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A Article From Natural Geographic Explaining How To Help Climate Change "Meet the creatives taking to the ocean to spread a message about the climate crisis"

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A Article From Natural Geographic Explaining How To Help Climate Change "Meet the creatives taking to the ocean to spread a message about the climate crisis"

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The Arka Kinari is a creative collective using the sea as a platform to spark conversations about climate change.

Photograph by Grey Filistine

A 75ft antique sailing vessel glides towards a spit of sand in Indonesia. This is no ordinary journey. Arka Kinari is no ordinary ship. The hull is brightly decorated with stars and geometric patterns, painted by US street artist Shrine, and it's packed with subwoofers, lighting rigs and costumes. The crew are carrying drums and guitars.

The spit of Indonesian sand is home to Koja Doi, a stilt village teetering in the Flores Sea. The schooner navigates a gap in the surrounding reef to make its approach. "Who are you? Where are you coming from?," shout the local children at Grey Filastine. Along with partner Nova Ruth, Grey is co-founder of Arka Kinari, a project that shares its name with the boat and its resident musicians. The duo found underground success as musicians, flying around the world to play shows that explored ecological frictions and political borders. But they longed to create a platform that matched their message, so after raising funds by selling Grey's house in Seattle and taking out a loan, a two-year search for a suitable ship began.

In September 2019, after months of grueling renovation on a "rust bucket" in Rotterdam, Arka Kinari set sail, a floating cultural platform on a mission to share a message about climate resilience through music and art. The pair were joined by a cast of lighting and sound engineers who doubled as crew. Only the captain had seafaring experience. "I didn't even know how to tie a bowline knot," Grey tells me. The crew learned seafaring skills fast on what became a 30,000-nautical mile journey that took them to Mexico, Hawaii and, eventually, to the teetering stilt village in Indonesia.

Nova Ruth performing on Arka Kinari

Photograph by Grey Filistine

On that first evening, after the call to prayer, the residents of Koja Doi gathered on the dock. The young people perform a welcome dance in bright orange traditional dress. When they finish, it's the turn of Arka Kinari. The deck transforms into multiple stages. Nova kicks things off, incarnating the goddess of the Southern Ocean, her ethereal song of Javanese poetry carrying into the night. Grey joins on percussion, his face draped in sequin cloth. They're silhouetted against the sail, now doubling as a projection screen, displaying cinematic visuals which imagine a future after the seas have risen. The crew play out the survivors, here to sound the alarm for ecological disaster and invite the audience to join them in a new future.

"We're not a novelty," says Grey, when I attend a presentation he gives about the project aboard a barge on the Newton Creek in Brooklyn, New York two years later in 2021. He has bright green eyes and a gold tooth, the lines on his face those of a man who spent the past many months at sea. Occasional airplanes overhead drown out his voice. "Throughout time, messages have come through people arriving on ships, sharing stories through music and shadows and light. We are the 21st-century version [of this]."

Grey refers to the water as "the last great common" [ground] and a place where "artists can dance around the rules of the world". Indeed, Arka Kinari isn't the only creative collective taking to the ocean to spread a message about the climate crisis, and for many of these groups - call them 'floating artivists' if you like - the sea offers the freedom Grey refers to. Artist Caledonia 'Callie' Curry, for example - whose work appears under the name 'Swoon' - crashed the Venice Biennial uninvited in 2009, floating down the lagoon on a fleet of rafts crafted from junk with a crew of madcap collaborators. They'd travelled, haphazardly, from Slovenia, navigating small jaunts until they reached the Adriatic Sea, hugging the shore before moving into the protected inland canals of Italy. ' Swimming Cities of Serenissima ', as the project was called, functioned as stage, sculpture, and social intervention, prefiguring some of the collectives emerging today.

Elsewhere, Scandinavian group Acting for Climate aims to 'inspire audiences to act for a more sustainable future', so it made sense that they staged and toured their first show in 2019 on board Hawila, a 105ft, two-masted, wooden sailing ship from the 1930s. Cofounder and circus performer Abigael Winsvold has sailed since she was a child, growing up in Melsomvik, a Norwegian village by the sea, but she'd never been on a ship this size. "It's huge," she tells me delightedly, speaking from Copenhagen, where she's just moved into a boat of her own. "You need so many people for every manoeuvre. It's so much about collaboration and coordination."

The boat is equipped with a shaft alternator, built by captain Samuel Faucherre (who has a PhD in Arctic permafrost) to generate electricity from the wind. Committed to travelling sustainably, the crew decide to turn off all engines when the wind drops rather than rely on petrol. They navigated manually and took in turns to pump water out of the ancient hole-pocked hull by hand. "It was really back to basics," Abigael says. "Just being there on the sea, together as a group - that was my highlight."

The Hawila crisscrossed the Kattegat, the waterway separating Sweden and Denmark, staging mini festivals at each port. Performer and activist Emma Langmoen recalls docking opposite Oslo Opera House. "This ship of people with torn clothes arrived in the middle of the city," she says. "We had to pull our mattresses onto the dock to dry in a place where people walk around wearing suits; it showed an alternative way of living, for sure."

The show, 'Into the Water', uses the boat as an interactive stage - a "playground", in Abigael's words - with aerial acrobatics across the rigging, balancing acts on the bow sprit, and performers leaping in and out of the sea, moving from chaos to hope. It culminates in an immersive ritual with the audience. "People physically pass water from hand to hand through a huge crowd," Emma says. "They're laughing, crying, really connecting with each other and the water."

The group's next show, 'Ripples', is currently under development and will tour the Baltic Sea in 2022. It explores 'eco grief', something Abigael and Emma say their entire group of young performers has experienced. "There's so much dystopia," Abigael says. "It's really hard to work toward something if everything is about what we can't do. Our focus is on what we can do. How do we want the world to look?"

For the first expedition in 2003, Buckland filled 20 berths of the Noorderlicht, a century-old Dutch schooner, with artists and oceanographers and set sail from Tromsø, Norway.

For the first expedition in 2003, Buckland filled 20 berths of the Noorderlicht, a century-old Dutch schooner, with artists and oceanographers and set sail from Tromsø, Norway.

Photograph by Cape Buckland

Addressing these questions was part of the impetus behind British artist David Buckland's Cape Farewell project. In 2001, when "climate was on few people's agenda", he sought to bring the creative community together with scientists on expeditions to inspire work that would illuminate the urgency with which he believed the world needed to act.

For the first expedition in 2003, Buckland filled 20 berths of the Noorderlicht, a century-old Dutch schooner, with artists and oceanographers and set sail from Tromsø, Norway. "It was May and the sun was literally doing little circles above our heads," David tells me, speaking from Cape Farewell headquarters in Dorset. They passed through the 'Devil's dance floor', as the Barents Sea is known, with "the boat doing somersaults" before reaching the Svalbard archipelago, with its sparkling glaciers and rugged tundra. "We had to break the ice to get in, and then it's just stillness to die for," David recalls. "Every time you turn you see a glacier or polar bears - magic!"

Sound artist Max Eastley dipped his hydrophone into the water and his face lit up. "One of the rare pleasures in life is hearing the sex calls of a bearded seal," David laughs. Max went on to make Arctic, an album of "sonic images" using recordings from the trip - just one piece of an enormous body of work created in the two decades since Cape Farewell's inaugural expedition. They have since brought 350 creatives - including British sculptor Anthony Gormley, British novelist Ian McKewan and Canadian-American singer-songwriter Martha Wainwright - and dozens of scientists on expeditions to the Arctic, Scottish island communities and the Andean rainforest. Next? The Marshall Islands in 2022. Covid-permitting.

Plastic in the Pacific Islands

Photograph by Grey Filistine

With 29 low-lying atolls in the central Pacific, the island nation faces an existential threat from rising sea levels. It's also dealing with the ongoing fallout from historic nuclear testing by the US. "Through these two issues, we have the capability to end all life on the planet, and they're played out on this little island where a 3,000-year-old culture is under threat," David Buckland says. "Societies like the Marshall Islands have done so little to cause climate change but are the ones suffering."

