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Biography from YouTube (Video)

Nicolaus Copernicus lived from Febuary 19th 1473 - May 24 1543.

Throughout his life, Nicolaus excelled in topics such as mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.

His big claim to fame is found through his success with astronomy. Copernicus is considered the founder of modern astronomy, having created the heliocentric principles. These principles stated the the earth was NOT the center of the universe but instead earth and all other planets orbited around the sun.

Although Copernicus did not have the proper tools to prove his work, later atronomers such as Galileo would prove his theories correct.

The reason we should still study Copernicus today is due to the fact that he created the principles of modern astronomy. This is important to understand how theories can be developed overtime through cooperation between other professionals such as Galileo.

Citation: “Nicolaus Copernicus.” NASA, starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/whos_who_level2/copernicus.html. Accessed 9 Oct. 2024.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RIwnhuJz7i0

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Edward Jenner and the Dawn of Immunology

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Hennig Brand and the Discovery of Phosphorus | STUFF YOU MISSED IN HISTORY CLASS

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Sir Isaac Newton was born on December 25, 1642 In Woolsthorpe England, he was a key figure in the Scientific Revolution because of his amazing discoveries and contributions to mathematics and physics. He studied in Trinity College, Cambridge where he developed his theories on calculus, optics and the laws of motion. He also did very important pieces like "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" that was published in 1687 which established the principles of classical mechanics and universal gravitation.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rCl5wPfsTEo

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1. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was a dutch micro biologist and microscopist during the early ages of the scientific and technological revolution. He was born on October 24, 1632. He was largely self taught and was mainly known as the "Father of microbiology. He died on April 26th 1723.

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Leeuwenhoek: The First Master of Microscopes

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https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00897980249a#:~:text=Marie%20Anne%20Pierrette%20Paulze%20was,chief%20collaborator%20and%20laboratory%20assistant.

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Marie-Anne LAVOISIER

18th century

Born: 1758 in Montbrison (France)
Death: 1836 in Paris (France)

Main achievements: The Lavoisiers rebuilt the field of chemistry.
Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze Lavoisier was a French chemist and noble. She was the wife of Antoine Lavoisier and acted as his laboratory companion and contributed to his work.

Her father, Jacques Paulze, worked primarily as a parliamentary lawyer and financier. Most of his income came from running the Ferme Générale (the General Farm) which was a private consortium of financiers who paid the French monarchy for the privilege of collecting certain taxes. Her mother, Claudine Thoynet Paulze, died in 1761, leaving behind not only Marie-Anne, then aged 3 only, but two other sons. After her mother's death Paulze was placed in a convent where she received her formal education.

At the age of thirteen Paulze received a marriage proposal from the 50-year-old Count d'Amerval. Jacques Paulze tried to object to the union, but received threats about losing his job with the Ferme Générale. To indirectly thwart the marriage, Jacques Paulze made an offer to one of his colleagues to ask for his daughter's hand instead. This colleague was Antoine Lavoisier, a French nobleman and scientist. Lavoisier accepted the proposition, and he and Marie-Anne were married on 16 December 1771. Lavoisier was about 28, while Marie-Anne was about 13.

Lavoisier continued to work for the Ferme-Générale but in 1775 was appointed gunpowder administrator, leading the couple to settle down at the Arsenal in Paris. Here, Lavoisier's interest in chemistry blossomed having previously trained at the chemical laboratory of Guillaume François Rouelle, and, with the financial security provided by both his and Paulze's family, as well as his various titles and other business ventures, he was able to construct a state-of-the-art chemistry laboratory. Paulze soon became interested in his scientific research and began to actively participate in her husband's laboratory work.

As her interest developed, she received formal training in the field from Jean Baptiste Michel Bucquet and Philippe Gingembre, both of whom were Lavoisier's colleagues at the time. The Lavoisiers spent most of their time together in the laboratory, working as a team conducting research on many fronts. She also assisted him by translating documents about chemistry from English to French. In fact, the majority of the research effort put forth in the laboratory was actually a joint effort between Paulze and her husband, with Paulze mainly playing the role of laboratory assistant.

Paulze accompanied Lavoisier in his lab during the day, making entries into his lab notebooks and sketching diagrams of his experimental designs. The training she had received from the painter Jacques-Louis David allowed her to accurately and precisely draw experimental apparatuses, which ultimately helped many of Lavoisier's contemporaries to understand his methods and results. Furthermore, she served as the editor of his reports. Together, the Lavoisiers rebuilt the field of chemistry, which had its roots in alchemy and at the time was a convoluted science dominated by George Stahl's theory of phlogiston.

