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Glazed Tiles, The Conquest of Ceuta, São Bento Train Station, Jorge Colaço (1915)

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In August 1415, King John I of Portugal, supported by his sons Prince Henry the Navigator, Prince Duarte, and Prince Pedro, led a large fleet to capture the North African city of Ceuta. The victory gave Portugal control over a strategic trading hub between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, strengthening its influence in maritime trade routes.

The conquest marked the beginning of Portugal’s overseas empire, serving both as a religious crusade against Islam and as a stepping stone toward exploration along the African coast, laying the foundations of the Age of Discoveries.

Sources:

- Diffie, Bailey W., and George D. Winius. Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580. University of Minnesota Press, 1977;

- Russell, Peter. Prince Henry 'the Navigator': A Life. Yale University Press, 2000.

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Delhi became the center of a revolt when Indian soldiers (also known as sepoys) went face to face against the British East India company in 1857. They all united around the Emperor Bahadur Shah II as a symbol for the revolt. In September, the British army recaptured the city of Delhi, making the fall of Delhi mark a crucial defeat for the rebels, leading to the exile of the last Mughal emperor.

After Bahadur Shah II was sent away, the British took the opportunity to take full control of India, ending the law of the Mughal Empire.
This led to the beginning of the British Raj, a time when the British Crown was in full control of India. The revolt of 1857 inspired the Indian independence movement of the 20th century.

Sources:

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bahadur-Shah-II

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857?

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Battle of waterloo

-On June 18, 1815, Napoleon was decisively defeated south of Waterloo by the allied forces of the Duke of Wellington and Prussian General von Blücher, ending his rule.

-The battle involved over 180,000 troops and was described by Wellington as “the nearest run thing you ever saw in your life,” marking a major turning point in European history.

Sourses:

Waterloo Battlefield | History, Description, & Facts | Britannica

Oscar Rickett

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Date - may 13 1647

Estimated Magnitude - ~8.5

Consequence - most of Santiago was destroyed, with thousands of casualties. The earthquake caused severe economic and social impacts, as well as architectural changes during the city’s reconstruction. Many people saw the disaster as a divine punishment, which led to processions and acts of penance.

Context - Chile was under Spanish colonial rule, and the crown played a role in the reconstruction. This was the first major earthquake to be well documented in the country.

sourses -David F. Marley (2008), Wars of the Americas: a chronology of armed conflict in the Western Hemisphere, 1492 to the present (2nd ed.), Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, Inc.

"Escudo de Armas" (in Spanish). Municipalidad de Santiago. Retrieved 13 July 2013.

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Mansa Musa one of the richest individuals in history

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Event-Mansa Musa was never the direct ruler of Cairo but he was in other parts of Egypt. he lived in the 14th century. During about 1324-1325 he came to Cairo and gave money away to the markets. His great generosity helped the people of Cairo. He had 80 camels carrying 300 pounds of gold each to make all the gold to Cairo.

Cause- After his visit the market was flooded with so much gold that 12 years after the visit the market still had not recovered from it. It made gold and money and things that were previosly valuable much less valuable.

sorces-Musa I of Mali | Biography, Wealth, Slaves, Pilgrimage, & Facts | Britannica and Al-Umari’s Account of Mansa Musa’s Visit to Cairo | World History Commons.

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Stephen F. Austin Imprisoned in Mexico City (1834)

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Stephen F. Austin Imprisoned in Mexico City (1834)

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Event- Stephen F. Austin was the founder of Texas and was imprisoned by Mexico in Mexico City in 1834 because of how he was politically advocating for Texas. The Mexican government took it as he had committed treason. In 1833 he had traveled to Mexico City, to see if he could convince them to make Texas separate from Coahuila. He felt that what, Texas wanted was less important because the other state was larger but the government of Mexico felt that by trying to have Texas be separate was a form of disrespect

Cause- the imprisonment of Stephen F. Austin was a way to show uncertanity problems and tension between Texas and Mexico's government creating disturbance between Texas and Mexico.

Sources-stephen f austin imprisoned in mexico city and stephen f austin imprisoned in mexico city cause

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·Reasons for Federation

For at least 60,000 years, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have lived on these lands and practiced traditional cultures and languages. From the late 1700s, British colonies were established. By the late 1800s, these colonies had their own parliaments but were still subject to the law-making power of the British Parliament.

·The colonies were almost like 6 separate countries. For example, each had its own government and laws, its own defence force, issued its own stamps and collected tariffs – taxes – on goods that crossed its borders. The colonies had even built railways using different gauges, which complicated the transport of people and goods across the continent.

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A painting showing the First Continental Congress meeting in Philadelphia in 1774, by Allyn Cox (public domain).