It is communities like the Marshallese that Arka Kinari hopes to reach when it next sets sail, in 2022. The most recent tour was interrupted by the pandemic, with the crew stranded at sea for months, "floating in the doldrums," according to Grey as the world shut its borders. "Arka Kinari was built to tour through collapse," Grey says. "We create our own electricity, we fish, we make our own water. It would have been disingenuous for us to put the project on pause." They were eventually granted safe passage to Indonesia, Nova Ruth's home country, and staged a DIY tour in the region, incorporating workshops on renewable energies and sailing skills into their program.

The work of groups like Arka Kinari take place in a world where the parameters which stymie progress - borders and political interests - are rendered meaningless. They invite us to imagine that world and to partake in its creation. "Arka Kinari is about the future," Grey Filastine tells me in our final conversation. "We're going to live differently - in a low-carbon way - so we may as well embrace it and find what's beautiful about it now."

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Meet the creatives taking to the ocean to spread a message about the climate crisis

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As the climate-change conversation picks up pace, the focus is turning to the sea, which is proving to be a breeding ground for creative collectives bringing together art, climate activism and a love of the high seas.

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A Journal Article from The National Library of Medicine "The impact of climate change on coastal erosion in Southeast Asia and the compelling need to establish robust adaptation strategies" 

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A Journal Article from The National Library of Medicine "The impact of climate change on coastal erosion in Southeast Asia and the compelling need to establish robust adaptation strategies" 

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Heliyon. 2024 Feb 29; 10(4): e25609.

Wan Shiao Dong, a Aminah Ismailluddin, a Lee Shin Yun, a Effi Helmy Ariffin, a, b,∗ Cherdvong Saengsupavanich, c Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud, d, e Muhammad Zahir Ramli, f Mohd Fuad Miskon, f Muhammad Hafeez Jeofry, a Juliana Mohamed, g Fazly Amri Mohd, h Saiful Bahri Hamzah, i and Kamaruzzaman Yunus g

Abstract

Climate change alters the climate condition and ocean environment, leading to accelerated coastal erosion and a shift in the coastline shape. From previous studies, Southeast Asia's coastal region is suffering from severe coastal erosion. It is most sensitive and vulnerable to climate change, has broad and densely populated coastlines, and is under ecological pressure. Efforts to systematically review these studies are still insufficient despite many studies on the climate change linked to coastal erosion, the correlation between coastal erosion and coastal communities, and the adaptative measures to address these issues and their effectiveness in Southeast Asia. Therefore, by analyzing the existing literature, the purpose of this review was to bridge the knowledge gap and identify the link between climate change and coastal erosion in Southeast Asia in terms of sea-level rise, storm surge, and monsoon patterns. The RepOrting standards for Systematic Evidence Syntheses (ROSES) guided the study protocol, including articles from the Scopus and Dimension databases. There were five main themes considered: 1) climate change impact, 2) contributing factors to coastal erosion, 3) coastal erosion impact on coastal communities, 4) adaptation measure and 5) effectiveness of adaptation measure using thematical analysis. Subsequently, nine sub-themes were produced from the themes. Generally, in Southeast Asia, coastal erosion was reflected by the rising sea level. Throughout reviewing past literature, an interesting result was explored. Storm surges also had the potential to affect coastal erosion due to alterations of the atmospheric system and seasonal monsoon as the result of climate change. Meanwhile, an assessment of current erosion control strategies in relation to the relative hydrodynamic trend was required to avoid the failure of defence structures and the resulting danger to coastal communities. Systematically reviewing the existing literature was critical, hence it could significantly contribute to the body of knowledge. It provides valuable information for interested parties, such as authorities, the public, researchers, and environmentalists, while comprehending existing adaptation practices. This kind of review could strategize adaptation and natural resource management in line with coastal communities' needs, abilities, and capabilities in response to environmental and other change forms.

Keywords: Sea-level rise, Storm surge, Monsoon, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia

1. Introduction

Since the mid-20th-century, climate change has been a threat to the global environment. As it threatens every part of the planet, developing countries will hit the worst, the fastest, and the least ability to adapt. Southeast Asia is known as one of the most sensitive and vulnerable to the effects of climate change than other regions of the world due to its expansive and densely populated coasts and ecological strain [ 1]. It has tropical monsoon climates, dry and wet monsoon climates, and tropical rainforest climates with high temperatures and ample rainfall. Southeast Asia is also known as one of the world's most dynamic locations, with enormous potential and a wealth of natural and human resources [ 1]. According to Eckstein et al. [ 2], Myanmar, the Philippines, Vietnam, and Thailand were among the ten most-affected countries on the long-term Global Climate Risk Index (CRI) list ( Fig. 1 ) from 1999 to 2018. CRI is an index list that quantifies the effects of catastrophic weather occurrences in mortality and economic damage.

The leading cause of climate change in this region was induced by human activities, releasing enormous amounts of greenhouse gases (GHG) such as carbon dioxide (CO ₂) and methane. The continuous emission of GHG day after day and year after year has accelerated the atmospheric GHG concentration, the main contributor to global warming. The ocean is the primary storage sink for the ∼93% additional thermal energy caused by global warming, which has resulted in warming of the upper and deeper oceans [ 3, 4]. Since 1900, global sea surface temperatures have risen by an average of 0.7 °C [ 5, 6]. The warmer water temperature causes a domino effect on ocean circulation, currents, regional wind patterns, local climate, and sea level [ 4].

Warmer sea surface temperature creates a more significant gradient between continental thermal low pressure and high oceanic pressure, which strengthens upwelling winds in the Eastern Boundary Current Systems (EBCSs) and might overcome the countervailing effects of upper-ocean warming and stratification to cause regional cooling. Other than the Gulf Stream, all western boundary currents are likely to intensify due to tropical atmospheric changes and shifts in wind patterns due to identified ocean surface warming [ 6]. Furthermore, the uneven distribution of thermal energy on the waterbody modifies thermohaline circulation and has intensified climatic phenomena such as the El-Nino/La-Nina-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the North Atlantic Oscillation [[6], [7], [8], [9]]. Changes in ocean circulation and oscillation can intensify coastal storm systems [ 4, 6].

Coastal storm systems such as tropical cyclones, hurricanes, typhoons, and storms were affected by the latent heat of water vapor condensation over tropical hot ocean basins. The frequency and intensity of tropical storms had increased due to warmer oceans and altered atmospheric circulation [ 6]. There has also been an increase in the number and proportion of hurricanes reaching higher intensity categories [ 6]. Furthermore, the increasing global warming phenomenon has resulted in a rise in sea level. The combined effect of ocean thermal expansion and the declining volume of the polar ice, where the thick and multiyear ice was replaced by thin and first-year ice, also contributed to the rising sea level [ 10].

Between 1901 and 2010, the global sea level rose by 0.19 m. By 2040, the average global sea level is expected to rise by 0.2 m with 2 °C warmings, with 90% of the coastal region will experience a more remarkable rise [ 6, 10]. By 2100, the projected mean global sea level estimated that the global mean sea level would rise between 0.29 m and 0.59 m under Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 2.6 and between 0.61 m and 1.1 m under RCP 8.5 [ 4]. Sea-level rise and other climate-related ocean changes will almost certainly force millions of people worldwide to flee their homes, with the poorest households bearing the brunt of the consequences [ 8]. Sea-level rise is challenging for low-lying island nations, affecting their entire economies and populations [ 4, 11]. Therefore, coastal areas in South, Southeast, and East Asia with dense populations and low-lying elevations are particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise [ 12].

Rising sea levels, combined with increasing storm frequency and intensity, are likely to have severe consequences for ocean and coastal economic infrastructure [ 8, 13, 14]. These effects are anticipated to be the most disruptive of all the climate-related ocean changes to the coastal environment due to its unique geographical location [ 10]. The coastal region is the interface between land and sea; it is home to approximately 60% of the world's population and is one of the world's most densely populated areas [ 3]. It is also one of the most critical parts of the world ocean and the most vulnerable environment under climate change impact [ 10]. Due to coastal region geographical location, a coastal region also acts as a buffer zone between land and the ocean, filtering pollutants and other land-derived contaminants before they reach the ocean and protecting uplands from storms and flooding [ 10]. Coastal erosion is a natural phenomenon that occurs on the coastline, and it is the landward displacement caused by the effects of waves and currents [ 3, 15]. However, due to the alteration of various climate variations, atmospheric disturbances, and constant changes in water bodies, coastal erosion has become a global issue that affects practically every country on the planet with a coastline [ 3, 13].

