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Why Eisenhower Sent 101st Airborne to Little Rock Nine

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Why Eisenhower Sent 101st Airborne to Little Rock Nine

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Governor of Arkansas Orval Faubus, a segregationist, ordered the states national guard to surround Central High School to prevent the nine black students from entering. Images of the African American students being tortured made national news. When the governor of Arkansas failed to integrate Central High School, President Eisenhower called in 1,000 U.S Army troops from the 101st Airborne Division to Little Rock, to maintain order as Central High School desegregated. Eisenhower gave a speech on national television and said "Mob rule cannot be allowed to override the decisions of the courts." This is relevant today because schools have school resource officers (SRO) which are policeman in the community, working in the schools. The police officers walk around the school and make sure there aren't any fights, abuse and mistreatment of any students going on inside the schools.

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When the Supreme Court ruled in 1954 that separate schools for whites and blacks were unconstitutional and inherently unequal, the slow and often violent dismantling of segregation in educational institutions began across the country.

Knowing that there would be defiance and resistance toward the Brown v. Board of Education decision, particularly in the South where Jim Crow prevailed, the Supreme Court refrained from setting a specific deadline for schools to begin the desegregation process.

But in 1955, in a subsequent ruling that addressed the lagging progress being made by states, the court demanded that integration happen "with all deliberate speed." The school board of Little Rock, Arkansas, voted to desegregate their high schools starting in 1957, which led to a crisis that catapulted the state's governor into a showdown with the president of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower.

By 1957, Arkansas had already integrated several state universities and smaller school districts. But when nine black students decided to attend the all-white Central High School in Little Rock, which would desegregate a large urban district, threats of violence and protests ensued.

Little Rock Nine Face Hostile Crowds

Bettmann Archive/Getty Images

READ MORE: The Story Behind the Little Rock Nine 'Scream Image'
Days before the school year started, the governor of Arkansas Orval Faubus, a segregationist, announced on September 2, 1957, that he would order the state's National Guard to surround Central to prevent the black students from entering, under the guise of protecting them from mob violence. In response, Federal Judge Ronald Davies issued a ruling the very next day, mandating that integrated classes would proceed as court ordered.

But on September 4, when the black students, historically known as the Little Rock Nine, faced a vicious throng outside Central, they were denied entry by armed troops in the Arkansas National Guard. Images of the African American students being screamed at, heckled and spat on, made national and international news.

The intense stand-off continued over several weeks as the National Guard continued to surround the school in defiance of Judge Davies's ruling. To discuss a solution, Governor Faubus visited President Eisenhower at his retreat in Newport, Rhode Island. Eisenhower faced a complicated predicament: He believed in adhering to the Constitution, but he wasn't outwardly passionate about civil rights and didn't speak in support of the Brown ruling.

"He wasn't that enthusiastic about the Supreme Court's decision and equivocated in public," said John A. Kirk, a history professor at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock and author of Beyond Little Rock: The Origins and Legacies of the Central High Crisis. "He didn't put a strong backing to it."

Eisenhower and Faubus agreed that the Arkansas National Guard would remain at the school to maintain order, so the black students could attend.

When the governor returned to Arkansas, however, he removed the National Guard troops from Central and left security to the local police. As the Little Rock Nine made another attempt to enter on September 23, they had to use a side entrance because a belligerent mob of 1,000 had formed outside. When a riot erupted, the police had to evacuate the black students for their safety. The mayor of Little Rock, Woodrow Mann, called on the president to intervene.
READ MORE: Brown v. Board of Education: The First Step in the Desegregation of America's Schools
Eisenhower Felt Little Rock Compromised US Credibility Amid Cold War
LISTEN: Eisenhower Intervenes in Little Rock Crisis
The news incensed Eisenhower. "He was a military man and didn't want his orders undermined," said Kirk. "He felt Faubus had been insubordinate." The president was also concerned the riots compromised the credibility of the United States, as a leader of democracy and a nation of laws during the Cold War era.

On September 23, President Eisenhower issued Executive Order 10730, which put the Arkansas National Guard under federal authority, and sent 1,000 U.S. Army troops from the 101st Airborne Division to Little Rock, to maintain order as Central High School desegregated.

"Our enemies are gloating over this incident and using it everywhere to misrepresent our nation," said Eisenhower, in a televised address he gave at the White House the day after he enforced his executive order. "Mob rule cannot be allowed to override the decisions of the courts."

