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Since the Beginning of the Scientific Revolution: Personhood of a Fetus Argument 

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Since the Beginning of the Scientific Revolution: Personhood of a Fetus Argument 

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In 1973, Roe vs. Wade publically posed the question if a fetus was considered a person. However, this was an ongoing discussion throughout history. Throughout history, scientists have described fetuses and embryos are “unborn children,” but many women, especially in the scientific community, struggled with this idea. Many opposing arguments against abortion have always focused on life starting at conception. However, during the 1970’s many anthropologists have stated that the fetus cannot live without the mother until birth, which therefore defies the logic that a fetus can be identified as a whole human person. During Roe vs. Wade, the prosecution lawyers stated that under the 14th amendment, the fetus is a human and has a right to life. However, Justice Harry Blackmun famously stated that “this law does not apply to the unborn.” He later stated that until the fetus is 24 weeks, and until it can survive outside the womb, it cannot be considered a person under law. When Blackmun was questioned by Pro-Life supporters, he said his expertise is simply rooted in the constitution and law, not biological or theological explanation. The justices ultimately decided that a woman’s right to privacy outweighs the protection of a fetus’s potiential viability.

Sources:

Carlisle, Madeleine. “Fetal Personhood Laws Are a New Frontier in the Battle over Reproductive Rights.” Time, 28 June 2022, time.com/6191886/fetal-personhood-laws-roe-abortion/.

Hammons, McKenzie. “What Is Fetal Personhood and What Does It Have to Do with Abortion Laws? | PreBorn!” PreBorn!, 17 Jan. 2024, preborn.com/fetal-personhood-and-abortion-laws/.

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Roe vs Wade was a 1973 case that first passed the law that allowed constitutional right to abortion and the right to privacy. The case came into fruition when an anonymous woman decided to argue that the fundamental right to privacy overrules the state’s compelling interest in protecting a potential life. This woman’s name was Norma McCorvey, who became pregnant with her third child. She did not want to go through with this pregnancy, but she lived in Texas, where abortion was illegal. When presented with this case, the court decided to make their decision based on the trimester schedule in a woman’s pregnancy. Abortion was acceptable in the first trimester of pregnancy, in the second trimester, the state could prohibit some abortion regulations, but abortion would not be banned overall. During the end of a second trimester, abortion is now against the constitution unless the mother’s health is at risk. However, the court decided that abortion was not criminalized when the pregnancy could be fatal. Additionally, the justices decided that the states could also regulate abortion. This conclusion was reached by seven of the nine supreme court justices. In 2022, the Supreme Court overturned Roe vs. Wade, which dismantled the constitutional right to abortion, giving states the power to decide their stances on abortion.

Sources:

The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Roe v. Wade.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 7 Dec. 2018, www.britannica.com/event/Roe-v-Wade.

Totenberg, Nina, and Sarah McCammon. “Supreme Court Overturns Roe v. Wade, Ending Right to Abortion Upheld for Decades.” National Public Radio, 24 June 2022, www.npr.org/2022/06/24/1102305878/supreme-court-abortion-roe-v-wade-decision-overturn.

Brennan Center for Justice. “Roe v. Wade and Supreme Court Abortion Cases.” Www.brennancenter.org, Brennan Center for Justice, 28 Sept. 2022, www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/roe-v-wade-and-supreme-court-abortion-cases.

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Before this decision was made in 1973, Georgia’s laws only allowed abortion for rape cases, deformity, and servere risks to the mother. Additionally, this law only permitted abortion with the consent of a hospital committee, and two separate doctors. Also the abortion had to take place in a hospital, and not a private clinic. The doctors who were tasked with approving abortions only were allowed to take the mother’s health into account, not her financial state, whether or not the father was present in the mother’s life, and her mental health. The case was brought forward by a previously anonymous Sandra Cano. Sandra was facing many hardships in her life, she was poor, already had children, and was divorced from her husband. Therefore, supporting another child was not possible for her. However, she was not allowed to carry out an abortion because of Georgia’s restrictive laws. On January 22, 1973, the Supreme Court ruled that these abortion laws were unconstitutional. The justices stated that these challenging laws put unnecessary psychological strain on the mother. Additionally, the court emphasized Sandra’s right to privacy, and these rights included privacy to marriage, birth control, and family. This was one of the first significant cases that set the precedent for the future of abortion legality.

