number of 90,000tons of waste pod and shell to be produced annually from the kola nuts. By using the kola nuts, there will be waste and unused materials left over. While it’s argued that the remains and waste can be turned into new products, it's hard to guarantee that all of the leftover bits can be used up instead of ending up in landfills.

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Connect - This discovery connects to known stem cell research used in humans and model organisms, demonstrating biology’s power to regenerate tissues.

Extend - It extends thinking by showing that stem cell technology can be customised for endangered species, opening doors for wildlife conservation and disease treatment in animals.

Challenge - The challenge is in the difficulty of adapting stem cell techniques for each species uniquely; as I have interest in animals, this makes me wonder about the timeline and reliability of using this method for conserving other endangered animals.

Source: https://theweek.com/health-and-science/1019386/recent-scientific-breakthroughs

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How does the invention or research connect to something you already know about?

I have been intrigued by geckos ever since I can remember. I have seen videos of them crawling upside down along glass ceilings and not falling off. I understood it was something to do with their feet, and I had a vague idea about "tiny hairs" and generating stickiness. This invention traces back to that early fascination with animal superpowers. I also know tapes, adhesives, and sticky notes. They all work by using chemical bonds. or pressure-sensitive adhesives. The key with them is that they leave a residue, can break down, and don't stick well to dirty or damp surfaces. The gecko-inspired adhesive is an entirely different principle that goes against my whole idea of what makes something "sticky."

What new ideas or impressions have you developed that led you to think differently in new ways?

The biggest surprise was that adhesion doesn't have to be chemical or even require anything sticky. That an idea of Van der Waals forces—tiny forces of attraction between molecules—being applied on a large scale by microscopic structure is astounding. It expanded my thinking from "we need something sticky" to "we can build a structure that takes advantage of a force of physics." It makes me wonder how many more secrets are right under our noses in the plant and animal kingdoms just waiting to be discovered—like spider silk for materials, or whale fins for wind turbine efficiency. The idea of an adhesive that's strong when you need it to be but peels off easily when you need it to without residue is an entirely new area of applications I hadn't considered. It makes me think of applications where temporary, precise, and clean attachment is important, like in surgery, robotics, or the production of microchips, far beyond substituting for tape.

What is puzzling or hard to understand? What do you question?

I find it puzzling that these extremely tiny and intricate nanostructures aren't just worn out right away. If a gecko foot can renew itself and clean itself, how do we design a synthetic material that can tolerate a lot of weight and stand up to repeated use without clogging up with dust or degrading? Is this the biggest challenge to having this technology ubiquitous? Can we really create a gecko-inspired sticking patch so large a human could climb a skyscraper, like in that old DARPA problem? Do the forces scale the same, or are there hidden issues if you increase the surface area that much? I find it difficult to see how the glue is "directional." That it will bond when it's drawn in one direction and will be removable when it's drawn in a different direction is a nanoscale hook-and-loop system (Velcro) but far more sophisticated. I am unclear about the precise engineering involved in getting precisely the correct angle for given applications.

Briefly, gecko-inspired adhesives harness a familiar natural precedent and challenge our common sense about stickiness. They push our imagination toward the possibilities of biomimicry and reveal futuristic potential, yet also provide real-world practical hurdles of durability and scalability to drive further innovation.

https://www.google.com/search?q=Gecko-Inspired+Adhesives&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&hl=en-hk&client=safari

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“The perky experiment” How our brain distinguishes imagination and reality — The Junkyard

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The shift from reality based perception internal, imaginative brain states - the Perky effect in human brains

Source: https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-biggest-discoveries-in-biology-in-2023-20231219/

Imagination can help us to plan our future, since it can come up with things in alternative realities. (E.g. Imagine how the food will taste like when you choose what to eat in a restaurant). Scientists have been doing research about how our brain distinguishes between reality and imagination, since they both use similar parts of the brain.

In 1910, Mary perky was trying to develop a scientific definition of imagination. So an experiment was conducted. Test subjects were asked to stare at a blank wall and imagine a certain fruit (e.g. banana). Meanwhile, behind the scene, Perky projects a faint image of a banana without the person knowing. They commented that they were sure they had seen an image of the banana, but it was way too vivid. She concluded that our perception of something matches what we’re imagining, we will assume that it was an imagination. However in reality, it was actually our vision. This is known as the Perky effect. Unfortunately, the experiment was not specific enough as the test subject might not have been able to actively and continuously imagine the certain object.