"Eisenhower was boxed into a corner and reached a point where he had to show the power of the federal government and chop off continued insurrection of southern segregationists," says Dolores Barclay, an adjunct professor at Columbia Journalism School and administrative manager of the Lipman Center for Journalism and Civil and Human Rights. "His decision was decidedly political-to maintain federal power-and to ensure that Brown was enforced."
READ MORE: What Led to Desegregation Busing-and Did It Work?
Arkansas National Guard Take Over Patrol

On September 25, 1957, the Little Rock Nine attended Central High for their first full day of classes, under the protection of the newly federalized Arkansas National Guard and the 101 Airborne Division, who steadily withdrew as a dwindling number of state soldiers took full control of security by December.

"It turned out to be a point of contention," said Kirk. "The NAACP felt the kids were being abandoned and wanted to make sure the soldiers had a presence in the school and looked out for the students and protected their safety."

From December until the end of the school year in May 1958, soldiers from the Arkansas National Guard patrolled the school, while the Little Rock Nine were regularly subjected to physical assaults, threats and slurs.

The following school term, in September 1958, Governor Faubus closed down Little Rock high schools for the year, to prevent black students from enrolling. But in August 1959, Little Rock high schools reopened integrated, after a federal court struck down the governor's school-closing law.

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Why Eisenhower Sent the 101st Airborne to Little Rock After Brown v. Board

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When the Supreme Court ruled in 1954 that separate schools for whites and blacks were unconstitutional and inherently unequal, the slow and often violent dismantling of segregation in educational institutions began across the country. Knowing that there would be defiance and resistance toward the Brown v.

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Elizabeth and Hazel: The Legacy of Little Rock

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Elizabeth and Hazel: The Legacy of Little Rock

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In 1957, Fifteen-year-old Elizabeth Eckford was the first of the Little Rock Nine to enter Little Rock Central High School after the board agreed to integrate classes. Many students screamed, spat and threatened her. In the background of this picture is a teenage named Hazel Bryan. Hazel is screaming at Elizabeth. All the Little Rock Niners were tormented and administration didn't do anything about it. Hazel Bryan did not even attend this school but because her screaming at Elizabeth was all over the world she became the symbol for white recalcitrance. This is relevant today because schools would not allow such harsh treatment of black students. In fact, today's schools have diversity committees and programs such "No Place for Hate." TThis program is a student led school climate improvement plan that fits your school's unique culture. These programs are put into place so all students feel included regardless of race and gender.

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In September 1957, in the wake of the Supreme Court decision that outlawed racially segregated schools, the governor of Arkansas posted the National Guard at the front door of Little Rock Central High School. Despite the local school board's agreement to integrate classes, he was determined to prevent black students from entering the building on the first day of school.

Fifteen-year-old Elizabeth Eckford was the first of a group that came to be known as the Little Rock Nine. She was met by a mob of white segregationists, many of them students, who screamed, spat and threatened her.

News cameras and photographers were all over that day, but there is one picture in particular that came to represent that incident to the world: that of Eckford with her back to an advancing crowd, with one young white woman screaming at her - another teenager named Hazel Bryan. In later weeks, President Dwight Eisenhower sent federal troops to escort the children to school.

"Here is where, in most documentaries, the music swells and the credits roll," author David Margolick tells NPR's Audie Cornish. But there was more to the story, of course, and Margolick's book Elizabeth and Hazel picks up where most leave off.

In the days immediately after the incident, Eckford and the rest of the Little Rock Nine experienced hateful treatment from other students. It got worse as the school year continued.

"They had things thrown at them, they were slammed into lockers, they were thrown down the stairs," says Margolick. "They had ink thrown on their clothes. It was really quite a nightmarish experience for them, because the school administrators generally looked the other way."
A 'Symbol Of White Recalcitrance'
Interestingly enough, Bryan - the other famous figure in that iconic photograph - didn't end up attending Central High School. Margolick explains in his book why Bryan's parents decided to move her to another school.

"That's one of the many complexities in the story," he says. "Hazel's family was concerned about her sudden notoriety after having appeared in a picture that ran all over the world. She became the symbol for white recalcitrance for that entire year, when in fact she was never in the school."

Often, stories from the civil rights struggle recognize the strength and stoicism of African Americans living through times of adversity. Margolick's book, which expands on the weeks, months and years after the Little Rock incident, shines some light on the fallout from such stories - specifically on Eckford's battle with post traumatic stress, and on the intriguing relationship that grew up between the adult Eckford and the woman who once tormented her.