Sources:

Abboud, Carolina. “Doe v. Bolton (1973) | the Embryo Project Encyclopedia.” Asu.edu, 2017, embryo.asu.edu/pages/doe-v-bolton-1973.

“Doe v. Bolton, 410 U.S. 179 (1973).” Justia Law, 2019, supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/410/179/.

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During the 1980's, the state of Pennsylvania added more laws surrounding access to abortion. In order to undergo an abortion, a minor had to get parental consent, a married woman must get their spouse’s consent, and the mother must wait 24 hours to perform an abortion. A Planned Parenthood clinic filed a lawsuit against the state of Pennsylvania, saying that these regulations were against Roe vs. Wade decision. When brought to the Supreme Court, every regulation was upheld, except for the spousal regulation. This case upheld the idea that restrictions can be placed on abortions, as long as they do not cause an “undue burden” on the mother. Additionally, the court​​ ruled that the trimester regulations were no longer legitimate. In the outcome of Roe vs. Wade, a first trimester abortion was lawful. In the second trimester, some restrictions were put in place, but abortion is still permitted. Lastly, in the third trimester, the state can choose whether an abortion can be prohibited. However, in the case of Planned Parenthood vs. Casey, the trimester regulations were outlawed because of, again, “undue burden” on the mother. However, it is still debated what constitutes an “undue burden.” The case of Planned Parenthood vs. Casey is significant as it allowed for more flexibility in access to abortion.

Sources: Shivaram, Deepa. “Roe Established Abortion Rights. 20 Years Later, Casey Paved the Way for Restrictions.” NPR, 6 May 2022, www.npr.org/2022/05/06/1096885897/roe-established-abortion-rights-20-years-later-casey-paved-the-way-for-restricti.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania V. Casey | Summary, Origins, and Influence.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 1 Oct. 2024, www.britannica.com/event/Planned-Parenthood-of-Southeastern-Pennsylvania-v-Casey.

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Cell-free fetal DNA (cfDNA) is a type of genetic material from fetus cells that have died and released their contents into the maternal blood. Therefore, collecting cfDNA from the mothers bloodstream can be used to identify potential genetic issues for the fetus. This revolutionary discovery transformed prenatal testing into a much less invasive procedure.

This discovery paved the way for Non Invasive Prenatal Testing (NIPT) which was introduced in 2011. Over 2 million NIPTs have been performed since which involves more advanced sequencing of the cfDNA in the maternal plasma. However, there are some setbacks. First, if there is a positive result for any issue, there would then be a need for an potentially invasive procedure. These tests also could lead to further stress on the parents due to difficult decisions they might be faced with after the results. Parents should be given all the information needed as well as time and space to make these decisions. This, however, leads to some ethical concerns when all options are not available. For example, a mother might become aware of life threatening issues for both her and the baby but if the option of abortion is not available where she lives then she is forced to continue her pregnancy with this knowledge and fear. This is why having access to abortion is critical for mothers as technology advances.

Sources:

Eltabbakh, N., Mohasin, Y., & Jeddy, R. (2024). Advancements of non-invasive prenatal testing: the role of obstetricians. Frontiers in medicine, 11, 1388481. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2024.1388481

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The Gestational Age Act of 2018 is a Mississippi law that attempts to ban abortions after 15 weeks. When this law was brought forth, Roe v. Wade protected abortions until 28 weeks which was the accepted fetal viability limit in 1973. However, medicine has made many advancements in prenatal health since then. Today, doctors are able to save 90% of babies born at 24 weeks as well as 50% of babies born at 23 weeks. Only 17% of babies born at 22 weeks survive, however many doctors don’t make a strong effort in saving the baby due to the emotional stress it may cause the families. Excluding these situations, 33% of babies survive after being born at 22 weeks. Also, in Sweden and Japan up to 50% survive at 22 weeks.

Due to the significance of fetal viability when Roe v. Wade was passed, this idea was central to the Dobbs v. Jackson case. The major argument of the 1992 Casey v. Planned Parenthood case is that women should have the right to abortions until the fetus is viable. However, the 28 weeks that is written in the law is not an accurate time frame for fetal viability therefore invalidating this argument for these laws.

