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Key terminology - A Level English Language

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Share your videos with friends, family, and the world

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Improve your grammar with easy 6 Minute Grammar, our grammar series for beginner level learners. On this page you'll find a range of easy grammar programmes to boost your language skills. Each programme covers a key grammar point with all the explanations, examples and activities you need to become an easy grammar champion - in just 6 minutes. Grammar topics include present simple and present continuous tenses, the present perfect, prepositions, relative clauses, modal verbs, adjectives, the first conditional, phrasal verbs and much, much more.

In addition to these 30 programmes, you can also try our intermediate grammar series, Medium 6 Minute Grammar or you can check your grammar knowledge with our complete easy grammar reference guide, medium grammar reference guide, medium grammar reference 2 guide and hard grammar reference. You can also try The Grammar Gameshow and study the lessons and use the worksheets from our English Class series..

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BBC Learning English - Easy grammar - 6 Minute Grammar

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Improve your grammar with easy 6 Minute Grammar, our grammar series for beginner level learners. On this page you'll find a range of easy grammar programmes to boost your language skills. Each programme covers a key grammar point with all the explanations, examples and activities you need to become an easy grammar champion - in just 6 minutes.

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Revise and practise your grammar to help you increase your confidence and improve your language level.

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A Little Book of Language (Little Histories)

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Buy A Little Book of Language (Little Histories) Reprint by David Crystal, Little Histories (ISBN: 9780300170825) from Amazon’s Book Store. Everyday low prices and free delivery on eligible orders.

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Buy How Language Works First Paperback Edition. by David Crystal (ISBN: 9780141015521) from Amazon’s Book Store. Everyday low prices and free delivery on eligible orders.

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Dent's Modern Tribes: The Secret Languages of Britain

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The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language

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The Unfolding Of Language by Deutscher, Guy (June 1, 2006) Paperback

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Don't Believe A Word: From Myths to Misunderstandings - How Language Really Works

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You Are What You Speak: Grammar Grouches, Language Laws, and the Politics of Identity

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A/AS Level English Language for AQA Student Book (A Level (AS) English Language AQA)

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A new series of bespoke, full-coverage resources developed for the 2015 A Level English qualifications. Endorsed for the AQA A/AS Level English Language specifications for first teaching from 2015, this print Student Book is suitable for all abilities, providing stretch opportunities for the more...

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The Oxford English Dictionary has selected rizz as its word of 2023. If you've heard of it at all, you'll probably have heard that it comes from the word charisma. However, the OED definition pins it down as "style, charm or attractiveness, and the ability to attract a romantic or sexual partner".

So, wait - which is it? Charm or charisma? The difference seems small - most people switch them up all the time. However, there has always been a subtle rivalry between the two ideas, because each embodies a quite different vision of how power works. Rizz takes this in a fascinating - and troubling - new direction, with implications for how young people talk about politics and masculinity.

Rizz migrated online from Baltimore street slang during 2021, when YouTuber Kai Cenat started dropping it into his videos as a shorthand for the ability to seduce women. Hundreds of millions of streams later, it has taken on a life of its own. He has taught a generation to use rizz as a verb, to spot different kinds of rizz when they see it, and to aspire to be " rizz kings ".

It is fascinating for those of us who enjoy head-scratching about language change. I am one of those people, a historian writing about the history of charisma.

In the 1910s, German sociologist Max Weber repurposed "charisma", the ancient Greek word for the Christian "gift of grace", to talk about new styles of democratic leadership.

The word had a slow start. Data shows it bursting into popularity from the 1960s onwards, when it became a buzzword for talking about celebrity-driven politics. Since then, it has become the first term many of us reach for when explaining the appeal of populist politicians like Donald Trump, or charismatic CEOs like Apple's Steve Jobs.

Charisma or charm?

Now, with rizz erupting like an alien from its middle syllable, charisma has gone from a theological word to a political word to a dating word.

And here's where the paradox comes in. Today's typical rizz post on social media sees a young woman apparently won over by a man's slick confidence. But what we're actually watching here is a different word, one we used to call charm. Since that word comes from the Latin carmen, for song, being charming can be thought of as "singing pleasing melodies to your audience" - in other words, telling people what they want to hear, or conforming to what you think another person wants.

By contrast, Weber adopted charisma as an anti-establishment idea, the " specifically creative revolutionary force of history " by which compelling individuals could mobilise people against authority. Throughout history, leaders called charismatic have frequently been abrasive, "singing songs" that crowds didn't realise they wanted to hear.

Hitler had little endearing rizz in the 2023 sense. Neither does the charmless but charismatic hero at the heart of Ridley Scott's Napoleon. By contrast, being a rizz king today is more about beguiling than challenging one's audience.