The consequences of climate change that impact coastal erosion are storm surge, monsoon pattern, wind-wave climate, and relative sea-level rise, which will lead to increased erosion rates, coastal squeeze, and more frequent and extreme storm events [ 16]. Sandy beaches are one of the most vulnerable regions due to coastal erosion [ 13, 17]. Approximately 70% of the world's sandy beaches are being eroded. Only 10% of the sandy beaches have experienced accretion, while the remaining 20% are in a stable state [ 17]. Increased erosion rates will have a direct or indirect impact on coastal communities, such as coastal property loss, increased flooding risk, saltwater intrusion, and declining tourism activities, to name a few. Therefore, the government, authorities, and communities have implemented various adaptation measures to combat coastal erosion [ 18, 19]. However, the effectiveness of climate change adaptation measures will determine whether communities are relieved of the effects of coastal erosion or vice versa ( Fig. 2 ).

Previous studies have shown that climate change contributed to the recent coastal erosion phenomenon [ 2, 20, 21]. Some claimed that global warming had a direct influence on rising global and relative sea levels. The increased frequency and intensity of storm events drove the accelerated coastal erosion rate and shift in coastline shape. According to Malaysia's Third National Communication and.

Second Biennial Update Report, around 1349.3 km of Malaysia's coastline is continuously eroding due to coastal development and sea-level rise. There are 44 places in the Critical Erosion category with a total length of approximately 55.4 km, 309 sites in the Significant Erosion category with a total length of around 376.1 km, and 2344 areas in the Acceptable Erosion category with a total length of ≈916.5 km.

Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, as severe erosion regions in the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, experienced maximum shoreline retreat between - 11 m/year and - 150 m in 2004-2016 [ 15, 22]. Another study conducted by Tagaki et al. [ 20] reported Vietnam as one of the most vulnerable coastal disasters and climate change. The Vietnam coastlines, such as Nam Dinh, Quang Ninh, Quang Binh, Quang Nam, Tien Giang Ca Mau Provinces, and Phan Thiet and Hai Phong cities, are experiencing severe coastal erosion [ 23, 24].

Long-term monitoring of coastal erosion in three Thailand provinces - Koh Kho Khao, Ban Nam Khem, and Phang Nga, was made following the December 2004 tsunami. From 2012 to 2016, one location with a 0.02 ha region experienced a low degree of erosion. Five locations covering a 1.54 ha region were subjected to moderate erosion, while one location with 4.27 ha experienced severe erosion. A total of 5.83 ha of coastline has been eroded [ 25].

Efforts to systematically literature review these studies are still insufficient even though there are many studies on the climate change linkage to coastal erosion, the correlation between coastal erosion and coastal communities, and the adaptative measures to address these issues and their effectiveness in Southeast Asia. Therefore, by analyzing existing literature, the purpose of this review was to bridge the knowledge gap and identify the link between climate change and coastal erosion in Southeast Asia. Reviewing current and past literature systematically would contribute valuable knowledge, comprehension, and information on related issues. It is vital for all parties involved, including local authorities, government authorities, the public, developers, researchers, and environmentalists. Moreover, understanding the presently implemented adaptation approaches aided in involving parties and strategizing adaptation approaches and natural resource management that meet coastal communities needs, abilities, and capabilities in response to environmental and other forms of change [ 22].

2. Methodology

2.1. The review protocol - ROSES

Several kinds of systematic review protocols can be used to guide and conduct a systematic literature review paper. Haddaway et al. [ 26] reported that ROSES is a systematic review protocol designed explicitly for transparent reporting of systematic reviews and maps in environmental management and conservation. It provided a comprehensive set of reporting standards tailored to the conservation and environmental management research synthesis community. Thus, in this study, a systematic literature review was guided by the ROSES review protocol ( Fig. 3 ). Appropriate research questions for this systematic literature review (SLR) as the first stage based on the ROSES review protocol were developed. The second stage explained the searching strategies, including the keyword used, the journal database, and the article selection criteria of the study utilized in the review. Subsequently, a strategy for appraising the quality of the selected article and the method of data abstraction and analysis was reported.

2.2. Formulation of research questions

As a research inquiry, the systematic literature review should be guided by research questions. The overall review processes, such as study selection, data extraction and analysis, and reporting, are driven by research questions. These processes are required to fulfill the research questions. This systematic literature review generated five research questions.

1.

What causes climate change?

2.

What are the contributing factors of climate change on coastal erosion?

3.

What are the effects of coastal erosion on coastal communities?

4.

What is the adaptation measure for coastal erosion as a result of climate change?

5.

How is the effectiveness of adaptation to the coastal communities measured?

2.3. Systematic searching strategies

2.3.1. Selection of studies

In the first phase searching stage had retrieved 1487 article. The searches of these three databases with six main keywords had generated then. Out of the ten Southeast Asian countries, only the articles from Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam were acquired during the search process ( Fig. 4 , Fig. 5 ). However, only Vietnam, Thailand, and Malaysia were proposed in this systematic review due their landform and threated by south china sea. The screening process on the selected articles with inclusion and exclusion criteria was also performed in this study. The article inclusion criteria were timeline publication (from 2012 to 2021, a 10-year range), determining keywords, a focus on studies related to coastal erosion in Southeast Asian countries, and articles with English publications. Contrarily, the article exclusion criteria were the same article. The following process, post screening process had excluded 68 articles and only 58 procced to next phase.

2.3.2. Appraisal of the quality

The best evidence synthesis method was used to appraise the quality of this systematic literature review. According to Littlewood et al. [ 30], the best evidence synthesis is a process whereby the systematic review team evaluates the previously assigned inclusion criteria of the review based on a pre-defined guideline. The selected studies will be deemed scientifically acceptable or not. Next, the author chose to use the four inclusion selection criteria, as mentioned earlier. Any selected articles that met these criteria were included in the systematic literature review.

2.3.3. Data abstraction and analysis

This systematic literature review's data abstraction and analysis were applied with quantitative and qualitative techniques and thematic analysis. The data abstraction process depended on the five research questions. Any data reviewed from the selected article that is capable or relevant to the research question was abstracted and placed in a table or pooled in a group (see Table 1 ) [ 27]. Meanwhile, thematic analysis is a descriptive method that reduces the data mount in the flexible model when combined with other data analysis techniques [ 31]. The technique applied to determine the pattern of reviewed studies depends on the similarity and relationship with the abstracted data. The themes and sub-themes were then developed from this.

Table 1

No.

Study ID

Country

Title

Aim

3. Results

3.1. Background of the selected articles

There were 25 selected articles acquired for current study. Five themes and sub-themes were generated based on the thematic analysis: climate change, contributing factors on coastal erosion, coastal erosion impact on coastal communities, adaptation measure of coastal erosion, and utility of adaptation measure. Nine sub-themes were analyzed further from those five themes. 13 selected articles studies were conducted in Vietnam, 3 articles in Thailand, 4 articles in Malaysia, 5 articles for others countries such as Cambodia, Indonesia, Philippines and Singapore, with two, was published in 2012, one in 2013, one in 2015, two in 2016, five in 2017, two in 2018, three in 2019, three in 2020, and the rest in 2021 ( Table 2 ).

Table 2

No.

Study ID

Country

Climate Change

Contributing Factor

Impact on Coastal Communities

Adaptation Measure

Utility of adaptation measure

RSL

SS

MP

LL

FR

TA

HPA

SPA

CMA

Contributing Factor

Impact on Coastal Communities

Adaptation Measure

RSL = Relative Sea Level

LL = Land loss, coastal property loss, coastal infrastructure destruction

HPA = Hard Protection Approaches

SS = Storm Surge

FR = Flooding risk increase

SPA = Soft Protection Approaches

MP = Monsoon Pattern

TA = Tourism activities declining

CMA = Coastal Management Approaches

3.2. The themes and the sub-themes

3.2.1. Climate change

Climate change is a well-known threat that has a global impact on the economy, society, and environment [ 32]. GHG emissions and other related human activities contribute significantly to the accumulation of anthropogenic GHG in the earth's atmosphere, leading to anthropogenic global warming. It continues to cause global climate change, such as temperature rises, precipitation pattern changes, melting of the ice sheet and glaciers, thermal expansion of water, and other effects [[33], [34], [35]]. As Southeast Asia also identified regional impacts of climate change, such as warming trends and sea level rise having similar trends to the global projected value, increasing annual rainfall, frequency of extreme warm and wet seasons and decrease in extreme dry season frequency [ 35].