In the more updated version of the perky experiment taken place in 2023, conductors concluded that when the faint image disappeared after being shown for a while, some people would report seeing the object. This also shows that when imaginations get really vivid, it can be mistaken as reality. This might be related to the process of our brain distinguishing between imagination and reality. Although our perception USUALLY seems more vivid to the brain, sometimes we might consume the two of them.

In conclusion, the Perky Effect describes the relationship between real visual information (perception) and mental imagery.

Reflection:

Connect

I think that something that I can connect to is that sometimes reality and imagination can be difficult to distinguish, especially when my mental state is all drowsy and drained. For example, sometimes our dreams may seem so vivid that you feel deep emotions. Or when I was just having a normal day when I suddenly experienced deja vu. One very interesting thing that i experienced was in my graduation camp, me and my friends slept for only 3 hours the night before, and that night we had some sharing activities and we all got very emotional. I remember that after we were crying and sleepy at the same time, my vision seemed nuanced. It felt like a dream filtered was activated and it felt weird but interesting. It was definitely a memorable time where it felt like an imagination but perception at the same time.

Extend

This topic was very interesting to do research in since I have had similar experiences. I think that there’s a threshold in the middle of distinguishing between perception and imagination. When we try to imagine something but it feels way too vivid, it feels like it's our imagination and reality is switching quickly, which makes it difficult for our brain to process and distinguish between the two, making the image we see nuanced. When this phenomenon happens too often, it might impact our mental state and decision making.

Challenge

I have tried to understand how exactly our brain processes imagination and perception, but it was way too complex for me to understand right now, so I hope to know more about this topic. I also want to know more about how imagination/ memories interact/ are formed in our brain, since it is a more virtual and complicated process.

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Invention:

CRISPR-Cas9

It is a gene editing tool where you can guide to a specific location in the genome and make a precise cut in the DNA. The cells have repair mechanisms to try to repair the break in the DNA. Scientists have took advantage of this mechanism to disable a gene, disable DNA and also has potential to correct mutations.

Connect:

CRISPR-Cas9 invention connects to my knowledge to the ongoing developments in genetic engineering and biotechnology especially in agriculture and medicine.

Extend:

This research extends by thinking by opening up new possibilities for conservation efforts. To invent disease resistant populations for endangered species can also revolutionise biodiversity preservation. It makes me interested about gene editing considering how much responsibility the scientists hold while trying to use CRISPR to modify animal genomes.

Challenge:

One challenge is using CRISPR in animals. Would modifying animal genomes be too much to sentient beings? I think that there might be a lot of long term consequences of using CRISPR in animals. Ecological impacts might occur with such advanced technology. We would also have to consider the balance between scientific advancement and environmental stewardship.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29150007/

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doi: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2017.07.010.

Affiliations

¹ Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.

² Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain. Electronic address: marcguellc@gmail.com.

doi: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2017.07.010.

Affiliations

¹ Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.

² Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States; Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain. Electronic address: marcguellc@gmail.com.

Abstract

CRISPR-Cas9 has revolutionized the generation of transgenic animals. This system has demonstrated an unprecedented efficiency, multiplexability, and ease of use, thereby reducing the time and cost required for genome editing and enabling the production of animals with more extensive genetic modifications. It has also been shown to be applicable to﻿ a wide variety of animals, from early-branching metazoans to primates. Genome-wide screens in model organisms have been performed, accurate models of human diseases have been constructed, and potential therapies have been tested and validated in animal models. Several achievements in genetic modification of animals have been translated into products for the agricultural and pharmaceutical industries. Based on the remarkable progress to date, one may anticipate that in the future, CRISPR-Cas9 technology will enable additional far-reaching advances, including understanding the bases of diseases with complex genetic origins, engineering animals to produce organs for human transplantation, and genetically transforming entire populations of organisms to prevent the spread of disease.

Keywords: CRISPR-Cas9; animal models; gene editing technology; genetic modification; transgenic animals.