Charm and charisma also differ in scale. Rizz is native to platforms such as TikTok that, even if they involve reaching vast numbers of people, depict interactions between individuals or small groups of people. In this intimate arena, charm triumphs.

Charisma, by contrast, is seduction scaled up from the individual to a mass. It is larger than life, the macro to charm's micro. Charisma only makes sense as magnetism exerted over a crowd or populace, more attuned the cinema or television than the smartphone screen.

Rizz and gender

Most worryingly, by making charisma all about charm, rizz brings toxic gender politics and misogyny to the surface. It makes sexual prowess the measure of all things. As critics of rizz culture have begun to observe, rizz is a manosphere term - a way that young heterosexual men measure their own and rival men's place in the world.

It is quite possible that rizz owes nothing to charisma, since Kai Cenat has claimed the etymology is a red herring.

But in another sense it owes everything, since the newly-acquired rizz obsession of older generations - including the OED - is clearly down to how it links back to reassuringly well-established concepts. It makes us Millennials (and older) feel that we have a grip on the language of the young.

Such interest may even kill the word off. After all, nothing has less rizz with Generations Z and Alpha than the dictionary of a 1,000-year-old university in England.

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Rizz: I study the history of charisma - here's why the word of the year is misunderstood

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An expert on rhetoric explains why 'rizz' may be more like charm than charisma.

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AQA AS and A Level English Language Student Book (AQA A Level English 2104)

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This AQA AS and A Level English Language Student Book prepares students and teachers for the requirements of the AQA A Level English Language specification. Structured and written to build on skills students acquired at GCSE, this book helps students to develop the skills needed to succeed in the...

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Can Police 101 A.I. Call Bot Handle Regional Accents?

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Can Police 101 A.I. Call Bot Handle Regional Accents?

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West Midlands Police trialled a voice assistant powered by artificial intelligence (AI) in a bid to deal with rising volumes of non-emergency calls.

Sensitive technical details of the plan were erroneously published online in a document seen by the BBC.

It set out potential risks of the AI, including whether the system, dubbed "Amy101", would understand local "brummie" accents.

West Midlands Police has insisted "robust safeguards" were in place.

Based on the tech behind Amazon's popular voice assistant, Alexa, the trial explored how AI could help the force cope with increasing volumes of calls, and potentially offer new services such as responses in different languages.

A document detailing the plan was mistakenly posted online by the office of the West Midlands Police and Crime Commissioner (PCC). The document, marked "official sensitive" and with warnings that it should "not to be publicly disclosed", has since been removed.

Amy101 was designed to speak or text-chat in order to deal with callers' enquiries and was expected to handle around 200 calls per day.

The project, a two month proof-of-concept trial, was nationally funded.

It was - the document suggested - the first such project where an AI-powered tool would speak to callers, though other forces were also exploring uses of the tech.

Amy101 had the ability to prioritise vulnerable callers, by looking out for certain keywords - such as those referencing domestic violence - and ensuring they were next-in-line to be dealt with by a human call operator, the document says.

Through speech or text chat it could direct calls, provide advice on issues such as reporting criminal damage, or requesting a crime update.

West Midlands Police told the BBC the trial began on the 19th December 2023 and had now concluded

Its director of commercial services, Peter Gillett, said - by the time the trial started - the force had already improved and was now "one of the top performing police forces for managing emergency and non-emergency calls".

'Brummie' bias

The document - prepared for an ethical oversight committee that advises the PCC and Chief Constable - reveals the potential problems that might arise with Amy101, including whether the tech could cope with the local accent.

"Bias will naturally occur within the "Amy" system based on accents/localisation - for example can she understand "Brummie" accents? And are they treated with equal weighting to different accents in English?" the document asks.

Because Alexa is used globally - coping with a range of accents and languages - it was hoped that this type of bias had been removed. And if calls were not understood they would be transferred to the cue for a human operator.

Mr Gillet said the force recognised that technologies capable of understanding ordinary language were "not flawless", and therefore may struggle with accents.

As a result the force used a "large-scale" system "to mitigate this bias".

Potential issues around safeguarding data were also flagged, including the risk calls would be used to help train the Amazon AI system, called Lex V2, behind Amy101.

Some calls could include personally identifiable information. The document provides the example, "My name is Marc and I want to report my house was broken into....."

The police can, however, opt-out of this kind of training and will do this "where viable", the document says.

The ethics committee also had a number of questions, recorded in its minutes, about Amy101, such as the voice and "gendered name" of the tool. The force responded arguing "humanisation" was needed.

It also suggested officers requested further analysis from Amazon on potential issues "such as regional accent recognition and bias testing".

It's not clear whether the concerns raised in the document ever materialised, though police struck a positive note about the outcome of the trial:

"AI (Artificial Intelligence) does present some potential opportunities for providing a more efficient and robust service", Mr Gillett said.