In the eighteenth century the idea of phlogiston (a fire-like element which is gained or released during a material's combustion) was used to describe the apparent property changes that substances exhibited when burned. Paulze, being a master in the English, Latin and French language, was able to translate various works about phlogiston into French for her husband to read. Perhaps her most important translation was that of Richard Kirwan's 'Essay on Phlogiston and the Constitution of Acids', which she both translated and critiqued, adding footnotes as she went along and pointing out errors in the chemistry made throughout the paper. She also translated works by Joseph Priestley, Henry Cavendish, and others for Lavoisier's personal use. This was an invaluable service to Lavoisier, who relied on Paulze's translation of foreign works to keep abreast of current developments in chemistry. In the case of phlogiston, it was Paulze's translation that convinced him the idea was incorrect, ultimately leading to his studies of combustion and his discovery of oxygen gas.

Paulze was also instrumental in the 1789 publication of Lavoisier's Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, which presented a unified view of chemistry as a field. This work proved pivotal in the progression of chemistry, as it presented the idea of conservation of mass as well as a list of elements and a new system for chemical nomenclature. Paulze contributed thirteen drawings that showed all the laboratory instrumentation and equipment used by the Lavoisiers in their experiments. She also kept strict records of the procedures followed, lending validity to the findings Lavoisier published.

Before her death, Paulze was able to recover nearly all of Lavoisier's notebooks and chemical apparatuses, most of which survive in a collection at Cornell University, the largest of its kind outside of Europe. The year she died, a book was published, showing that Marie-Anne had a rich theological library with books which included versions of The Bible, St. Augustine's Confessions, Jacques Saurin's Discours sur la Bible, Pierre Nicole's Essais de Morale, Blaise Pascal's Lettres provinciales, Louis Bourdaloue's Sermons, Thomas à Kempis's De Imitatione Christi, etc.

Source: Wikipedia

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18th century Born: 1758 in Montbrison (France) Death: 1836 in Paris (France) Main achievements: The Lavoisiers rebuilt the field of chemistry. Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze Lavoisier was a French chemist and noble. She was the wife of Antoine Lavoisier and acted as his laboratory companion and contributed to his work.

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2. Aristarchus was a mathematician and astronomer. He is most known for developing the theory of a sun-centered universe and for attempting to determine the sizes and distances of the sun and moon. He called it the heliocentric model. Unlike other astronomers who believed that everything revolved around the earth, he built off their ideas to come up with the model we know today. He also showed in his models how the sun reflected on the moon and earth determining that's how the moon shined. He brought up the theory of the distances between the sun, moon, earth, and more. He used math and various equations with angles to provide the answer.

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Antoine Lavoisier and the Origin of Modern Chemistry  | AMS OpenMind

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Galileo Galilei was an Italian natural philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician who made many discoveries. He invented an early type of thermometer and made significant improvements to the telescope that enabled astronomical observation. He was able to discover the four biggest moons of Jupiter and the rings of Saturn. He also made great contributions to the study of motion such as his law of falling bodies and parabolic trajectories.

Britannica

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Torricelli was an Italian mathematician and physicist who was the first man to create a sustained vacuum. After much observation, he determined that the variation of the height of mercury from day to day was atmospheric pressure. He never published this, though, because he was too focused on studying pure mathematics. This, however, led to his invention of the barometer.

We should still learn about Torricelli because his discoveries are extremely important in modern science and technology; his studies of vacuums help astronomers and astronauts with their fields, and the barometer is crucial in weather forecasting.

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-Descartes is regarded as the person who distinguished mind and body. This is the idea that matter and thought are separate. He is seen as the father of modern day philosophy.

-We should continue to study him today because of his thought process when it comes to analyzing situations. He developed his ideas through observation and reasoning, which are how we make deductions today.

“Rene Descartes | Biography, Ideas, Philosophy, ‘I Think, Therefore I Am,’ & Facts | Britannica.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2024, www.britannica.com/biography/Rene-Descartes. Accessed 9 Oct. 2024.

