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Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du, Wujing zongyao, late Ming (Wanli Period) edition, in Zhongguo bingshu jicheng, Volume 3 to 5, edited by the Zhongguo bingshu jicheng Editing Committee (Beijing and Shenyang: Jiefangjun chubanshe and Liaoshen shushe, 1988), 11:10 (p. 495).

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"Sea Hawks” were originally invented in the Tang dynasty and had floating boards on each side to help in stabilizing the ship

By the time of the Song dynasty, sea hawks had evolved to by strengthened their hulls with iron.

Sea Hawks were utilized as a way to successfully ferry troops in the open sea to battle, some able to hold over 100 troops at a given time.

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Canton, late 18th century, painting, 19x20cm, Hong Kong Maritime Museum

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A porcelain commission is brought to Raozhou

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A porcelain commission is brought to Raozhou

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In this artwork an official is seen arriving at Jingdezhen, a notable city of vast-scale porcelain creation during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) and continuing on into the time of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).

The vessels with yellow flags are imperial vessels that are used for tax collection which would be attributed to the Caoyun System also known as 'tribute grain' that would help collect staple food for the empire by both land and sea.

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A porcelain commission is broguth to Raozhou

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China, mid-late 19th century, painting, 19x32cm, Hong Kong Maritime Museum

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This painting shows a livestock farming river junk during the mid to late Qing dynasty.

The man positioned towards the bow of the ship appears to be holding a stick with an object attached to direct the ducks in this picture towards the larger junk.

The ducks are seen congregating towards the small wooden plank that juts out from the bow of the junk where a man is waiting with large nets to capture them.

The masts towards the aft of the ship are lowered, allowing for it to remain relatively stationary to help in livestock farming.

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China, mid-late 19th century, painting, 37x50cm, Hong Kong Maritime Museum

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This patrol vessel was the standard of the late-Qing period. The boat could be manned by 40 to 60 crew members. The patrol vessels were often armed with two 4-6lb guns on the bow of the ship and also armed with 5-6 swivel guns along the deck of the ships.

These ships would be used along the coasts of the Yellow Sea to help catch smugglers and help in policing the coastal areas. The number of coastal patrol vessels assigned to a certain area was dependent on current needs in dealing with different tasks related to aggression and piracy from other Asian countries.

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China, 16th-17th Century, Formally attributed to Li Tang 李唐， Ink and color on silk, 41x57.5cm, Smithsonian National Museum of Asian Art

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This painting depicts some fishermen in the river lifting a net. One individual is seen holding a stick outwards over the net, likely holding bait to attract fish above the net itself.

Along the side of the boat, one man seems to be holding a rope connecting the net to the boat while sitting on a moving piece of wood. This piece of wood would likely be dropped slowly by the individual who is holding it on the boat to help hoist the net out of the water, like an early makeshift pulley system.

There is a noticeable piece of porcelain on the boat which make be a vessel to contain either the fish or the bait when the fishing is being undertaken.

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China, 16th-17th century, Ink and color on silk, 23.7x31cm, Smithsonian National Museum of Asian Art

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From the features of the people on the barge, the people are likely non-Chinese. Their stout bodies, dark skin, moon-shaped faces, and shaved heads with braids are indicative of Jurchens, a nomadic tribe of the Jin dynasty (1115-1234) from Manchuria.

The individual who appears disproportionately larger than the other figures, who sits at the top level of the royal barge and attended by concubines is likely the King.

The men scattered about on the barge seem to be struggling against the roaring waves of the Yellow Sea.

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Canton, 1800, Wood on mounted lacquered base, Hong Kong Maritime Museum

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This boat was likely modeled after the "Flower" or "Pleasure" boats used by wealthy merchants for parties. Boats like this which would have cruised down the Pearl River were typically adorned and painted on. Figures on this model are dressed formally, and one can see a few of these figured carrying musical instruments, acting as entertainers.

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Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du, Wujing zongyao, late Ming (Wanli Period) edition, in Zhongguo bingshu jicheng, Volume 3 to 5, edited by the Zhongguo bingshu jicheng Editing Committee (Beijing and Shenyang: Jiefangjun chubanshe and Liaoshen shushe, 1988), 11:9 (p. 493).

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Song Battleships, in comparison to Seahawks, were much larger in size. On the tops of the ships, they carried fire-bomb catapults that would be used to assault other ships or assault battlements on land from the sea.

Soldiers aboard these ships also carried incendiary arrows that utilized gunpowder to shoot towards other ships at sea and damage other enemy vessels.

The upper decks of the ships allowed for a space for crossbowmen to rain down arrows or act as watchmen and look out for enemy vessels.

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Italy, 1460, Taken from the "Fra Mauro" Map, original map housed at Biblioteca Marciana.

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The Fra Mauro map describes the construction of Junks that would navigate the Indian ocean at this time during their trade with the Indian subcontinent.