Now the "proof-of-concept" trial is over, the force would be "sharing the results and outcomes at a national scale", he added.

According to the document the government was also interested in the trial - it said a Home Office team was "keeping a close eye" on it with a view to wider uses.

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Police worried 101 call bot would struggle with 'brummie' accents

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West Midlands Police trialled the non-emergency call-answering AI voice assistant for two months.

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'Man' the new first-person and third-person pronoun in MLE

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'Man' the new first-person and third-person pronoun in MLE

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London English has a new pronoun. Young people living in multicultural areas of the inner city use man as an alternative to I. Sometimes the meaning could be indefinite: in the caption to the picture Alex' man pronoun could perhaps be replaced by you (in its general sense of 'anyone') or even one; but in other examples, like (1) below, man refers quite unambiguously to the speaker. Here Alex is telling his friend what he'd said to his girlfriend, who had annoyed him by bringing along her friends when he had arranged to meet her.

(1) didn't I tell you man wanna come see you . I don't date your friends I date you (Alex)

How has this new pronoun developed? One relevant factor is that young people in multicultural areas of London now use man as a plural noun as well as a singular noun. Look, for example, at (2) and (3), where the number thirty-six and the adjective bare, 'many', show clearly that the noun is plural.

(2) what am I doing with over thirty-six man chasing me blud (Alex)

(3) and I ended up hanging around with bare bare man (Roshan)

Man is not the only new plural form of the noun: mens, mans and mandem are also heard in London, as well as the expected men. Mandem seems a straightforward borrowing from Jamaican Creole. The other forms result from the way that children acquire English in linguistically diverse inner city areas - in an unguided, informal fashion, in their friendship groups. Many different varieties of English are used in these groups, resulting in much linguistic variation and linguistic flexibility (click on 'Multicultural London English' in the list of terms on the left to see our other posts on this new variety of English).

As a plural noun, man always refers to a group of individuals: either to people who are there with the speaker (e.g. you man are all batty boys, said by a young speaker to his friends) or to a group of people that the speaker has just been talking about. This paves the way for the development of the pronoun, since this is exactly how pronouns are used: I refers to a person who is there (the speaker), while he or she refer either to another person who is there or to a person the speaker has just mentioned. Since the plural noun man refers to a group of people, speakers can present themselves as symbolically belonging to that group. So when Alex uses man to refer to himself, as in the caption to the picture, he presents himself as a member of the group of people who think that personality is more important than looks. This gives his opinion more authority, by implying that there are others who feel the same way he does. In the same way, in (1), above, Alex refers to himself as man and by doing so portrays himself as one of a group of like-minded people who would also feel this way.

Another factor that helps explain the emergence of man as a pronoun is that the discourse-pragmatic form man is very frequent indeed in multicultural inner city London. Like other discourse markers, man has many functions, but the chief one seems to be to express emotion (as in (4)) and to construct solidarity between speakers.

(4) aah man that's long that's kind of long (Roshan)

Because man is used so often this way, the connotations of solidarity may spread over into its other uses - including the new use as a pronoun. So, in (5), below, Dexter is telling his friends how upset he was at not being able to use the plane ticket he had bought, because the police had arrested him. He uses you know to involve the other speakers, reinforces the fact that he had paid for the ticket himself by saying paid for my own ticket (rather than simply I'd bought a ticket), highlights the amount of money ( a big three hundred and fifty pounds) and says explicitly that he was so upset. Here, using man to refer to himself is just one of many ways to emphasise the experience and look for solidarity and support from the listeners.

(5) before I got arrested man paid for my own ticket to go Jamaica you know . but I've never paid to go on no holiday before this time I paid... a big three hundred and fifty pound .. I was so upset (Dexter)

In the data analysed in this paper it is almost exclusively male speakers who use the new pronoun, suggesting that it retains the meaning of the noun man. It has not yet, then, become a fully-fledged pronoun like I: only when both male and females refer to themselves as man will this have happened.

Cheshire, Jenny (2013) Grammaticalisation in social context: The emergence of a new English pronoun. Journal of Sociolinguistics 17 (5): 608-633.

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I don't mind how my girl looks.. it's her personality man's looking at London English has a new pronoun. Y...

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Dude! Your Kid's Slang Isn't As Bad As You Think.

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Dude! Your Kid's Slang Isn't As Bad As You Think.

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Dude! Your kid’s slang isn’t as bad as you think.

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New research indicates this invented language can have learning benefits for children.

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Fam, imagine if man said you couldn't use words like "peng", basically and "dem tings dere" in your classroom.

Didn't understand any of that?

This might be because you were born in a different generation.

Just imagine if you were not allowed to use slang words that meant "beautiful" or "lots" when you were in school.