3.2.2. Contributing factor on coastal erosion

Coastal processes are contributed by three factors: internal, external, and human interferences. Internal factors include various processes such as nearshore currents, wave energy, tidal inundations, changes in sediment budget, and others. Contrarily, external factors are natural disasters such as storm surge, tsunami, flooding, and heavy rainfall. Meanwhile, anthropogenic factors include deforestation, urbanization, infrastructural development, dredging, and coastal minerals exploitations. Climate change has driven the variations in atmospheric circulation and resulted modification of regional wave climate and sediment transport rates. These factors complicated the coastline, resulting in severe social and environmental outgrowths, particularly coastal erosion [ 38, 39].

3.2.2.1. Relative sea level

Relative sea-level rise is a well-known climate change-related phenomenon. It was contributed by various factors, including global sea-level rise, local factors, and vertical land movement. Global sea level rose due to unexpectedly rapid melting of glaciers, ice caps, and sheets and increased temperature mediated seawater surface thermal expansion. Next, the local factors are contributed by monsoonal winds and freshwater inflow. Meanwhile, vertical land movement includes glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA), specific-area vertical land movement, and human-induced vertical land movement [ 17, 39]. The relative sea-level change impacted the ecosystems and local community activities in the low coastal plains, both directly and indirectly. The direct impact was related to extreme weather events, floods, salinization of the ground table, and salt intrusion [ 35]. Meanwhile, the indirect impact included coastal erosion, mangrove loss, loss of wetland, and other fragile coastal ecosystems [ 37, 40]. It also adversely affected the social and economic community, not only in maritime cities [ 37]. According to the reporting from Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the global sea levels rose 1.70.5 mm year-1in 20th century while in the SEA was projected rise 2.5 mm year-1, approximately 40 cm by 2100 [ 36].

Panpeng and Ahmad [ 32] reported that rising relative sea-level toward coastal erosion is the most crucial driver that caused Laemsing District, Chanthaburi Province in Thailand vulnerable to climate change and its impact. Rising sea levels of 11.22 mm/year are expected to be confronted during the first 30 years of the century, from 2000 to 2030. The rising-rate will reach 12.05/mm year in the first 60 years and 12.99 mm/year in the first 90 years. Shoreline retreat was associated with the potential rise in relative sea level, which was predicted to increase the retreat distance continuously. By 2060, the shoreline at Paknamlaemsing and Bangkachai is estimated to retreat by 64 m and 59 m, respectively. Coastal erosion and tidal flooding resulting from rising relative sea levels have threatened community livelihoods and physically degraded the region's ecosystems.

3.2.2.2. Storm surge

Storm surge levels have been recognized as a contributing factor to the coastal erosion problem caused by climate change. Storm surge levels are mainly contributed by extreme weather conditions such as tropical cyclones, hurricanes, and typhoons. They put additional pressure on the coastal environment and cause higher-than-usual waves [ 37]. In addition, typhoon events will eventually cause nearshore coastline regions to erode, and sediment loss will result in a steeper offshore profile [ 43]. The force of wind swirling around the storm also pushed seawater toward shore [ 35]. Therefore, it eventually allows the wave energy to greater and future penetration onshore [ 37, 43]. However, even though extreme events such as typhoons and tropical cyclones occur only occasionally, the combined effect of climate change leads to very high surges, which cause severe damage to the coastal system, social and economic coastal communities, and erosion once they occur [ 37, 41].

According to Hens et al. [ 37], Vietnam is one of the most seriously affected countries by climate change. Tropical cyclones are a usual climate event in northern Vietnam known as typhoon season. During the typhoon, the Nghe An-Ha Tinh coast experienced the highest surges, 4 m above the average high-water level. The lowest extreme surges were also measured at 1.5 m in the coastal areas near Da Nang, Phu Yen, and Binh Thuan. In 1999, a typhoon event on Nghia Phuc caused an approximately 100-m erosion rate on the Hai Hau coast. The historical wave height at Hai Hau tide station during the typhoon was 3.2-4.25 m. When the wave height is 4.25 m, the erosion rate at Hai Hau can reach 7.1 m in 2.4 h [ 44].

3.2.2.3. Monsoon Pattern

The monsoon pattern dominated the wave characteristics and rainfall pattern during the monsoon season. Seasonal constant monsoon winds and changing direction of storm surge have a continuous influence on coastal erosion [ 41]. The monsoon may cause coastline erosion as it alternates surges, waves, and currents. It also has an impact on sea states. Irrigation and flood discharge in canals reduce sediment supply in some regions and increase coastal erosion rates [ 41].

According to Panpeng and Ahmad [ 32], the monsoon had influenced the rainfall pattern in Laemsing District, Thailand. Heavy rainfall is most common during the southwest monsoon (June-September) but rarely during the northeast monsoon (November-February). Based on the research, the total amount of rainfall was high and rising from 1983 until 2012, with heavy rainfall amounts and days averaging around 13 mm/year, a day every five years, and over 50.80 mm/day. Rainfall slightly decreased from 32 mm/year between 1984 and 1993 to 48 mm/year between 2003 and 2012. Moreover, the number of days with heavy rainfall increased from 1.5 to 3 days per five years.

Malaysia is geographically located in the equatorial region. Thus, the wave climate hydrological regime was strongly influenced by the monsoons. Malaysia coastline will be affected by the Southwest monsoon from May to September while the Northeast monsoon from October to March. The Northeast monsoon brings heavy rainfall and storm waves to the east coast, especially Terengganu [ 40, 45]. Onshore strong winds fetch and speed generated a significant wave, which eroded the large scale of beach sediment when combined with rising offshore bottom currents and conveying sediment offshore [ 40, 46]. Consequently, the east coast region is dominated by coarser and relatively steeper sands and beach slopes [ 45, 46].

In southern Vietnam, the Southwest and the Northeast monsoon are the two monsoon seasons. The Southwest monsoon is the wet season, which affects the West coast of Ca Mau with the north-bound current, while the Northeast monsoon is the dry season, which influences the East coast of Ca Mau. The wave height during the Southwest monsoon reaches 1 m, but the Northeast monsoon could reach 2 m. As a result of sea-level rise, storm surges are expected to increase by more than 1 m and cause overtopping dikes [ 41]. It has been reported that the monsoon pattern also influences the Nha Trang Bay in Vietnam. During the Northeast monsoon period, the tropical monsoon winds appear in higher and calmer waves than in the non-monsoon period.

3.2.3. Coastal erosion impact on coastal communities

Coastal erosion is eroding large segments of the beach and moving it landward. Consequently, the erosion will threaten local infrastructure, house destruction, and coastal communities' socio-economic well-being [ 34, 37, 44]. A coastal defense structure, such as a sea dike, is built to prevent lateral beach erosion. However, the coastal defense structure discourages longshore sediment transport. It further causes beach sediment erosion, lower beach topography, and local souring along the Hai Hau coast [ 47]. Meanwhile, the erosion even cause damaged and collapse of the coastal infrastructure such as sea dyke and road [ 34, 48].

3.2.3.1. Land loss, coastal property loss, coastal infrastructure destruction

3.2.3.2. Flooding risk increase

Coastal flooding is a constant threat to low-lying coastal areas caused by high tides colliding with high water and damaging the coastline. This problem is intensified by heavy and regular rainfall from the seasonal monsoon and inadequate drainage systems to curb excessive rainfall [ 34, 35]. Flooding can affect some parts of roads, health stations, infrastructure, and aquaculture farms, increasing the coastal community's livelihood and socio-economic difficulties [ 32, 34]. According to Ehsan et al. [ 34], the coastal flood in Johor, Malaysia, in 2006 and 2007, destructed and affected over 100,000 victims, resulting in an estimated RM 0.35 billion (USD 75.1 million) in infrastructure damage and RM 2.4 billion (USD 0.51 billion) economic losses. Moreover, RM 84 million (USD 18 million) in agricultural production was estimated to be lost, with approximately 7000 farmers were affected. It was estimated that repairing the transport infrastructure and hydraulic structure would cost RM 147 million (USD 31.5 million) and RM 260 billion (USD 55.9 billion).