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The Continental Congress (1774 - 1789) was a group of men that acted for 13 British North American colonies that two years later became the U.S.A.

The First Continental Congress met in secret in the Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia on the 5th of September 1774. There were 44 representatives that attended and latecomers that brought the total to 56.

In this meeting, Peyton Randolph from Virginia was collectively chosen as president of the U.S.A.

Smaller colonies insisted having a chance to vote so each colony was given one vote despite its population.

Sources:

“Britannica School.” Eb.co.uk, 2025, school.eb.co.uk/levels/intermediate/article/Continental-Congress/273791.

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"The Big Four at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 — British PM David Lloyd George, Italian PM Vittorio Orlando, French PM Georges Clemenceau, and U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, key figures in drafting the Treaty of Versailles."

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The Treaty of Versailles was a peace document signed at the end of World War I by the Allied and associated powers and by Germany in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles, France, on June 28, 1919. It took effect on January 10, 1920.
Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Treaty of Versailles"

When the German government asked U.S. President Woodrow Wilson to arrange a general armistice in October 1918, it declared that it accepted the Fourteen Points Wilson had formulated and presented to the U.S. Congress in January 1918 as the basis for peace.
Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Treaty of Versailles"

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Akwamu Invasion & Occupation of Accra (late 400s-1870)

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Akwamu Invasion & Occupation of Accra (late 400s-1870)

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· The Ga people were fishing and farming communities living along the coast where modern Accra is today.

They traded locally with other African groups long before Europeans arrived.

· In the late 1400s, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to sail to the Gold Coast.

They built trading forts along the coast to secure access to gold, ivory, and eventually enslaved Africans.

Soon, other European powers (Dutch, Danes, British) followed, competing for control.

· Sources:

A.W. Lawrence, Trade Castles and Forts of West Africa

Kwesi J. Anquandah, Castles and Forts of Ghana

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 Execution of Atahuallpa, the last free-reigning ruler of a broad Inca empire, by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizzaro, on August 29, 1533.

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Manco Inca, son of Atahuallpa, attacked Cuzco in May 1536 with 400,000 warriors. The Spanish, trapped in the Inca capital, fought desperately but managed to resist a siege that lasted ten months, ending in April 1537. This battle, called the Battle of Cuzco, secured Spain’s control over Peru.

In 1536–37, the Incas fought two major battles to take back Cusco from the Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro. Despite their efforts, the Spanish cavalry was too powerful. The city resisted the attacks and remained under Spanish control until more reinforcements came from other parts of the Americas.

https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2020/the-siege-of-cusco-in-1536-7/

https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Cuzco

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Based on the painting called Hancock at Gettysburg by Thure de Thulstrup. Shows Major General Winfield S. Hancock riding along the Union lines during the Con federate bombardment prior to Pickett's Charge.

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The Battle of Gettysburg (July 1–3, 1863)

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The Battle of Gettysburg (July 1–3, 1863)

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· On July 1–3, 1863, In the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, Happened one of the most important battles of the American Civil War. George Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, ending Lee's attempt to invade the North. On July 2, 1863, the Union army formed a strong defensive line shaped like a fishhook. Confederate General Robert E. Lee launched major attacks on both sides of the Union position, with intense fighting at places such as Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil’s Den, and the Peach Orchard. Despite heavy losses, the Union soldiers held their ground and kept control of their line.

· On July 3, 1863, fighting continued at Culp’s Hill and with cavalry nearby, but the main action was Pickett’s Charge. About 12,500 Confederate soldiers attacked the center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge. The Union army’s rifles and cannons stopped the charge, causing heavy Confederate losses. The victory forced General Robert E. Lee and the Confederate army to retreat back to Virginia. It was a major turning point in the Civil War because it stopped the Confederates from invading the North again.

·sources:

Battlefields.org

GettysburgPA.gov

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Fire of Moscow by Alexander Smirnov, 1813

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The great fire of Moscow in 1547 destroyed sections of Moscow that had been built almost entirely of wood. The fire swept into the Kremlin and blew up the powder stores in several of the Kremlin's towers.

The capture of the city was a hollow victory for the French, as the Russians-most likely on orders of governor Fyodor Rostopchin-set much of the city on fire in a scorched earth tactic (though the cause of the fire is disputed). For four days until 18 September, the city burned.

Source: Portraits Of Old Russia Imagined Lives of Ordinary People, 1300 —1725 By Donald Ostrowski and Marshall T. Poe

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On August 6, 1945, during World War II, the United States dropped an atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima, Japan. The bomb, named 'Little Boy,' was dropped from the Boeing B-29 bomber Enola Gay, piloted by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets. The explosion resulted in approximately 70,000-80,000 deaths immediately, with tens of thousands more dying later from radiation exposure and injuries. Hiroshima was the first city in history to be targeted by a nuclear weapon, leading to massive destruction and marking a significant moment in the history of warfare.