"I think we have a tendency to sentimentalize these stories and try to find happy endings," Margolick says. "Elizabeth's story - her road was very rocky. ... The events in the school that year left a very profound mark on her."

Hazel Bryan, for her part, led a fairly conventional life. At 17, she dropped out of school, married and had children. But she, too, was haunted - by the photograph for which she became notorious.

"She ... never forgot the picture and her role in the picture, and she grew increasingly tormented by her own role in this awful story," Margolick says.

At one point, five or six years after that notorious day, Bryan tracked Eckford down by phone, and apologized.
'An Amazing And Inspiring Couple'
Margolick decided to write Elizabeth and Hazel in 1999, two years after the 40th anniversary of the events in Little Rock. As part of the anniversary solemnities, Will Counts, the photographer who'd taken that famous picture of Elizabeth and Hazel, reunited the two women and took a picture of them in front Central High School.

"Something extraordinary happened," Margolick recalls."Not only did he take a picture of the two of them smiling in front of Central High School - from which they later made a poster labeled 'Reconciliation' - but later, when the cameras were turned off, Elizabeth and Hazel came to know one another."

It wasn't easy, of course, but after "kind of an awkward start," the two spent quite a lot of time together. They traveled, spoke to school kids. Not just about the infamy of that day in 1957, but about their respective backgrounds, about who they were then and who they'd come to be since.

"They were really kind of an amazing and inspiring couple," Margolick says.

Not forever, though. By 2007, 50 years after the day of the photograph, the friendship seemed to have soured.

That year, Eckford told NPR that Bryan had told her she "had amnesia about that, and she didn't remember anything" about the original incident. But over the years, Eckford said, "I came to understand that she [had] had contact with those students every Saturday on a local [TV] dance show. And she was part of an organized group that attacked us physically in the school."

And so the happy ending came to something of an end. The two women grew "increasingly estranged," Margolick says.

"Elizabeth felt that there was no way that Hazel could have done something so egregious, so casually," he says.

A friendship that had been the subject of intense scrutiny had been undone, at least in part, by the scrutiny it was subjected to.

"Had there not been so much attention, and had there not been the great expectations out of their 'reconciliation,' perhaps their relationship could have survived," Margolick says.

There's a lesson there for the rest of us, he argues.

"I think that are still great misunderstandings and distrust between the races," Margolick says, "and I think that when two people of good faith try to make something work and it ends as sadly as this has, it says something profound about the challenge that still confronts us."

But he's not a fatalist.

"There's a very profound connection between them, and one shouldn't walk away from the book completely pessimistic," Margolick says. "There's been a lot of progress made, too, and these two women will always be joined together."

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'Elizabeth And Hazel': The Legacy Of Little Rock

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Author David Margolick explores the tumultuous lives of - and off-and-on relationship between - Elizabeth Eckford and Hazel Bryan, two women made famous by the 1957 "Crisis at Little Rock," where Eckford was one of the first black students to attend a major high school in the formerly segregated south.

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The Little Rock Nine: Connecting 1957 to Today

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The Little Rock Nine: Connecting 1957 to Today

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Eventually 8 of the 9 Little Rock students graduated Central High School. We will remember that nine teenagers discriminated simply because of the color of their skin. The U.S Department of Education released a report in May 2023 finding that "in large school districts segregation between White-Blacks has increased 35% and economic segregation has increased 47% lover the past 30 years." leading to inequitable access and outcomes for students.” Two days before the 2023 school year started, Central Little Rock High School in Arkansas had over 100 students signed up for an AP course on African American Studies. It was reported that the state would not give credit towards graduation for this course because it could violate a new curriculum restriction law in the district. In response to this news, five members of the Little Rock Nine made a statement with the NAACP noting the importance of teaching this course. They stated the importance of retelling their history for those who endured a necessity for student learning and mandatory for educational progress in this country. The Central High School district voted to keep this AP course and give credit to the enrolled students. This was a pivotal movement in the Civil Rights Movement.

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The Legacy of the Little Rock Nine

In early September 1957 nine Black high school students-Minnijean Brown, Terrance Roberts, Elizabeth Eckford, Ernest Green, Thelma Mothershed, Melba Patillo, Gloria Ray, Jefferson Thomas, and Carlotta Walls-headed to Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas to begin the academic year. Famously known as the Little Rock Nine, their attendance was organized in cooperation with the local chapter of the NAACP and the Little Rock School District Superintendent Virgil Blossom in an effort to begin integrating Arkansas schools following the Supreme Court's 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision. But under orders of Arkansas governor Orval Faubus, the state's National Guard barred the nine Black students from entering Central High School while angry white protestors shouted abuse.