This Gestational Age Act is the first law that would allow for a pre-viability abortion ban. After Roe v. Wade was overturned, this bill was passed making Mississippi one of the strictest states on abortion. This law only allows for exceptions for medical emergencies which must be thoroughly documented. There is no acception for rape or incest.

Sources:

Stacey, M. (2022). What is fetal viability, and how does it impact abortion cases? 13WTHR. https://www.wthr.com/article/news/health/fetal-viability-explained/531-c39665b1-1bcd-46d3-88be-4620894b23a5

Freedman, D. H. (2022). What Science Says About Abortion. Newsweek Global, 178(16), 20–29.

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2019 - World Health Organization Study and the Issue of Sexual Violence 

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2019 - World Health Organization Study and the Issue of Sexual Violence 

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Many people in the case of abortions and women’s right over look sexual abuse that many women face on a day to day basis. In a World Health Organization study in 2019, 1/3 of women reported that they had been exposed to physical or sexual abuse. Women are continuously subjected to different forms of discrimination and are placed at a disadvantage for opportunities compared to men. These forms of discrimination have a long term effect on how women view gender roles and justice systems. Violence against women can negatively affect women’s physical, mental, sexual, and reproductive health. The World Health Organization has found that most of this violence is intimate partner violence. across the world, almost one third, 27%, of women aged 15-49 years who have been in a relationship report that they have been subjected to some form of physical and/or sexual violence by their intimate partner. Sexual violence is something that affects every race, ethnicity, in every part of the world and is a global crisis. It was found that as many as 38% of all murders of women are committed by intimate partners. While many women have been subjected to this abuse, in the Roe v. Wade era, their right to abortion was still protected, constitutionally.

Sources

World Health Organization. (2024, March 25). Violence against Women. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-women

Türkeli, A., Tayınmak, İ., & Doǧruyol, S. (2023). Relationship Between Relative Deprivation and Well-Being of Women: Role of Gender System Justification. [Kadınların Göreli Yoksunlukları ve İyi Oluşları Arasındaki İlişkide Cinsiyet Sistemini Meşrulaştırmanın Rolü] Psikiyatride Guncel Yaklasimlar, Suppl.Supplement 1, 15, 394-405. https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.1345237

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July 5, 2020 - Curtis born at 21 weeks and 1 day

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July 5, 2020 - Curtis born at 21 weeks and 1 day

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Curtis Means is the world’s most premature infant to survive being born at 21 weeks and one day. After spending 275 days in the hospital, Curtis was discharged from The University of Alabama at Birmingham Regional Neonatal Intensive Care Unit. Curtis and his twin sister, C'Asya were born with a less than 1% chance of survival. Sadly, C'Asya died one day after she was born. Curtis, however, continued fighting and began the Golden Week Program which includes "clinical guidance on respiratory support, thermoregulation, nutrition and fluid management, infection prevention, and neurological status". This is a step-by-step process that focuses on Curtis' survival one day at a time. For nine months Curtis had around the clock care that consisted of many nurses and therapists. A speech therapist was necessary to teach Curtis how to use his mouth for things like eating and a respiratory therapist helped Curtis wane off his breathing machine.

It is important to understand how fragile these babies are at this age. They aren’t able to breathe on their own for weeks if not months. Their brain, specifically their cortex, is still forming making brain bleeds very common. Their skin is also paper thin so no one is allowed to touch them including the mothers. Bonding with a mother in the first few weeks of a child's life is a crucial part of development but this must be given up in order to save the baby.

Medicine is constantly advancing and medical miracles like Curtis prove further innovation is possible.

Sources:

Freedman, D. H. (2022). What Science Says About Abortion. Newsweek Global, 178(16), 20–29.