That is the case for some students, who are being urged to ditch slang words in lessons in order to teach them how to use formal English.

In fact, some schools have even introduced anti-slang posters and stickers, grammar police badges and word jails, where slang is written on posters with jail images.

Does that mean that pupils studying there have to tell their classmates they look "jolly well splendid" rather than a "peng ting"?

However, a linguistics expert is warning that slang bans may actually cause more harm than good.

"There's no incorrect or correct way of using language," says Ian Cushing, a lecturer in education at Brunel University London.

He carried out a study by visiting schools and speaking to teachers in England over a year and found examples of slang being banned and policed in lessons.

These included words such as "peng", "bare" or abbreviations such as "emosh" for emotional.

There were slang bans at about 20 of the schools he visited, which were mostly located in urban areas.

"Language is just one part of your identity - just the same way you wear your hair and clothes," said Dr Cushing.

"Young people will police their own language - they don't need other people to police it for them, they understand the context of their situation, and know when to shift it accordingly.

"Shakespeare is full of slang and we don't see teachers banning that - there's a hypocrisy here, which is rooted in cultural and linguistic snobbery."

Do you know these slang terms?

Peng = someone who is good-looking

Bare = lots of or a large amount of

Fam = short for family or a close friend

Bruv = short for brother

Bait = when something is blatantly obvious

Calm = no problem

The linguistics academic says slang is a natural way of speaking, and banning it may be a threat to a person's identity.

It may also make students feel discriminated against and less motivated to take part in lessons.

"Young people are typically the innovators of language change, so actually we should be celebrating that rather than banning it in the classroom," said Dr Cushing.

Slang ban ain't the one

Francesca, a student at South Thames College, a further education college in Wandsworth, south-west London, says she is allowed to use slang in her lessons.

But the idea of a slang ban on students does not appeal to her.

"It's like taking away their voice in a way," says the business student, warning that young people might feel they were unable to "express themselves".

"I think it will end up driving more students to not want to communicate.

"I would probably end up getting in trouble for things that would slip out, not by purpose," she says, adding that a slang ban could stop students wanting to "interact" in the classroom.

Fellow student Tomas migrated to England five years ago and could not speak English.

He started learning slang in secondary school and now uses it with his friends.

"I think if slang was banned in primary or secondary, it would be understandable, because that's when children are growing and start listening to slang," he says.

"On one hand I think it should be banned, because it will help children and young adults to learn and be prepared for the working world. But banning it can also mean that the freedom of speech for some people can be affected."

Another student, Imran, says: "If my teacher told me that I cannot use slang words, I will feel a bit uncomfortable, mainly because it's not harming anybody.

"Slang is something that I've grown up with and it's just something that I wouldn't be able to finish the sentence with, without using it.

"There are cultures that use slang as a language, and if it's being stopped, they wouldn't be able to communicate with people the way they previously did when slang was involved."

Maybe using slang in school ain't that bad after all, innit?

However, other people argue that a slang ban is indeed necessary.

Chris McGovern, chairman of Campaign for Real Education, says allowing slang is not doing any favours for underprivileged children.

He says they are left in an "employment gutter" because of their "linguistic impoverishment".

"Nurturing street slang is fine for linguistic acrobats such as Cambridge graduate Sacha Baron Cohen's alter ego, Ali G," he says.

"It is much more difficult for that 20% of school leavers who, according to employers' organisations, are largely unemployable because of poor literacy.

"In the UK today, around nine million adults are functionally illiterate, and many of them suffer under-employment, unemployment or destitution as a consequence."

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Should words like 'peng' or 'bruv' be banned in class?

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Fam, imagine if man said you couldn't use words like "peng", basically and "dem tings dere" in your classroom. Didn't understand any of that? This might be because you were born in a different generation. Just imagine if you were not allowed to use slang words that meant "beautiful" or "lots" when you were in school.

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Research Paper: Use of Non-standard Language in the Classroom

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Research Paper: Use of Non-standard Language in the Classroom

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Multilingualism: Empowering Individuals, Transforming Societies (MEITS). A flagship project to revitalize Modern Languages and shape UK language policy by showing how multilingualism can empower individuals and transform societies.

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Rules of English Grammar pertaining to English Speaking

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Detailed article on English grammar in relation to speaking. Learn what portion of grammar you should study to become fluent in English.

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Free Homework & Revision for A Level, GCSE, KS3 & KS2 (senecalearning.com)

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Free Homework & Revision for A Level, GCSE, KS3 & KS2

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Free revision for your GCSE & A Level exams. Join over 6.5 million students learning 2x faster across 250+ exam board specific A Level, GCSE & KS3 Courses.

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Have a go at these tasks over the summer and bring your notes to our first session after the holidays :)