These nine young people demonstrated great courage and perseverance in their attempt to integrate Central High School and were finally able to attend classes following intervention by President Dwight Eisenhower. As the world learned of their bravery amid such a hostile environment, the Little Rock Nine inspired a wave of desegregation in the United States.

Eventually eight of the nine students were able to finish the academic year at the newly integrated school, with Ernest Green becoming the first African American graduate of Central High School. Upon graduation, Green told Life Magazine, "It's been an interesting year. I've had a course in human relations first hand."

As we commemorate the heroic actions of the Little Rock Nine, this anniversary serves not just as an important moment in history worth learning about, but as an evocative reminder of why history education is so necessary to our civic literacy. We've made great strides, but our society still remains deeply unequitable. And even within our progress we must not forget how hard won it was-we must remember that nine teeangers, discriminated against simply because of the color of their skin, should not have had to endure constant jeering, harassment, and terror in order to help our country get closer to our goal of equity.

A Stalled Progress

The Brown v. Board of Education decision of 1954-which overturned the state-sanctioned segregation codified by the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896-took a vital step forward in dismantling the practice of barring Blacks from various public spaces. As the groundbreaking research of psychologists Drs. Kenneth and Mamie Clark showed, the separate and unequal learning environments of Black and white children contributed to Black children developing a profoundly negative sense of self.

Three years after Brown, the dramatic events of Central High School's integration unfolded. That was 66 years ago. And yet, the progress that our country has made in terms of integration in our school systems has fallen far short of the promise of truly equitable education.

The US Department of Education released a report in May 2023 finding that "progress toward increased racial and socio-economic diversity has stalled in many communities as segregation patterns have persisted, leading to inequitable access and outcomes for students."

And last year research from a USC-Stanford University collaboration called the Segregation Index highlighted that segregation is growing. "In large school districts, white-Black segregation has increased 35% and economic segregation has increased 47% over the past 30 years."

The Segregation Index also shows that segregation directly connects to unequitable education opportunities. The reasons for continued segregation are many and complicated. Changing these conditions is possible, but it requires policymakers and school leaders to make a concerted effort to bring diverse student bodies together.

Desegregation at Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas was a pivotal moment in the civil rights movement-it underscores, like so many other moments from our civil rights struggle-that anyone can be a changemaker, including nine teengagers up against a barrage of people who wanted them to fail.

Central High School at Odds with the Arkansa State Government in 2023

Two days before most high schools started the 2023-24 school year, officials from the Arkansas Department of Education called teachers to let them know that the state would not give credit toward graduation to students who took Advanced Placement (AP) African American Studies. The reason: a concern from Arkansas officials that the course could violate a new curriculum restriction law, passed in January of this year.

Despite this sudden change, the Little Rock School District, which includes Central High School, announced that it will continue to offer AP African American Studies and intends to offer credit to enrolled students. They also plan to make sure students aren't hindered by the $98 AP exam fee following Arkansas's decision to prevent students in need from receiving state assistance to pay for the exam.

Current Little Rock school board member and attorney Ali Noland told CNN that nearly 100 students at Central High School are signed up for the course this year. He asserts that AP African American Studies teaches an essential and important part of American history. And, in response to this news, five members of the Little Rock Nine made a joint statement with the NAACP Center for Education Innovation and Research noting the importance of teaching a full and inclusive history. Below is an excerpt from their statement:

"[We] were among the nine brave students who faced violence, hatred, and intimidation to integrate Central High School in 1957. We endured unimaginable hardships and sacrifices to fight for our right to quality education and equal opportunity. We are proud of our contribution to the civil rights movement and the advancement of democracy in this country. We consider the accurate retelling of our history an American right for those of us who endured, a necessity for student learning and mandatory for educational progress in this country."

Resources for the Classroom

So how do we best celebrate the memory of the Little Rock Nine and what they accomplished? Perhaps considering one or more of the following questions can inspire reflection that will help you commemorate this historic event.

How much power do ordinary people have to change the world?

Can you think of disparities that exist in your community?

What are the consequences of dividing people by race?

This unit investigates the actions taken by the Little Rock Nine and others in the Little Rock community amid the civil rights movement during efforts to desegregate Central High School in 1957.

More than 60 years after Brown v. Board of Education, this gives students an overview of the problem of school segregation in the United States today and opens a discussion about possible solutions.