Echols, H. (2021, November 10). UAB hospital delivers record-breaking premature baby. The University of Alabama at Birmingham. Echols, H. (2021, November 10). UAB hospital delivers record-breaking premature baby. The University of Alabama at Birmingham. https://www.uab.edu/news/health/item/12427-uab-hospital-delivers-record-breaking-premature-baby

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2020 - Chrissy Teigan miscarriage and blacklash

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2020 - Chrissy Teigan miscarriage and blacklash

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Chrissy Teigan and John Legend announced that after weeks of complications they had lost their son, Jack, during the pregnancy. Teigan was initially met with much support including a statement from Planned Parenthood sending their condolences. However, this was followed by significant backlash from anti-abortionists claiming Teigan and planned parenthood couldn't mourn this loss because they support abortion. This led to the discussion of fetal value versus fetal personhood. There is usually a binary view of how one should feel about pregnancy based on their opinion on abortion. Pro-choice people think of the fetus as a “clump of cells” while pro-life people argue the life of a fetus from conception. These views overlook and simplify the complex subjective reality of abortions, miscarriages, and stillbirths. The emotional connection to the fetus is what determines the extent to which one feels the sense of loss. This emotional attachment is developed throughout the pregnancy and involves many different factors. These include giving the baby an identity, visualizing the fetus from ultrasounds, as well as acknowledgement from family and friends that the fetus is a baby. The most important is the desire for the pregnancy. The emotional connection differs based on an individual's situation. The idea of fetal value relects the morals of the pro-choice movement as it allows for a more inclusive understanding of pregnancy outcomes. This perceptoin supports all experiences with pregnancy as well as validate sthe grief people feel after losing a pregnancy. This is especially important during the post-Roe v Wade era as abortion is becoming more stigmatized as well as criminalized.

Sources:

Donley, G., & Lens, J. W. (2022). Abortion, Pregnancy Loss, & Subjective Fetal Personhood. Vanderbilt Law Review, 75(6), 1649.

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June 24th 2022: Supreme Court Case: Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization 

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June 24th 2022: Supreme Court Case: Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization 

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In 2018, The state of Mississippi passed the “Gestation Age Act,” which prohibits all abortions, with few exceptions, after 15 weeks. One of The Jackson Women’s Health Organization doctors, the only licensed abortion facility within the state of Mississippi, filed a lawsuit that challenged the bill and called for a temporary restraining order against it. The restraining order was allowed until both sides gathered enough evidence to support their claim. After hearing the case, the court decided to grant the clinic's motion, as the state had not provided significant evidence that the fetus was viable at 15 weeks. After this ruling, the case proceeded to get passed up through the district courts to the United States Supreme Court, which ruled that The Constitution does not confirm a right to abortion and, therefore, it should be determined on a state-by-state basis. The justices pointed out that the Constitution does not mention abortion when justifying their claim. They also pointed out that abortion is not considered integral to the nation's history or part of “ordered liberty,” a concept within political philosophy in which individual freedom is balanced with the necessity for maintaining social order. As a result, the national precedent of Roe V Wade was dismantled.

Ordered liberty. (2024, October 14). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordered_liberty

"Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization." Oyez, www.oyez.org/cases/2021/19-1392. Accessed 23 Nov. 2024.

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Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization (2020)

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After the overturn of Roe V Wade in 2022, abortion became illegal in twenty-one states(Alabama, Arkansas, Idaho, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, and West Virginia). Most of these states have a total abortion ban. Even states that support abortion rights had to reconsider their legislation on the issue. Many states previously relied on Roe v. Wade as an implied protection for abortion rights, which has led them to introduce additional measures, such as state constitutional amendments, to safeguard the right to abortion. For example, in Illinois, the State Supreme Court recognized abortion under its state Constitution, and the state has been adding increasing protections for providers as well, as it is geographically placed in between two states that have heavily restrictive abortion laws. While hope might seem lost in many of these states without protection, advocates have been using both the courtroom, in which they sue the state in an attempt to block or restrict abortion bans within the state.

Interestingly, “Many states limit abortion around fetal “viability,” the point at which a fetus could survive outside the uterus, or around 24 weeks of pregnancy” (New York Times). Overall, there is a wide variety of legislation regarding what is considered a “human.” In some states, there are eight. In contrast, in others, it is till twenty-four.

Sullivan, Margaret. "Abortion Laws in the U.S. After Roe v. Wade." The New York Times, www.nytimes.com/interactive/2024/us/abortion-laws-roe-v-wade.html.