In the case of the Kien Giang coast [ 43], the mangrove fringe was less than 100 m wide, and this thin fringe was not able to combat strong waves penetrating during monsoon season. Therefore, this weak shoreline and even the sea dyke experience erode. Those earthen and mud dyke will be exposed and overtop by significant waves, which cause the agriculture, aquaculture, infrastructure, and local properties and property destroyed and inundated.

3.2.3.3. Tourism activities declining

3.2.4. Adaptation measure of coastal erosion

Adaptation approaches are recognized as critical approaches to diminishing the unfavorable impact of global climate change. It brings wide-ranging benefits in reducing the vulnerability of the society to coastal hazards and minimizing the detrimental impacts on the coastal community by preventing or reducing potential negative outgrowths while benefiting from possible positive outgrowths [ 34]. The adaptation strategy can be divided into three categories: protection, accommodation, and retreat approaches. Protection approaches are used to construct structures and others to protect vulnerable areas from coastal hazards [ 52]. Accommodation approaches utilize the vulnerable area and endure a greater degree of flooding by altering land use, construction methods, and advancing preparedness. Meanwhile, retreat approaches resettle residents from the abandoned currently developed region by managing realignment or coastal setbacks [ 34, 40].

3.2.4.1. Hard protection approaches

Protection was the most implemented approach in the erosion control strategy in Thailand, Vietnam, and Malaysia coastline [ 40, 48]. As coastal protection at Di Duong Beach, Vietnam, they constructed a low soft seawall by pumping sand into a tube and using geotextile [ 51]. The structure has been observed and investigated, and it has proven to be highly effective in preventing shoreline movement landward. Since the time of the field investigation in 2017, no signs of erosion have been observed. Since 1980, sea dikes have been installed along the Vietnam coast. Wave attacks and typhoons have repeatedly breached it. To adapt the SLR impact, Vietnam government had planting mangrove forest, upgrade and develop sea dike system along road side and construct sluice system to strengthening, upgrading and rehabilitating sea dikes system along Quang Ninh to Quang Nam and Quang Ngai to Kien Giang [ 48]. In Thailand, rock and concrete stepped revetments have been implemented and proven successful in many beaches. The implementation of the stepped concrete revetment at Pra-Ae beach, Thailand, could solve coastal erosion while promoting coastal tourism. They concluded that, when properly designed, the revetment can not only protect the coastline but can also promote natural vegetation as well as increase beach beauty. It can even promote tourism activities and become a resting place for both local people and visitors.

Traditional solutions such as revetment, T-groins, tripods, and mangrove forest reinforcement have been used to reinforce the dikes to protect the Hai Hau coast over the past decade. The concrete groins, reinforced with concrete tubes, were 10 cm thick and 1 m in diameter. The tubes are continuously placed at 0.5 m depth beneath the tidal flat, with 80 m between links and 1.5 m height sandbags inside [ 46, 53]. The sea dike system has been intensively reinforced by extending the height to 4.5-5.5 m, placing the foot at a depth of 4.5 m, and covering seaside slopes with a polygonal precast concrete revetment of 100 kg mass tripod lines [ 47, 48, 53]. The standby block of limestone near the soil dyke segments was disposed of for emergency rehabilitation during bad weather conditions [ 47, 53]. In Singapore, 70-80 percent of the coastline was implement hard wall, stone embankments, revetment and others coastal defence systems to protect the coastal areas from erosion [ 35].

3.2.4.2. Soft protection approaches

Soft structure protection such as permeable bamboo fences, breakwaters made from geotube sandbags, bamboo and wooden piles were found to be implemented at the Mekong Delta coastline as a low-cost solution and for area wave height below 0.9 m [ 48]. In Bogorame, a small village at Demak, Central Java of Indonesia, a permeable dam was constructed in November 2013 to restore the mangrove forest under threats of erosion and flooding [ 54] The permeable dams reduced wave energy to enhance sedimentation rate by trapping sediment in the basins. It was also noted as a nature-based adaptive approach as the dams were temporary, relatively cost-effective and low-tech construction, which local communities could also build and maintain through basic training.

In Thailand, low-crested rock revetment, sediment-filled geotextiles ("sand sausages") and bamboo fences have been installed along the upper Gulf of Thailand's coastline to address the coastal erosion issues and restore the mangrove area [ 54]. Bamboo fences were assembled of dense spaces of bamboo poles in vertically single rows positions and have a similar function as permeable dams, slowing down wave energy and enhancing sedimentation.

3.2.4.3. Coastal management approaches

The coastal infrastructures such as roads, railways and drainage were also upgraded and reinforced to adapt to the climate change impacts as they were the essential economic drivers. According to Mohamed Rashidi et al. [ 40], the Malaysian government was concerned with rail development to minimize traffic congestion problems at Klang valley. Meanwhile, it was an essential connection between Port Klang and further inland. In Vietnam, hazard prevention was encouraged to be integrated into transportation plans to overcome the storm impact by constructing military roads along coasts, reinforcing physical barriers and increasing the elevation to be resilient to sea level rise scenarios [ 55].

Aside from the construct structure, vegetating the defense structure's inner slope also seems effective in controlling the erosion rate. Vetiver grass was applied to protect the inner slope of the coastal sea dike system slope on the Hai Hau coast due to insufficient investment and the current coastal dikes suffering from a wave overtopping. The vetiver hedgerows at the inner slope successfully reduce slope soil loss by 62-86% compared to those without hedgerows [ 47]. The inner slope of the construct structure was also vegetated in Hai Trieu, Vietnam, one of the coastal regions that are constantly eroding. The inner slope was just bare soil without the vertical concrete wall. Consequently, erosion rates of up to 50 cm/h were predicted. The vegetated inner slope significantly reduces overtopping water flows velocities and erosion [ 53].

To counteract the suggestion of upgrading dike systems and constructing good jetties, Lin et al. [ 51] recommended the particular industry avoid building too close to the beach and remove the human-made structure located along the shoreline. They also suggested using natural approaches to create a buffer zone with more dynamic environments near the shore. Natural management approaches, such as dunes rebuilding or maintaining inner land, would better protect coastal erosion from extreme weather events. The dune could naturally recover after a typhoon or other extreme event. Hence, the natural and social systems' resilience capacity will be improved. Before construction, the impact assessment was also recommended to minimize the risk of coastal hazards, such as downsized and smaller-scale implementation of changing from cultivation industries and aquatic farming activities to reduce land use.

Based on report of Marfai [ 50], local government of Tambaksari-Sayung, Indonesia implements few adaptation strategies to coastal communities. Some local communities decide to relocated household, some who choose to stay had provide fund to built stage house to reduce risk from coastal inundation.

3.2.5. Effectiveness of adaptation measure

Meanwhile, the river mouth of the Ca Ty River estuary at the Duc Long site had constructed a groin in 1995. However, the "groin-effect" had developed over time and resulted in stiff downdrift erosion on the southern beach of Duc Long Ward, causing hundreds of houses to collapse and relocating residents in the Tien Duc Area. In 2017, local authorities decided to build a sea dike for other development purposes. Nevertheless, the constructed seawall was relatively low, facing high flooding risk and constantly being washed over by waves. The implemented tetrapod was also no longer effective as it was constructed with an incorrect cement-to-non-cement ratio and showed signs of erosion [ 51].

Along the Hai Hau coast, the troughs of dikes are protected by concrete tubes installed 1.5 m above the beach surface. However, due to the influence of sea-level rise, the sediment supplies of the adjacent area of the dike were diminishing, the beach lowering rate increased, and the tubes could fail in the next six to ten years. Beaches in Vietnam were then covered into concrete structures and massive sandbag walls made of non-durable materials as a short-term solution to prevent erosion. Nevertheless, this had developed a side effect of causing water flow in and erosion at the other region along the coast or spreading further inland in the unprotected area [ 51].