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Kepler was a German astronomer. he was born December 27 1571 and died November 15, 1630. when he went to school the schools were under the control of the church, he went to the university of Tubingen and started his studies in 1589

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

Evangelista Torricelli, (born Oct. 15, 1608, Faenza, Romagna-died Oct. 25, 1647, Florence), Italian physicist and mathematician who invented the barometer and whose work in geometry aided in the eventual development of integral calculus. Inspired by Galileo's writings, he wrote a treatise on mechanics, De Motu ("Concerning Movement"), which impressed Galileo. In 1641 Torricelli was invited to Florence, where he served the elderly astronomer as secretary and assistant during the last three months of Galileo's life. Torricelli was then appointed to succeed him as professor of mathematics at the Florentine Academy.

Two years later, pursuing a suggestion by Galileo, he filled a glass tube 4 feet (1.2 m) long with mercury and inverted the tube into a dish. He observed that some of the mercury did not flow out and that the space above the mercury in the tube was a vacuum. Torricelli became the first man to create a sustained vacuum. After much observation, he concluded that the variation of the height of the mercury from day to day was caused by changes in atmospheric pressure. He never published his findings, however, because he was too deeply involved in the study of pure mathematics-including calculations of the cycloid, a geometric curve described by a point on the rim of a turning wheel. In his Opera Geometrica (1644; "Geometric Works"), Torricelli included his findings on fluid motion and projectile motion.

Letricia Dixon.

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Evangelista Torricelli | Barometer inventor, Scientist, Mathematician

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Evangelista Torricelli, Italian physicist and mathematician who invented the barometer and whose work in geometry aided in the eventual development of integral calculus. Inspired by Galileo's writings, he wrote a treatise on mechanics, De Motu ("Concerning Movement"), which impressed Galileo. In

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2. Leeuwenhoek was well known as the first person to observe bacteria and protozoa, without this there would have never been the research to create the studies of bacteriology and protozoology. A lot of the studies done by Leeuwenhoek were not the traditional organizational science studies, his way of studies made it easier for him to carefully analyze his date and that made an important impact on his studies of bacteria. He studied many different types of bacteria and protozoa in mostly animals.

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1) Zacharias Janssen was a Dutch spectacle maker who was born in 1580 and died in 1638.

2) Janssen is credited with inventing the compound microscope in the late 1500s. It's likely he had help from friends and family.

3) Janssen's microscope allowed scholars to study magnified objects such as cells. Future inventors were able to build off of Janssen's invention by increasing the range of magnification.

YouTube link:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yxJJ_fnZMlk

Citation:

Davidson, Michael. “Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics and You - Timeline - Zacharias Janssen.” Fsu.edu, 2019, micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/janssen.html.

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Edward Jenner was a doctor who noticed that milkmaids who got cowpox were protected from smallpox. Jenner also figured out that exposing people to cowpox could be a protection against smallpox. The accomplishment of Jenner would be that he invented a vaccination that involved cowpox to replace the dangers of smallpox. This created an immunity to smallpox and a development with vaccines. Why we learn about Jenner's work today is because it provides a base and foundation of immunology. Jenner is also known today because he invented the first vaccine for smallpox.

Links:

Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination

National Institutes of Health (NIH) (.gov)

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov › articles › PMC1200696

History of Smallpox - CDC

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (.gov)

https://www.cdc.gov › smallpox › history › history

Edward Jenner (1749-1823): The History and Effects of Smallpox ...

JAMA Network

https://jamanetwork.com › jamapediatrics › fullarticle

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Tyco Brahe was a danish astronomer. Generally, astronomers study stars, systems, planets, and all things celestial. Tyco Brahe studied and discovered specifically the movement and positions of many planets, and space objects (Sun, Moon, stars, Earth). Brahe's fascination sprouted from an eclipse of the sun, and the predictions/science behind it. We still learn about this astronomer because he had many important involvements in the study of eclipses of planets. It is widely known that eclipses are a popular and renowned event for many, even to this day. Therefore, it is important these people know the sciences behind predictions of the date, time, and place of the eclipse. Although Tyco Brahe died one year after acquiring an assistant (Johannes Kepler), this assistant still carried on the many plans Brahe had instilled in their time together.

CITE: https://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/icecore/The_Astronomers_Tycho_Brahe_and_Johannes_Kepler.pdf

YOUTUBE LINK:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7QDvKzY4aqA

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2. Joseph Priestly was a minister, teacher, author and a natural philosopher. Priestly is best known for discovering oxygen. He also invented carbonated water.