Kaiser, Alisha. "Expanding Access and Protections in States Where Abortion Is Legal." Center for American Progress, 28 Sept. 2023, www.americanprogress.org/article/expanding-access-and-protections-in-states-where-abortion-is-legal/.

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January 6 , 2023 - How Midlife Women Were Affected By Dobbs v Jackson and the increase in abotions from 2017-2020

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January 6 , 2023 - How Midlife Women Were Affected By Dobbs v Jackson and the increase in abotions from 2017-2020

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After the overturning of Roe v. Wade in June 2022, this meant that the right to an abortion was no longer protect by the constitution and left up to the states. With this right returned back to the states, thirteen states had trigger laws that immediately and automatically took effect after the decision was made. With this decision, it has had a large consequence for a specific time period in a woman's life called the midlife. This was the time period in a women’s life defined as being the time range between a women’s possibility of becoming pregnant and menopause. It was revealed that 51% of midlife pregnancies were unintended. Many times, the sexual health of women in the midlife period is oftentimes overlooked by healthcare providers. In recent studies, it was found that between 2017-2020 the overall number of abortions has increased with increasing numbers of sexually transmitted diseases and unintended pregnancies by midlife women as well. The decision of overturning Roe v. Wade has disproportionately affected to is group of women that are often times not acknowledged. A decrease in access to abortion poses a significant hurdle to obtaining care and a large increase in stress that in many cases leads to a forced pregnancy despite concerns and consequences. Health risks associated with pregnancy in midlife may be life threatening especially in a facility that may not include abortion care. In a comparison of spontaneous abortions, the risk in women aged 20-24 was 8.9% and 74.7 percent in women aged 45 years or more. The overall risk of ectopic pregnancy was 2.3% but showed a steady increase in incidence with increasing maternal age at conception from 1.4% of all pregnancies at the age of 21 years to 6.9% of pregnancies in women aged 44 years.

Sources

Berg, J. A., & Woods, N. F. (2023). Overturning Roe v. Wade: Consequences for Midlife Women’s Health and well-being. Women’s Midlife Health, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40695-022-00085-8

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One piece of national legislation that Congress attempted to pass was the H.R.7, or No Taxpayer Funding for Abortion and Abortion Insurance Full Disclosure Act of 2023. This bill was introduced in 2023 by New Jersey Republican Chris Smith. “This bill modifies provisions relating to federal funding for, and health insurance coverage of, abortions. Specifically, the bill prohibits the use of federal funds for abortions or for health coverage that includes abortions. Such restrictions extend to the use of funds in the budget of the District of Columbia. Additionally, abortions may not be provided in a federal health care facility or by a federal employee.” (H.R.7 - 118th Congress (2023-2024). This bill prohibits federal funding for abortion. While this bill might sound promising for many Americans, the bill restricts abortion for nearly all women, could potentially have insurance halt abortion coverage entirely, and penalizes women with high-risk pregnancies. First, the bill forces women to cover their abortion care completely, which would disproportionately affect low-income women, female immigrants, and women of color. But the most problematic part of the bill would be the penalization of women with high-risk pregnancies. The bill eliminates abortion care even in cases in which a woman needs an abortion to prevent severe, permanent health damage.

H.R.7 - 118th Congress (2023-2024): No Taxpayer Funding for Abortion and Abortion Insurance Full Disclosure Act of 2023. (2023, January 9). https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-bill/7

"3 Reasons You Should Remain Skeptical of H.R. 7." Center for American Progress, 2024, www.americanprogress.org/article/3-reasons-you-should-remain-skeptical-of-h-r-7

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2023 - Examining How the Post-Roe v. Wade Era has affected communities on a greater scale and psychological distresses

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2023 - Examining How the Post-Roe v. Wade Era has affected communities on a greater scale and psychological distresses

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The overturning of Roe v. Wade returned the right to an abortion back to the states. This resulted in a multitude of states imposing a complete ban on abortion. However, it was shown that the majority of Americans, stating that around 61% of the overall population believes that abortion should be legal in all or most cases. With the majority of Americans in opposition to this decision, many have also overlooked the effects that this decision had on individuals mental health and marginalized communities. Contrary to belief, there have been no long term effects on mental health after receiving an abortion found through longitudinal studies. However, there was an opposite effect found when being denied an abortion that saw an increase in psychological distress following the denial of an abortion. The court’s decision also fails to account for the disproportionate effect it has had on marginalized communities. Some argue that the supreme court’s overall decision represents reproductive injustice stemming from racism, sexism, heterosexism, cissexism, and classism. This creates a framework of intersectionality that translates how societal inequities affect reproductive health care and how this overall is associated with an individuals’ mental health. What the mainstream narrative fails to show is in the case that those who were in need of an abortion would need to spend significant funds to travel across state borders, introducing a significant financial burden that disproportionately affects these communities.