According to Hung et al. [ 49], the lowering bathymetry in 2019 caused a threefold increase in wave height compared to 2009. Higher waves will give additional pressure on the sea embankment slope. Thus, the maximum pressure from high waves under bathymetry in 2019 was approximately three times higher than in 2009. Therefore, despite intensive coastal protection measures, nearshore topographical changes and coastal erosion continue to be severe issues in Nam Dinh province.

According to Winterwerp et al. [ 54], permeable dams work as a nature-based solution as an alternative to hard infrastructure sea defence to halt erosion in the mangrove coastline in Indonesia. The permeable dams target mangrove rehabilitation through the re-establishment of fine sediment dynamics. The first observation of sedimentation behind the dams at first, but longer-term sedimentation rates decline considerably. The less effective result was due to the subsidence, where the subsidence rate of coasts is 0.05 m per year or higher, from initially emerging above the MHW level and disappearing below MSL. The dams require more effort and cost maintenance to keep them effective.

The combination of hard and soft protection approaches implemented at the Gulf of Thailand coastline successfully addresses coastal erosion. In the early stage, only soft protection approaches, such as sand sausages and bamboo fences, were installed along the coastline. However, the result was unsatisfactory after implementation by the local Sub-district Administration Organization (SAO) and the governmental department. It was due to the severity of the problem, limited budget, sand sauges sinking into the soil, durability of bamboo fences, the decomposed bamboo fences causing obstructing navigation, damage to sand sauges and mangrove stems and threat to local fishermen. The placing of low-crested rock revetment later made the whole system successful. And this combination of approaches was subsequently implemented at the coastline of Bangkok Metropolitan, Samutsongkhram Provinces, Samut Sakhon Provinces and the west coast of Thailand, Banklang Klong Prasong. Especially the Ban Klong Prasong coastline, experience erosion and storm damage plenty of years ago, with the failure of the erection of a concrete seawall in 2003, which not solved the flooding problem but enlarged the problem by waterlogging.

4. Discussion and recommendation

There were five themes and nine subthemes developed throughout the thematic analyses. This section expands on the previously developed themes. It was clear throughout the review that climate change impacted the coastal erosion process, both directly and indirectly, by changing relative sea level, storm surge, wave climate, and monsoon pattern. The climate pattern, ocean circulation, and geographical location of Vietnam, Thailand, and Malaysia were distinguished as the major contributing factors to their respective coastal erosion.

4.1. Significance of contribution factor to Southeast Asia erosion issue

4.1.1. Sea level rise - indirectly, long-term erosion

Sea-level rise appears to be a significant factor in coastal erosion in Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Cambodia, Indonesia, and the Philippines. The impacts of sea level rise were slow, repetitive, and cumulative, acting as a leading driving force in long-term erosion [ 56]. The magnitude and type of impacts of rising sea levels are determined by the environment's geological setting and physical and ecological processes such as low-lying geographies, mangrove and coral habitats, local circulation pattern, and land subsidence [ 3]. The low-lying characteristics of coastal geographies like Vietnam, Malaysia, and Singapore make various regions extremely vulnerable to rising sea level. Based on the study [ 57], most of Malaysia's coastal regions were low-lying regions less than 0.5 m above the highest tide or within 100 m of the high watermark inland. In the case of Singapore, 30% of the islands was lowland region less than 5 m above the Singapore Height Datum, and most of the land was less than 15 m above sea level and 180 km of relatively flat coastline [ 35, 58]. Moreover, several essential infrastructure facilities, such as airports, ports, commercial and residential buildings, and roads, were located at the reclaimed land elevated less than 2 m above sea level [ 35], making the coastline especially vulnerable to land loss and coastal erosion from rising sea levels.

The natural and anthropogenic land subsidence somehow accelerates the rising sea level, as in Vietnam, the sea level rising rate was comparable to the global rate due to the anthropogenic subsidence from groundwater extraction or natural subsidence [ 2, 20]. The same issues were also discovered in Thailand, the extreme spatial variations of relative sea level between regions were shown in the studies by Saramul and Ezer (2014). The land subsidence caused by ground extraction in the upper Gulf of Thailand resulted in the highest sea-level rise [ 59, 60]. Furthermore, the entire region has significantly increased regional sea-level rise since the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake and Indian Ocean tsunami. Many parts of Thailand are sinking based on the measured data [ 59].

The climate change-induced rise in sea level caused the coastline to be in danger of erosion disasters and wiped off mangrove habitats and coral reefs due to altered ocean currents by rising sea levels [ 61, 62]. In particular, countries like Indonesia have the largest archipelagic country and the largest covered mangrove plant globally with high diversity, and the Philippines has a coastline of 27000 km ² coral reefs and 120000ha of mangrove remains, respectively [ 62]. In addition, local circulation patterns, thermostatic, local climate and topographical conditions also magnitude the impact of rising sea levels [ 2, 40, 57].

4.1.2. Storm surge - directly, short-term erosion

Storm surge was another major factor contributing to coastal erosion in Southeast Asia. In particular, countries such as Vietnam, the Philippines and Thailand are geographically located under the path of cyclones.

Regarding coastal storms in Thailand, the Thailand Meteorological Department has recorded 12 tropical cyclones and one typhoon over the last three decades [ 64]. Among them were significant storms such as Typhoon Gay (1989), Tropical Storm Linda (1997), and Tropical Storm Pabuk (2019). Thailand was shielded from Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia when the storm from the Pacific and the east-to-west trajectory typhoons from the South China Sea entering the Gulf of Thailand impacted the eastern coast of the Thai Peninsula. However, due to insufficient historical shoreline data in Thailand, there is no report on shoreline recession caused by coastal storms [ 64].

4.1.3. Monsoon pattern - another factor to wind-wave climate

Monsoon Pattern was a minor factor contributing to coastal erosion, which cannot be disregarded in the process of coastal erosion. The monsoon system was a seasonal-driven wind that contributed to the regional wind-wave climate, influencing wave and coastal processes. Climate change also impacts the monsoon system's strength, the magnitude of precipitation, and wind strength [ 67].

Malaysia's climate is tropical and humid, heavily dependent on mountainous topography and complex land-sea interaction. Despite this, Malaysia is considered a climate-related disaster-free zone [ 57]. The wave climate of Malaysia is dominated by the monsoon all over the year, with the highest average wind speed and erosion cases documented during the wet season, the northeast monsoon [ 57,[68], [69], [70]]. In Malaysia, the seasonal monsoon wind catalyzes coastal erosion [[68], [69], [70]].

4.2. The erosion management by countries

4.2.1. Vietnam

Nevertheless, coastal erosion issues are still addressed solely through standard provisions in the Natural Disasters Management Program. The disaster management structure in Vietnam includes ministries, boards, and sectors such as the Central Committee for Flood and Storm Control [ 23]. It was clear that Vietnam lacked coastal erosion mitigation strategies. Priority was always given to the business and industrial sector development along the coast. Integrated planning and coordination between different levels were lacking without an appropriate legal framework and monitoring [ 23, 51]. Therefore, establishing a policy system that suits Vietnam's natural and economic development requirements is necessary for coastal erosion management [ 23].

4.2.2. Thailand

The erosion management in Thailand was collaborated by multiple agencies to participate in building the structures to protect the coast from erosion and have jurisdiction in the coastal zone, such as the Marine Department, Department of Public Work and Tow and Country Planning, Department of Highway, Department of Mineral Resources, Royal Irrigation Department, Fisheries Department, provincial administrative organizations, local administrative organizations, and private companies [ 71, 72]. Government agencies have established various committees and sub-committees to coordinate coastal and marine governance [ 73]. The Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR) was the central authority on coastal resource management, but decision-making authority was shared with other agencies. For instance, the National Environment Board (NEB) established sub-committees for the national strategic plan for coastal resources, marine environmental protection, and coastal erosion management to promote participation, integration, and coordination among sectors [ 73].

Strategies, policies, and work plans for climate change in coastal erosion were established by responsible government agencies in Thailand to reduce the impact of climate change and erosion on the coastline. The DMCR proclaimed coastal management policy in the "Action Plan for Integrated Coastal erosion Prevention and Mitigation Management 2008," with additional the Promotion of Marine and Coastal Resources Management Act, 2015 which included five principles such as i) create database; ii) promotion of public participation; iii) formulation of integrated coastal zone management; iv) securing hinterland and implementation of measures against coastal erosion and; v) to establish a system to manage, supervise, evaluate coastal management projects [ 74].