The NAACP arranged for the Little Rock Nine to be escorted to school on the day after Governor Faubus's speech that called for the Arkansas National Guard to block their entrance. One of the students, Elizabeth Eckford, could not be reached and was not made aware of how unwelcome she would be once she arrived at school. In this interview Elizabeth details the confusion and intensity surrounding the morning she tried to enter Central High School.

In 1963, 225,000 students boycotted Chicago's public schools to protest segregation and unequal conditions in white and Black schools. Explore the strategies and risks of the boycott, while also considering bigger-picture questions about social progress.

Learn about the Mendez family's experience as Mexican Americans fighting against school segregation in Southern California during the 1940s.

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The Little Rock Nine: Connecting 1957 to Today

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Resistance to integration in the US didn't stop just because of a Supreme Court ruling. But nine Black students from Little Rock helped change minds.

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On May 17th 1954, U.S Supreme Court Justice Earl Warren delivered the unanimous ruling in the landmark civil rights case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. This segregation of public schools was a violation of the 14th Amendment and therefore was unconstitutional. This decision put an end to the "separate but equal" ruling in 1896 Plessy vs Ferguson and served as a motivation for the expanding civil rights movement. A year later in 1955 the court demanded that integration happen "with deliberate speed." The school board of Little Rock, Arkansas, voted to desegregate their high schools starting in 1957, which led to a crisis that put the states governor in a showdown with president Eisenhower. In Brown vs Board of Education (1954), it was determined that segregation on the basis of race violated equal educational opportunity. The Brown decision led the way to a growing understanding that all people, regardless of race, gender, or disability, have a right to a public education. Today education is the most important function of state and local government. School mandated attendance laws and the money that states put into education demonstrate its importance in our society. Today education is the basis for preparing a child for later professional training and helping him/her to adjust normally to their environment. In order to succeed in life the child must have the opportunity of an education, it is a right which must be made available to everyone on equal terms. Brown vs Board of Education impact education today by striking down segregation in the nation's public schools provided a major catalyst for the civil rights movement, making possible advances in desegregating housing, public accommodations and institutions of higher education.

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EnlargeDownload Link Citation: Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Opinion; May 17, 1954; Records of the Supreme Court of the United States; Record Group 267; National Archives. View All Pages in the National Archives Catalog View Transcript In this milestone decision, the Supreme Court ruled that separating children in public schools on the basis of race was unconstitutional. It signaled the end of legalized racial segregation in the schools of the United States, overruling the “separate but equal” principle set forth in the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson case. On May 17, 1954, U.S.

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Televised news was just starting out when the debate on Desegregation started, so the crisis in Little Rock was among the first national news stories filmed as it unwinded right before the eyes of the American public. Television camera crews, print journalists and radio correspondence from around the country converged on the high schools neighborhood. The extensive media coverage of the events became a model for how civil rights activist and their movements would use the news media over the next decade. It became the lead story in many news papers around the world which led to global scrutiny especially from the soviet union because it showed flaws in democracy. The network pictures of the anger white mom surrounding the nine black students were said to have strongly influenced President Eisenhower's decision to send federal troops to protect and ensure their admission into Central High. It wasn't the continuous live around the clock coverage as it would be today but the drama showed the nation the uglier side of Arkansas and how quickly public opinion can be persuaded.

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9 Things You May Not Know About the Little Rock Nine

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Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site preserves and interprets the story of the 1957 school integration crisis. Here are nine things to know about this civil rights event.

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Behind Closed Doors: Welcome to Central High 

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Behind Closed Doors: Welcome to Central High 

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The nine students were constantly bullied from the moment they entered Central High. Jefferson Thomas and Terrance Roberts two of the nine, were attacked with national guardsman just six feet away and they did nothing to help aid the boys. There were bomb threats, lynching threats and "pranks" like when white students would put broken glass in steaming shower rooms for the black students to step on. One of the nine, Melba Patillo-Beals, stated that segregations urged Central High's student leaders to antagonize and taunt us until we responded in a way that would get us suspended or expelled. In today's public schools they have strict laws against bullying known as Harassment Intimidation and Bullying (HIB). There is mandated employee in the school that is in charge of writing up a report on any suspicion of bullying. It can be reported by a student, teacher, parent or any school employee. This investigation has to be completed and sent to the superintendent and then to the Board of Education within 10 days. If the case proves to be bullying there are things such as school counseling that are put in place to make sure it doesn't happen again. A child accused of bullying another could be suspended. The Little Rock Nine helped to create laws like this.