3. We still learn about him today because he greatly contributed to the history of our medicine with his discoveries. His legacy coincides with the beginning of modern chemistry and is important for newer generations to recognize.

4. American Chemical Society International Historic Chemical Landmarks. Discovery of Oxygen by Joseph Priestley. http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/josephpriestleyoxygen.html (accessed Month Day, Year).

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Antoine Lavoisier was a French chemist known as the "Father of Modern Chemistry." He discovered the law of conservation of mass which says that matter is not created or destroyed in chemical reactions. Lavoisier also named oxygen and hydrogen and helped create a system on how to name chemical substances. We should study Lavoisier because his work changed how we understand chemistry and modern science.

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Johannes Kepler Biography | The Father of Modern Astronomy.

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Paracelsus was a Swiss man who studied medicine and practiced it around Europe. He is known for challenging traditional ideas and ancient beliefs in favor of logical conclusions. He welcomed the idea that illness is not a result of what's already in the body, but from outside factors. Much of his work as a traveling physician focused on the concept of healing, and he pushed the idea that it could be done with medicinal doses of minerals and chemicals, making human anatomy and physiology a matter of chemistry.

Paracelsus' impact on the field of toxicology is massive, as it laid out guidelines for medicinal dosage, experimentation leading to a greater understanding of what is considered "too much" for a dose and what can be helpful. He emphasized the need for the specialization of treatments for specific diseases, and though rooted in alchemy rather than modern elemental knowledge, he made strides in improving healthcare in a more specific, chemical lens.

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3. Aristarchus changed the world by introducing the heliocentric model. We still learn about him because he was the turning point for the discovery of our universe and how space really looked.

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3. In today's world, we should still learn about Leeuwenhoek because he is the reason that we know so much about diseases such as the bubonic plague and things like this, and this is because he made exceptional studies on small animals such a s fleas, muscle, and eels. Without Leeuwenhoek we wouldn't know to the extent of information on a lot of animals, but mainly the smaller ones that scientists now a day wouldn't be too enthused to study.

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Isaac Newton still remains very relevant to this day because of his impact of his scientific discoveries and mathematical innovations. His law of motion and universal gravitation continue to be very important in physics, engineering, and space exploration, while his development calculus still remains important in mathematics and other science fields.

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Antoine Lavoisier, in full Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier, (born August 26, 1743, Paris, France-died May 8, 1794, Paris), prominent French chemist and leading figure in the 18th-century chemical revolution who developed an experimentally based theory of the chemical reactivity of oxygen and coauthored the modern system for naming chemical substances. Having also served as a leading financier and public administrator before the French Revolution, he was executed with other financiers during the Terror.

Early life and education

Lavoisier was the first child and only son of a wealthy bourgeois family living in Paris. As a youth he exhibited an unusual studiousness and concern for the public good. After being introduced to the humanities and sciences at the prestigious Collège Mazarin, he studied law. Since the Paris law faculty made few demands on its students, Lavoisier was able to spend much of his three years as a law student attending public and private lectures on chemistry and physics and working under the tutelage of leading naturalists. Upon completing his legal studies, Lavoisier, like his father and his maternal grandfather before him, was admitted to the elite Order of Barristers, whose members presented cases before the High Court ( Parlement) of Paris. But rather than practice law, Lavoisier began pursuing scientific research that in 1768 gained him admission into France's foremost natural philosophy society, the Academy of Sciences in Paris.

Pneumatic chemistry

The chemistry Lavoisier studied as a student was not a subject particularly noted for conceptual clarity or theoretical rigour. Although chemical writings contained considerable information about the substances chemists studied, little agreement existed upon the precise composition of chemical elements or between explanations of changes in composition. Many natural philosophers still viewed the four elements of Greek natural philosophy-earth, air, fire, and water-as the primary substances of all matter. Chemists like Lavoisier focused their attention upon analyzing "mixts" (i.e., compounds), such as the salts formed when acids combine with alkalis. They hoped that by first identifying the properties of simple substances they would then be able to construct theories to explain the properties of compounds.

It was previously claimed that the elements were distinguishable by certain physical properties: water and earth were incompressible, air could be both expanded and compressed, whereas fire could not be either contained or measured. In the 1720s the English cleric and natural philosopher Stephen Hales demonstrated that atmospheric air loses its "spring" (i.e., elasticity) once it becomes "fixed" in solids and liquids. Perhaps, Hales suggested, air was really just a vapour like steam, and its spring, rather than being an essential property of the element, was created by heat. Hales's experiments were an important first step in the experimental study of specific airs or gases, a subject that came to be called pneumatic chemistry.