4.2.3. Malaysia

The National Coastal Erosion Control Council (NCECC) and Coastal Engineering Technical Center (CETC) were established in 1987 by the Malaysian government to manage coastal erosion issues [ 75]. The NCECC is composed of various agencies, including the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment, the Department of Drainage and Irrigation, the Public Works Department, the Governors of Sabah, Sarawak, and two other states on a rotating basis, as well as professionals from various institutions and universities involved in erosion protection. NCECC is responsible for designing a coastal program, which CEC will recommend and approve before processing. CEC is also responsible for coastal erosion control performance, engineering work for critical erosion areas, and providing technical support to NCECC. Meanwhile, the data will be collected by other government agencies. The Malaysian government has adopted a two-pronged strategy to address coastal erosion in Malaysia: short-term and long-term. The short-term strategy was implementing structural, or engineering works to protect the coastal region, classified as Category 1 (critical erosion), to reduce or prevent further economic loss [ 69]. In comparison, the long-term strategy was to introduce institutional changes and formulate administrative guidelines to manage future development [ 75, 76].

4.2.4. Singapore

With the National Climate Change Strategy (2012), the Building and Construction Authority (BCA) 's Coastal Adaptation Study CAS commissioned a Risk Map Study in 2013. The CAS scope is to assess the potential impact of coastal inundation and to study possible long-term adaptation measures. As reported by NCCS [ 79], they had efforts to protect the coastline from erosion by constructing concrete seawalls and stone embankments over 70% of Singapore's coastline. The rest of the natural areas were beaches and mangroves. Meanwhile, they raised the minimum land reclamation level from 3 to 4 m over Singapore Height Datum in 2011 to adapt to the long-term sea level rise impact [ 80].

4.2.5. Cambodia

Cambodia's National Assembly 1996 approved the Environmental Protection and National Resources Management to address environmental planning, protected area management, environmental impact assessment, environment monitoring, pollution control and inspection, and public participation under the Ministry of Environment. The King of Cambodia also enacted the Law on Fisheries in 2006, addressing fisheries management, increasing the protection and sustainable use of fishery resources, and managing the mangrove area and flood forests. Relatively short Cambodia's coastline and major GDP were contributed by rice, making its economic development focus on inland and freshwater. Meanwhile, coastal management still paid little attention because almost 75% of aquatic protein is produced by Tonle Sap and Mahkong Rivers. However, it might affect by the increasing harm to mangrove areas. Thus, the Cambodian Environment Ministry and the Organization for Industrial, Spiritual, and Cultural Advancement (OISCA) collaborated in establishing the Mangrove Forest Rehabilitation Programme to reforest the mangrove area. In addition, Cambodia also focuses on climate change impact and preparing the National Adaptation Programme of Action to Climate Change. Few national adaptation programs were implemented to adapt to climate change, like rehabilitation of coastal protection infrastructure, community and household water supply in coastal provinces and rehabilitation of multiple-use canals [ 83].

4.2.6. Indonesia

Indonesia was the largest archipelagic country and the largest covered mangrove plant globally with high diversity. The climate change-induced sea level rise caused the coastline at danger of erosion disasters and wiped off mangrove habitats due alters ocean currents by rising sea levels [ 61]. From the aspect of governance, it is essential to be clear and regulate the institution responsible in erosion control and especially their management. Coordinating Ministry for Maritime and Investment Affairs (CMMIA) as a coordinator to collaborate on infrastructure construction between the Ministry of Public Works and Public (MPWP) Housing and the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF). Moreover, enhancement of coordination between the central government such as MMAF, Ministry of Land and Spatial Planning/National Land Agency (MLSP/NLA), Ministry of Environment and Forestry (MEF), and local government on environmental impact assessments and permissions for building or construction in coastal zones [ 84].

4.2.7. Philipines

The Philippines has 823 out of 1541 coastal municipalities (54%), including all major cities with 62% of the population. Its coastline was rich with coral reef and mangrove habitat and exposure to storm surge, rising sea levels, and coastal erosion threats. The coastal management of the Philippines includes local government units (LGUs): Municipality and City units, provincial units, barangay units; national government agencies (NGAs): Department of Environment and Natural Resources(DENR), Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), Department of Interior and Local government (DILG), Department of Science and Technology (DST), Department of Transportation and Communication (DTC), Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development; Nongovernment organizations, and other assisting organizations like academic institutions and donors, community stakeholder and people's organization to have a conservation and sustainable use of coastal resources [ 62].

Coastal management was a basic function delivered by LGUs; NGAs will assist and train local government and other sectors. In the meantime, coastal communities and LGUs are supported and facilitated to implement coastal management efforts by NGOs and other assisting organizations. Lastly, the private sector and other stakeholders contribute by participating. A series of guidebooks was created to promote the practical application of the planning and management process and explain the lessons discovered via local and global experience. Additionally, the Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010 (DRRM Act) changed and helped the nation's strategy from only responding to catastrophes to a more proactive one [ 65].

Coastal erosion management was always a topic, not only the mitigation and the strategies implemented but also the management and the authorities. Meanwhile, the mitigation plan must consider various limitations, such as financial problems, resources, materials, and environmental policies. In order to improve and have effective coastal erosion management, involvement and cooperation between all the authorities and stakeholders was very important, whether government agencies, NGOs, institutes, academicians, consultancies, or communities. Coastal erosion management is towards balancing environmental, economic, social, and cultural factors over the long term to have a sustainable and effective strategy. Guidelines, policies and frameworks (for example, Fig. 6 ) would be powerful tools to help stakeholders manage better.

5. Conclusion

The impact of climate change on coastal erosion was systematically reviewed. This study revealed that climate change is the main contributing factor in coastal erosion in Southeast Asia. Coastal erosion is driven by natural and anthropogenic factors such as sea-level history, relative sea-level change, geology, sediment, waves, tides, storm surges, longshore sediment transport, and human activities. However, climate change is likely to exacerbate coastal erosion, and coastal response is also vulnerable to wave climate change.

Among those climate change impacts, the rising sea level was the major contributor to increasing coastal erosion cases in Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Singapore and Cambodia, affecting countries worldwide. The impact of sea level rise was indirect and contributed to long-term erosion, where it won't be observed significantly in a short time, like a chronic poison, slowly eroding. The increased water depth caused changes in tidal hydrodynamics, currents, and wind-wave climate, allowing waves to penetrate further inland. On the other hand, storm surges from typhoons or storms have a direct impact on coastal erosion, leading to short-term erosion, and could reshape the coastline within hours. Climate change has made natural disasters more frequent and intense, resulting in higher storm surges and increased wind speed year by year. Other than typhoons or storms, the monsoon pattern is also another factor in wind-wave climate, it alternates wave characteristics, rainfall patterns, storm surge direction, and wind speed. Therefore, this review offered how each factor influences the coastal erosion rate in Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia and other countries differently. The findings revealed that increasing coastal erosion significantly impacted coastal communities.

Moreover, the study also provides an overview of the coastal erosion management in Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philipines, Singapore and Cambodia. In most countries, short-term or ad-hoc strategies were widely used, which implemented hard structures to address the emergence erosion problem. The implemented adaptive measure for erosion issues still needs to the assessed for its effectiveness and impact not just short-term or emergence but long-term as well as any natural or man-made structure that will disturb and impact coastal hydrodynamics. The review also provides some proof that inappropriate adaptive measures usually worsen the erosion situation. Moreover, since the sea level rise has heavily impacted all countries, it should also be given idea or taken into consideration by government or authorities to have mitigation strategies toward climate change adaptation like Thailand, Singapore and Cambodia does. Learning from the successful case could also help in the best coastal erosion control practice like in Thailand and Indonesia.

It is important to understand past and present events, predict future trends, eliminate the influence factor of severe erosion, and implement an adaptive measure that suits the situation, circumstances, and environment to countermeasures against coastal erosion. In addition, the government should encourage and include erosion issues on the national agenda in the short and long term. Collaboration among government, institutions, and local agencies, along with the appropriate legal framework, policy, and strategic plans, can lead to sustainable coastal erosion management.