Source

Watson, L. B., & Germain, J. M. (2023). Reproductive Justice in the Post-Roe v. Wade Era: Examining Reactions to Dobbs v. Jackson and Psychological Distress Among Cisgender Women and People Assigned Female at Birth. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 48(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/03616843231210219

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Missouri overturns their abortion ban 2024

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Missouri overturns their abortion ban 2024

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In the pivotal 2024 election, Missouri made history by becoming the first state to successfully overturn an almost total ban on abortion through a direct public vote. Amendment 3 sought to protect abortion rights in the state constitution and garnered a narrow yet decisive majority, with 52% of voters in favor compared to 48% opposed. The campaign for Amendment 3 was spearheaded by the political action committee (PAC) named Missourians for Constitutional Freedom, which mobilized a remarkable fundraising effort, accumulating over $31 million. This robust financial support fueled an extensive campaign that included impactful television advertisements and comprehensive outreach initiatives, ensuring that the message of reproductive rights reached voters across the state. In stark contrast, those opposing the amendment struggled to match this level of financial backing, raising only a tiny fraction of the financial support enjoyed by their counterparts despite receiving endorsements from several prominent elected officials.  Ultimately, the passage of Amendment 3 not only marked a significant policy shift in Missouri but also enshrined vital reproductive health services in law, ensuring access not only to abortion but also to a range of other essential services, including birth control and various contraceptive methods. This decision underscored the evolving landscape of reproductive rights in the United States, reflecting a growing movement toward safeguarding these fundamental healthcare services.

"Missouri Voters Overturn State's Near-Total Abortion Ban." Missouri Independent, 5 Nov. 2024, https://missouriindependent.com/2024/11/05/missouri-voters-overturn-states-near-total-abortion-ban/.

"Missouri Voters Approve Amendment 3, Overturning Abortion Ban." NBC News, 5 Nov. 2024, https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2024-election/missouri-abortion-ban-amendment-3-pass-rcna177395.

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Rape culture is extremely important when discussing abortion and opinions on pregnancy. In this culture, shame is brought onto the survivor, instead of the perpetrator. These attitudes shift the blame onto the victim, with phrases like “she was asking for it.” Our society perpetuates harmful ideas, such as how women’s clothing is often the reasoning for sexual violence. A way to reject these stereotypes is media regulation. In order to challenge the media on issues of abortion and sexual assault, the identity of the victims should remain anonymous, especially in the press. However, many people oppress this, as they believe it goes against constitutional freedom of press. However, the invasive coverage of the media is often what deters women from reporting sexual assault, especially if the assault has led to a pregnancy. Other ways our culture has attempted to combat misinformation around sexual assault have been campgains run by men. For example, the “Bystander Project” has urged men to spark change, and say something when they see something. For example, this could happen when a man overhears his neighbors threatening violence towards their wives. The Bystander Project has been a significant step in reducing the misogynistic stigma around abortion, domestic violence, sexual assault. Historically, misogynistic attitudes have affected laws, legislature and society as a whole. If abortions affected men, bodily autonomy and protections would be put first. Abortion rights have always been historically a male dominated issue. This rape culture and biased laws have played a significant part in impacting the regulations surrounding abortion.

Source:

Walby, S., Olive, P., Towers, J., Francis, B., Strid, S., Krizsán, A., Lombardo, E., May-Chahal, C., Franzway, S., Sugarman, D., Agarwal, B., & Armstrong, J. (2015). Culture, media and education. In Stopping rape: Towards a comprehensive policy (1st ed., pp. 191–210). Bristol University Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv4g1rd0.11