The bomb exploded approximately 1,9000 feet above the city, generating a blast equivalent to 15,000 tons of TNT. The immediate impact was catastrophic. All American presidents have refused to apologize for the bombings, which occurred 78 years ago. This refusal is motivated by the hegemonic narrative in the United States regarding the atomic bombings and widespread public opposition to an apology and commemorating Japanese victims.

Sources: Watch out news/No US apology for the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

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King Solomon built the First Holy Temple on Temple Mount in 957 BC and it stood until 587/586 BC. The Second Temple was built in its place in 516 BC. The temple stood until it was destroyed by the Romans in 70 AD.

The only part of the temple to survive the Roman destruction was part of the retaining wall, on the mount’s western slope. Nowadays called as Wailing Wall.

Wailing Wall plays a central role in the spiritual and emotional perspective of the three major monotheistic religions: Jews, Christians and Muslims.

For all three faiths it is a holy city, a center of pilgrimage and an object of devotion.

Source: https://www.beinharimtours.com/jerusalem-western-wall/

Source 2: https://www.britannica.com/place/Jerusalem

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Painting of Jan Van Riebeeck, dutch merchant and founder of Cape Town, by an unknown artist.

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The Dutch merchant Jan van Riebeeck was the founder of Cape Town in South Africa. The first people that lived there were European people that he brought to the Cape of Good Hope, which is around the south tip of Africa.

Riebeeck was born on the 21st of April, 1619, in the Netherlands. Later in his life, he joined the Dutch East India Company as a doctor in a ship in April 1639. He travelled a lot during this period of his life. In 1646, he was promoted as a merchant.

In 1651, Riebeeck was sent to Cape of Good Hope. His job was to build a fort and make a station to supply the company's ships with food. He was put in charge of a group of five ships, and landed in the Table Bay with three of them on April 6th, 1652. The other two ships, arrived later.

Groups of Khoekhoe people lived in the region at that time. Other people that came later began to trade with the Khoekhoe but later they realised they needed to make their own supplies. Then, the Europeans planted their fruits, vegetables, grains, and plants.

Riebeeck also built the Fort of Good Hope which was completed in the year 1653. Its original clay walls only stood up until the 1660s, when the Castle of Good Hope was also built near it.

After 10 years in the Cape, the Dutch East India Company sent Riebeeck back to Batavia in 1662. In 1665, he became the secretary of the Council of India. Later, he died on January 18th, 1677, in Batavia.

Sources:

“Britannica School.” Eb.co.uk, 2025, school.eb.co.uk/levels/intermediate/article/Jan-van-Riebeeck/610207.

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Indegenous leaders meeting with British officials after the Treaty of Paris (1763).

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• What is was: The treaty was signed on February, 10, 1763 that officialy ended the Seven Years' War (mostly called the French and Indian War in North America). It was signed most powerful countries in Europe such as Britian, France, Spain and Portugal. The treaty basically reshaped North America, but also set off chain reactions. For example, Native resistance, colonial frustration, and eventually the fight for American independence.

• Impact: Right after the treaty, France lost most of its territories and gave Canada and all lands east of the Mississippi River to Britian. Britian gained Florida from Spain and Canada from France. Spain gave Florida to Britian but got Louisana from France. Also right after that, the British dominated as the world's leading colonial empire. France declined because it's global power weakened but it got revenge later by supporting the American Revolution.

Sources: Treaty of Paris (1763)." Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 24 Aug. 2024, https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Paris-1763

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The Second Opium War (1856–1860), also called the Arrow War or the Anglo-French War in China. Britain and France fought The Qing Dynasty to expand trade, legalize opium, and secure greater privileges, leading to the capture of Canton and Beijing.

In 1860, British and French troops entered Beijing, where they robbed and burned the Old Summer Palace. After their victory, China was forced to sign new agreements. Because of that, they could open more Chinese ports for trade, send officials to live in Beijing, take control of new lands, and continue the opium trade.

Sources: Britannica/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Opium-Wars

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In 1994, after the president passed away due to a plane crash, violence spread over quickly in Kigali. Soldiers and militias set up roadblocks all over the city. They hunted Tutsi people and anyone who tried to protect them. families tried to hide anywhere they could to escape the killings. In just 100 days, about 800,000 people were killed in Rwanda, and many of the worst killings happened in Kigali becoming one of the deadliest genocides in history

sources:

https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/latest/remembering-rwandan-genocide-25-years https://www.un.org/en/preventgenocide/rwanda/historical-background.shtml