PubMed Disclaimer

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clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats*

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national center for biotechnology information

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CRISPR in Animals and Animal Models - PubMed

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CRISPR-Cas9 has revolutionized the generation of transgenic animals. This system has demonstrated an unprecedented efficiency, multiplexability, and ease of use, thereby reducing the time and cost required for genome editing and enabling the production of animals with more extensive genetic modifica ...

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Discovery: The development of mRNA vaccine technology, crucial for COVID-19 vaccines.

Image Description: A simple, self-explanatory diagram showing an mRNA strand entering a human cell. The cell's machinery then reads the mRNA code to produce spike proteins (shown as small red projections). These proteins are then displayed on the cell's surface, triggering the immune system to create antibodies. This visually encapsulates the core invention.

Reflection (Using Connect, Extend, Challenge):

Connect: This connects to my knowledge of how vaccines work by "teaching" the immune system to recognize a pathogen, but traditionally with weakened viruses or proteins.

Extend: It extends my thinking by showing we can now instruct our own cells to become vaccine production units, a revolutionary leap from simply introducing the antigen itself. This platform can be adapted for other diseases.

Challenge: I wonder about the long-term stability of the mRNA and if this same principle can be effectively used to treat non-infectious diseases, like cancer or genetic disorders. The speed of development also challenges public understanding and trust.

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Discovery:

"Super stem cells" with the ability to rejuvenate health and "anti-age" in monkeys.

Could this be the future for eternal life for all living organisms?

Connect:

This discovery of "super stem cells" feels particularly exciting to me because I’ve always been fascinated by the concept of ageing and how we might combat it. I'm sure everyone has worried about losing someone we loved to old age and deteriorating health. I felt worried for my grandpa, so a few months ago, I read about how lifestyle choices can influence our ageing process, like diet and exercise. But I knew at the end of the day, at least 85% of how fast our health deteriorates is determined by genetics. Now, learning that scientists are actually engineering stem cells to reverse ageing in monkeys brings a whole new layer of hope!! Although it's not humans who they've engineered the stem cells for, we share more than 90% of our DNA - so it's likely they would soon find a way to at least slightly lengthen our lifespan so that we may get to spend more time with our loved ones. It makes me wonder about the future of longevity, and the idea that we might one day have this power to enhance our own lives adds to my interest in the potential for a healthier and longer life, not just in monkeys.

Extend:

This study has completely changed my view of the future of regenerative medicine, especially when I think about both the monkeys and ourselves. Imagine those monkeys losing their spark, then bouncing back with the energy as if they were just born!! It’s like a miracle! I think about just how far this discovery can get us as a foundation for what we can achieve, no doubt, in the distant future, maybe the scientists will be able to find a way to make humans immune. (I will raise questions and concerns about whether it is good or not in the challenge part). Moreover, the discovery also included how stem cells can increase level of cognitive thinking. Although I am unfamiliar with the concept of cognition, I know that I can envision them, with so much intelligence, mastering memory tasks, and maybe even outsmarting humans in some aspects!

What if we could have that same rejuvenation for ourselves is my biggest question. To not worry about losing our loved ones, and to stay sharp forever.

Challenge:

While the thought of "super stem cells" is really exciting, I can’t shake off the ethical concerns that I think of, especially about immunity.

If these engineered stem cells can rejuvenate ageing monkeys, could that also accidentally alter their immune systems? What if the changes mess with their hormones and make them more vulnerable to diseases or create other health issues?

Moreover, I find myself thinking about the effects on society of such "immunity". If we succeed in rejuvenating different species' healths, what happens to the dynamics of our natural world? It feels and looks really weird. It could disrupt ecosystems and makes me wonder more about biodiversity.

Then there’s the risk of dividing those who can access the "super stem cells" and those who cannot. If humans do get rejuvenation, will the services be only reserved for the extremely wealthy, cause problems in the society and potential conflicts? (Moreover, how much funds would be required to enact the "super stem cells" on an actual person and how big of a risk would it be?) I read on an article that if the "super stem cells" were enacted on humans, there may be a risk of a growing tumour inside of them, which is something I'm also concerned about. These situation would probably lead to a lot of ethical dilemmas within the society and I feel like further development is not as distant as we think!!

Source: https://www.nad.com/news/anti-aging-breakthrough-stem-cells-reverse-signs-of-aging-in-monkeys