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What did the NAACP do for the Little Rock Nine

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What did the NAACP do for the Little Rock Nine

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Many schools in the South refused to admit black students even after the Brown vs Board of Education decision. Civil rights organization worked to enroll black students in segregated schools. In Arkansas, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) recruited young black kids to integrate schools. Daisy Bates was the president of NAACP, she sued the Little Rock school board and recruited the Little Rock Nine to integrate the all white central high school. She taught the students non violent tactics and she got involved in the parents organization at the high school. She created strategies to protect them from protestors. The NAACP is the oldest civil rights organization in the U.S. Today they dismantle racism and disrupt inequality to create a society where all people can truly be free. They provide scholarships, grants and resources to people. They advocate for civil rights due to black America, in cities, schools, companies, and court rooms. .

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Imagine showing up to your first day of school and being greeted by an angry mob and the National Guard. On September 4, 1957 nine African American students arrived at Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. They made their way through a crowd shouting obscenities and even throwing objects. Once the students reached the front door the National Guard prevented them from entering the school and were forced to go home. The students returned on September 29 th. This time they were protected by federal troops. The students were able to enter the school, finally integrating Central High School. This group of students became known as the "Little Rock Nine."

Many schools in the South refused to admit black students, even though the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision decreed school segregation unconstitutional. Despite resistance Civil Rights organizations worked to enroll black students in segregated schools. In Arkansas, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) recruited young girls and boys to integrate schools. Daisy Bates was the president of the Arkansas NAACP chapter. She was an expert organizer. Under Bates, the NAACP sued the Little Rock school board. Then she and her husband recruited nine students to integrate the all-white Central High School.

Bates took on the responsibility of preparing the "Little Rock Nine" for the violence and intimidation they would face inside and outside the school. She taught the students non-violent tactics and even became actively involved with Central High School's Parent organization. When the students were barred from entering the school the first time, Bates created a strategy to protect them from protestors.

Although the Supreme Court deemed segregation unconstitutional, the Arkansas governor refused to let the students enter. This clash between state and federal authorities culminated with President Dwight D. Eisenhower sending federal troops to protect the "Little Rock Nine." With the protection from the federal troops the nine African American students were able to attend Central High School.

By Arlisha Norwood, NWHM Fellow

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How Governor Orval Faubus reacted to School Desegregation

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How Governor Orval Faubus reacted to School Desegregation

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Governor Orval Faubus did not want to allow the Little Rock Nine (black students) into the schools. He claimed that this would interrupt the proper education of white students. The disorder and violence that it would cause could result in loss of life. He wanted to protect the black students. from harm. This is relevant today because this treatment of students wouldn't be allowed in schools. With today's social media monitoring every move public officials make in todays world there is no politician today who could get away with doing something so blatantly racist without immediately being threatened with impeachment. Today's politician will seek out minority schools and offer up new programs which will benefit all minorities who attend school in various ways (school activities, school books, new schools).

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References

BlackPast, B. (2010, July 26). (1958) Orval E. Faubus, “Speech on School Integration”.

BlackPast.org. https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/1958-governor-orval-e-faubus-speech-school-integration/

Brown v. Board of education (1954). (2021, November 22). National Archives.

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/brown-v-board-of-education

Clark, A. (2020, April 8). Why Eisenhower sent the 101st airborne to Little Rock after Brown v. Board. HISTORY. https://www.history.com/news/little-rock-nine-brown-v-board-eisenhower-101-airborne

Coutant, L. (2023, February 1). 9 things you may not know about the Little Rock Nine. National Parks Conservation Association.

https://www.npca.org/articles/3349-9-things-you-may-not-know-about-the-little-rock-nine

Elizabeth and hazel': The legacy of Little Rock. (2011, October 2). NPR. https://www.npr.org/2011/10/02/140953088/elizabeth-and-hazel-the-legacy-of-little-rock

Hanson, R. (2003). Literary Law Enforcement. Eastern Illinois University | Official Website | EIU. https://www.eiu.edu/historia/Hanson.pdf

Norwood, A. (n.d.). Little Rock Nine. National Women's History Museum. https://www.womenshistory.org/resources/general/little-rock-nine

Weingartner, J. (2023, September 12). The Little Rock Nine: Connecting 1957 to today. Facing History & Ourselves. https://www.facinghistory.org/ideas-week/little-rock-nine-connecting-1957-today