"The ships called junks that navigate these seas carry four masts or more, some of which can be raised or lowered, and have 40 to 60 cabins for the merchants and only one tiller. They can navigate without a compass, because they have an astrologer, who stands on the side and, with an astrolabe in hand, gives orders to the navigator."

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Britain, 1742-1743, attributed to Lieutenant Piercey Brett, Painting, 20.2x32.8cm, Hong Kong Maritime Museum

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The sketch of Chinese Junks in Canton was likely done by Lieutenant Piercey Brett when the HMS Centurion visited Canton in 1742 - 1743.

This painting was one of several illustrations in George Anson's Voyage Around the World, in the Years 1740-1744 which was written by Commodore George Anson after being given the direction by his Chaplain Richard Walter.

The voyage's goal was for Britain's to disrupt or capture the Pacific Ocean possessions of the Spanish Empire as they were currently engaged with Spain in the War of Jenkins' Ear.

Anson and his crew invited themselves to stay at a British factory outside of Canton which is likely where this image was sketched.

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Nanjing, 2006, Picture, Black and white, Nanjing Municipal Museum

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The Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang (Hongwu) that founded the Ming dynasty recognized a need for naval strength to not only acquire more power, but to hold onto it following the defeat of the Mongols.

In his attempts to secure this safety, Hongwu established the Longjiang Shipyard in Nanjing. As a result to these policies of building up naval defense, 400 families from China's southeast were moved to begin work.

During the time of the Ming Emperor Zhu Di (Yongle), different ships were ordered to be constructed for longer overseas travel rather than defense. A different shipyard was built to facilitate the construction of these exploration vessels known as the Treasure Shipyard.

After 1433 no further expeditions were sent out and the Treasure Shipyard went to ruin, however the Longjiang Shipyard continued to produce ships into the 16th century.

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China, 1890-1910, Metal, Hong Kong Maritime Museum

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This large Chinese imperial barge shows the grandeur of Chinese shipbuilding during the late Qing dynasty.

The bright blue and white hues of the waves on the metalwork evoke a calming and serene vessel, while the dragon head evokes the strength and power of the Chinese emperor.

The larger tower in the middle of the ship would house in the lower quarters the emperor's concubines, while the emperor would often opt to sit atop where he would be able to view the surrounding waters and be fanned by servants.

The two smaller towers towards the bow and aft of the vessel would often be utilized by the emperor's guards to watch out for any notable vessels in the distance that may attempt an attack on the royal vessel.

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Luo Guanzhong, Quantu xiuxiang sanguo yanyi (Shanghai: Feihong ge, 1896), 35:0 (the illustration before page 1).

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Chinese navy would utilize both large and small ships, with smaller ships aiding in crossing tighter spaces such as river channels

Smaller ships could navigate quickly and were faster, making them useful for close combat as illustrated here.

With smaller ships typically one person would be in charge of steering the vessel while all others were responsible for the defense or attack on the other vessels.

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Japan, 1894 (Meiji Period), Kobayashi Kiyochika, Triptych of Color Woodblock Prints, 37.3 x 72.5 cm, Saint Louis Art Museum

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Our Navy Sinking a Chinese Warship in the Yellow Sea

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Our Navy Sinking a Chinese Warship in the Yellow Sea

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This painting illustrates the sinking of a Chinese warship at the hands of Japanese Navy during the first Sino-Japanese War.

The exact ship that was sunk is unknown; however, it is speculated that this may be the Chinese steamer ship Kowshing that was carrying 1,200 Qing troops that were being sent as reinforcements to Korea on July 25, 1984, to continue defending it as a Qing tributary state after Japanese encroachment.

Following the sinking of the Kowshing the declaration of war was followed on August 1, 1984. Eventually the failure of the Qing dynasty against the Japanese would demonstrate their inability to modernize its military to defeat threats to its' sovereignty.

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China, Late 12th - Early 13th Century, Attributed to Li Song, Ink and Color on Paper, 32.9 x 1581.1 cm (Hand Scroll), Smithsonian National Museum of Asian Art

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This painting helps illustrate the shores of the famed West Lake in the Southern Song (1127-1279) capital of Lin'an (modern day Hangzhou), which Marco Polo once visited during the reign of the Yuan dynasty and described it as follows:

"The lake is provided with a great number of boats or barges, big and small, in which people take pleasure-trips... They are roofed over with decks on which stand men with poles which they thrust into the bottom of the lake, and thus propel the barges where they are bidden... And indeed, a voyage on this lake offers more refreshment and delectation than any other experience on earth."

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Nanjing, 2006, Picture, Black and white, Nanjing Municipal Museum

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Wooden objects excavated from the Treasure shipyard can help in illustrating lumber use in construction of Chinese ships.

There are three main categories of wooden objects found at the Treasure shipyard's basin. The first being tools and implements, the second consists of remains of "shipbuilding infrastructure", and the third consists of ship parts including rudderposts, parts of masts, railings, door frames, carved decorations, and more.