This study has limitations where the review of coastal erosion management of each country just provided general information and overview based on assessable online resources. Furthermore, this study solely focuses on Southeast Asia, which restricts the generalizability to other coastal areas worldwide, as different regions experience different climate change impacts and adaptation challenges. Further research or review suggests conducting a complete and more comprehensive coastal erosion management, strategies and plans to produce a better management framework and learn from the best practices and mistakes in Southeast Asia.

Funding

This work was supported by Long Term Research Grant Scheme (LRGS) under the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) of Malaysia: No. LRGS21-001-0005 and LRGS/1/2020/UMT/01/1/4.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Wan Shiao Dong: Writing - original draft, Visualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Aminah Ismailluddin: Writing - review & editing. Lee Shin Yun: Writing - review & editing. Effi Helmy Ariffin: Writing - review & editing, Supervision, Conceptualization. Cherdvong Saengsupavanich: Writing - review & editing. Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud: Writing - review & editing. Muhammad Zahir Ramli: Writing - review & editing. Mohd Fuad Miskon: Writing - review & editing. Muhammad Hafeez Jeofry: Writing - review & editing. Juliana Mohamed: Writing - review & editing. Fazly Amri Mohd: Writing - review & editing. Ts Saiful Bahri Hamzah: Writing - review & editing. Kamaruzzaman Yunus: Writing - review & editing, Funding acquisition.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Kamaruzzaman Yunus reports financial support was provided by Long Term Research Grant Scheme (LRGS).

Acknowledgement

This work was funded by Long Term Research Grant Scheme (LRGS) under the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) of Malaysia: No. LRGS21-001-0005 and LRGS/1/2020/UMT/01/1/4.

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An Interesting Article About From U.S Climate Resilience "The Impact Of Climate Change On Coastal Erosion"

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An Interesting Article About From U.S Climate Resilience "The Impact Of Climate Change On Coastal Erosion"

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Coastal erosion is the process by which local sea level rise, strong wave action, and coastal flooding wear down or carry away rocks, soils, and/or sands along the coast. All coastlines are affected by storms and other natural events that cause erosion; the combination of storm surge at high tide with additional effects from strong waves-conditions commonly associated with landfalling tropical storms-creates the most damaging conditions.

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A Ted Talk By Dave Sivaprasad Explaining How "Mangroves, Storm Walls and Other Ways to Protect Coasts from Climate Change"

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A Ted Talk By Dave Sivaprasad Explaining How "Mangroves, Storm Walls and Other Ways to Protect Coasts from Climate Change"

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Mangroves, Storm Walls and Other Ways to Protect Coasts from Climate Change | Dave Sivaprasad | TED

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A Ted Talk By John Marshall Marking "3 strategies for effectively talking about climate change"

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A Ted Talk By John Marshall Marking "3 strategies for effectively talking about climate change"

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John Marshall: 3 strategies for effectively talking about climate change | TED Countdown

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A Podcast Talked By Two Experts Chris Parsons And Philipe Bujold "How We Make Coastal Decisions"

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A Podcast Talked By Two Experts Chris Parsons And Philipe Bujold "How We Make Coastal Decisions"

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A Journal Article from European Union  Is Explaining how "Rising sea levels due to climate change found to escalate the rate of erosion of rocky shorelines"

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A Journal Article from European Union  Is Explaining how "Rising sea levels due to climate change found to escalate the rate of erosion of rocky shorelines"

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The study uses data on the sea-level and cliff-retreat rates from the last 8000 years at Bideford and Scalby, UK, alongside predicted sea-level rise and cliff retreat-rate data until 2100.

Climate change is accelerating sea-level rise (SLR) and, with coastal urbanisation increasing worldwide, cliff erosion on rocky coasts is an immediate hazard to human lives, property and infrastructure in these locations. Rock coasts make up more than 50 per cent of the world's coastline, and are themselves evidence of ongoing erosion. Sea-level rise is expected to increase storm frequency and result in wave energy moving further inshore to erode coastal cliffs, but little is known of the specific impacts of this.

Despite the importance of understanding the effect of sea-level rise on rocky cliffs, the stability of rock coasts has been largely neglected, and the expected acceleration of cliff erosion following sea-level rise has not been previously studied with observed data using coastal evolution models. This study is the first to use data from rocky coastline sites to model the impacts of accelerated sea-level rise on coastal cliff retreat rate for the year 2100. This emerging risk of accelerated rocky cliff erosion is important to understand - to enable swift societal and political response to mitigate its impacts on coastal communities.

The researchers used a coastal evolution model ¹, incorporating digital surface topography and radioisotope data from rock samples (a method of dating rocks and minerals) at a site, to quantify cliff retreat rates for the last 8000 years (before present, where present day is 2000). They then used this calibrated model, but included sea-level rise projections from the UK Climate Projections 2018 (UKCP18), to forecast sea-level rise to 2100. The study focuses on two coastal sites - Bideford, north Devon and Scalby, north Yorkshire. The researchers collected rock samples from each site and analysed them to work out the cliff retreat history. Sea-level rise histories specific to each site were constructed using the radioisotope rock data and modelling approach.

The researchers added future cliff retreat rates to the model, using the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's predictions of greenhouse gas emissions through Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs). They modelled minimum, medium and maximum rates for each (RCP2, RCP4, and RCP8). They also incorporated an average number of random erosion events, where storms, for example, cause larger-scale damage - to accurately identify the long-term future trend of cliff retreat rates for the two sites.

Both Bideford and Scalby were found to have a similar sea-level rise history, where the sea has constantly risen from 8000 years ago, when it was around 16 metres (m) lower than today. The results of the model analysis showed that cliff retreat rate is more sensitive to sea-level rise rate, i.e. how quickly the level rises over time, than the absolute amount of sea-level rise. The model predicts that these two historically stable UK coastal sites will see cliff retreat rates accelerate by at least 3-7 times the present rates under current projections for sea-level rise. This equates to cliff positions retreating by 10-14 m at Bideford and 13-22 m at Scalby.

The researchers note that cliff retreat rates of this speed have not been seen over the last 3-5000 years at these sites and are due to sea-level rise driven by climate change causing greater wave erosion - thereby increasing cliff retreat rates. This suggests climate change will have a direct impact on risks associated with coastal hazards in the coming century and beyond - even on historically stable coastlines. The researchers suggest that rocky coastlines should now be included in future planning for global climate change response, for example in coastal protection programmes.

Footnotes:

Coastal evolution models cansimulate fundamental cause-effect relationships in coastal systems.

Source:

Shadrick, J. R., Rood, D. H., Hurst, M. D., Piggott, M. D., Hebditch, B. G., Seal, A. J., and Wilcken, K. M. (2022) Sea-level rise will likely accelerate rock coast cliff retreat rates. Nature Communications, 13(1). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-34386-3

To cite this article/service:

" Science for Environment Policy ": European Commission DG Environment News Alert Service, edited by the Science Communication Unit, The University of the West of England, Bristol.

Notes on content:

The contents and views included in Science for Environment Policy are based on independent, peer reviewed research and do not necessarily reflect the position of the European Commission. Please note that this article is a summary of only one study. Other studies may come to other conclusions.

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Rising sea levels due to climate change found to escalate the rate of erosion of rocky shorelines

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Issue 598: UK scientists find two previously stable rocky stretches of coastline are set to erode faster than they have in thousands of years, due to climate-driven sea-level rise.

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A Journal Article from European Journal of Physical Sciences Current Archives Written by Emma Johnson Talking about how "Impact of Climate Change on Coastal Erosion and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies in Australia"

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A Journal Article from European Journal of Physical Sciences Current Archives Written by Emma Johnson Talking about how "Impact of Climate Change on Coastal Erosion and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies in Australia"

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Impact of Climate Change on Coastal Erosion and Sustainable Mitigation Strategies in Australia

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Beck, U. (1986). Risk society: Towards a new modernity. Sage Publications. Benson, A., & Dall'Alba, L. (2021). Coastal erosion and climate change in Australia. In Climate Change and its Impact on Coastal Ecosystems in Australia (pp. 61-80). Springer. Bird, E. C., Law, A., & Markham, A. (2020).