In the tools area there are T-shaped supports which were the most numerous of items excavated. They are grouped with the tools due to their tops resembling hammers, but much larger and may have been supports for ships to rest on while being worked.

In the basin as well are two wooden foot-rulers that measure 313mm long. Although the date at which the rulers fell into the basin is unknown, it can help represent the size of the "foot" used during the building of the Treasure Ships.

In the third category of ship parts, the most striking item found were the rudderposts. The two complete rudderposts that were measured over 10m and made of teak help compared to another one found in 1957 in the same shipyard that measured similarly, strongly suggesting that this was the type of rudderpost used on the Treasure Ships.

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Nanjing, 2006, Picture, Black and white, Nanjing Municipal Museum

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Iron objects were the second most common find at the Treasure Shipyard after wood. Most Iron objects found were tools and implements used in shipbuilding and items for daily use were also found.

The most common find, making up around half of all the iron objects were staples. These staples may have been used to hold pieces of wood together during its' construction but would unlikely be able to hold the ship together after construction.

The other large amount of iron objects found in the basin were iron nails. One unique bundle of six nails was discovered and still wrapped together with cord.

In addition to these items, some tools were found as well with 31 classified as shipbuilding tools and 5 being classified as agricultural implements.

While the agricultural implements could likewise be used for some shipbuilding activities, it raises the question on if workers were growing their own food or using them to tend non-food crops such as hemp plants and oil trees that could yield product used in shipbuilding.

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China, mid-late 19th century, painting, 37 x 50cm, Hong Kong Maritime Museum

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The tea junks of China were utilized in the river sections to carry tea towards larger port towns or cities.

Tea exports were focused on this time towards Europe. Tea was mostly grown in Fujian where it was then carried over mountains into Jiangxi, up the Gan River, then down the North River into Canton.

One the ship tea appeared to be housed in brown containers that would keep out moisture and preserve the dried tea leaves.

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Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge University Press, 2022.

Levathes, Louise. When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405-1433. Oxford University Press, 1994.

Lee, Chi-Lin. "The Development of Shipbuilding during the Qing Dynasty." Crossroads 16 (2017): 161-193.

Shipwreck Asia. Shipwreck Asia: Thematic Studies in East Asian Maritime Archaeology. Edited by Jun Kimura. Maritime Archaeology Program, 2010.

“Warships.” Depts.washington.edu. https://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/miltech/warship.htm

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Hong Kong, 1850, "The Chinese Junk 'Keying'", Painting, Hong Kong Maritime Museum

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China's maritime legacy is long survived in the story of the country's traditions and culture. The interactions that the people had with each other within China through its rivers, as well as with other countries through the rest of the world show that China has kept its use of shipbuilding, trade, and travel as a great importance throughout history.

The voyages of Zheng He show a step where China attempts to branch out to neighbors of the wider world and facilitate both communication of ideas, and trade of new raw materials and finished goods. Without the use of the sea and the attempts to dominate it through use of ships, China's culture and values may not have been able to thrive and survive in the way that it did.

This piece depicts the Chinese vessel known as the 'Keying'. The Keying was the first Chinese ship to sail across the Atlantic Ocean. This painting is the sole Chinese record of the vessel that sailed from Hong Kong in December 1846 setting out for London.

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China, 206BCE - 220CE, Ceramics, Hong Kong Maritime Museum

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Introduction: A Green-Glazed Tower Boat, Han Dynasty

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Introduction: A Green-Glazed Tower Boat, Han Dynasty

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The Maritime history of China is one that is of great importance to survival of Chinese civilization. Being located along the coasts of the Yellow and China Seas, as well as the importance of the growing of civilizations within the Yellow River valley and along the Yangzi River, the use of waterways has facilitated large interactions across the long history of China.

China has used the sea to help in completing trade across its vast territories. Building a grand canal even to increase trades between the warm and humid south, and the drier north to help in diversifying agricultural goods. They have likewise utilized the sea in militaristic fashion, holding an important position of imperial power by protecting the many dynasties shores, and helping collect taxes, and prevent piracy and smuggling into the kingdom.

As time passed on and China became more interconnected with the rest of the world, many other nations began to make their way to China to either include themselves into the Indian Ocean trade, or in attempts to overthrow China's imperial agenda with their own.

With the modernization of the west China was unable to keep up in its efforts alongside the western powers, ultimately leading to humiliating defeats at sea. However, it should not be discounted as a failure of transportation of ideas, trade, and imperialism because of this.

This Glazed Tower Boat from the Han Dynasty is one of the earliest artistic representations of a boat that was likely used in a burial practice. It is unsure what it's symbolic meaning might be, but it may show the importance of the sea and seaworthy vessels in carrying people to destinations, and may be associated in carrying the individual on to their next life.