In the 1750s the Scottish chemist Joseph Black demonstrated experimentally that the air fixed in certain reactions is chemically different from common air. Black wanted to know why slaked quicklime (hydrated calcium oxide) was neutralized when exposed to the atmosphere. He found that it absorbed only one component of the atmosphere, carbon dioxide, which he called "fixed air." Black's work marked the beginning of investigative efforts devoted to identifying chemically distinct airs, an area of research that grew rapidly during the latter half of the century. Thus, pneumatic chemistry was a lively subject at the time Lavoisier became interested in a particular set of problems that involved air: the linked phenomena of combustion, respiration, and what 18th-century chemists called calcination (the change of metals to a powder [calx], such as that obtained by the rusting of iron).

The assertion that mass is conserved in chemical reactions was an assumption of Enlightenment investigators rather than a discovery revealed by their experiments. Lavoisier believed that matter was neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions, and in his experiments he sought to demonstrate that this belief was not violated. Still he had difficulty proving that his view was universally valid. His insistence that chemists accepted this assumption as a law was part of his larger program for raising chemistry to the investigative standards and causal explanation found in contemporary experimental physics. While other chemists were also looking for conservation principles capable of explaining chemical reactions, Lavoisier was particularly intent on collecting and weighing all the substances involved in the reactions he studied. His success in the many elaborate experiments he conducted was in large part due to his independent wealth, which enabled him to have expensive apparatus built to his design, and to his ability to recruit and direct talented research associates. The fact that French chemistry students are still taught the conservation of mass as "Lavoisier's law" is indicative of his success in making this principle a foundation of modern chemistry.

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Antoine Lavoisier | Biography, Discoveries, & Facts

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Antoine Lavoisier, prominent French chemist and leading figure in the 18th-century chemical revolution who developed an experimentally based theory of the chemical reactivity of oxygen and coauthored the modern system for naming chemical substances. He was also a leading financier and public administrator.

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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7920879/#:~:text=Paracelsus%20introduced%20the%20use%20of,such%20as%20minerals%2C%20into%20medicine.&text=Paracelsus%20theorized%20the%20constitution%20of,%3A%20sulphur%2C%20salt%20and%20mercury.&text=Paracelsus%20emphasized%20the%20importance%20of%20dosing%20in%20distinguishing%20between%20toxicity%20and%20treatment.

https://exhibitions.kelsey.lsa.umich.edu/art-science-healing/surgery2.php

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The Art and Science of Healing | Paracelsus

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The Art and Science of Healing: From Antiquity to the Renaissance

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4. https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Aristarchus/#:~:text=Aristarchus%20was%20certainly%20both%20a,of%20the%20sun%20and%20moon.

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, (born October 24, 1632, Delft, Netherlands-died August 26, 1723, Delft), Dutch microscopist who was the first to observe bacteria and protozoa. His researches on lower animals refuted the doctrine of spontaneous generation, and his observations helped lay the foundations for the sciences of bacteriology and protozoology.

Early life and career

At a young age, Leeuwenhoek lost his biological father. His mother later married painter Jacob Jansz Molijn. When his stepfather died in 1648, Leeuwenhoek was sent to Amsterdam to become an apprentice to a linen draper. Returning to Delft when he was 20, he established himself as a draper and haberdasher. He was married in 1654 to a draper's daughter. By the time of her death, in 1666, the couple had five children, only one of whom survived childhood. Leeuwenhoek remarried in 1671; his second wife died in 1694.

In 1660 Leeuwenhoek obtained a position as chamberlain to the sheriffs of Delft. His income was thus secure, and it was thereafter that he began to devote much of his time to his hobby of grinding lenses and using them to study tiny objects.

Discovery of microscopic life

Leeuwenhoek made microscopes consisting of a single high-quality lens of very short focal length; at the time, such simple microscopes were preferable to the compound microscope, which increased the problem of chromatic aberration. Although Leeuwenhoek's studies lacked the organization of formal scientific research, his powers of careful observation enabled him to make discoveries of fundamental importance. In 1674 he likely observed protozoa for the first time and several years later bacteria. Those "very little animalcules" he was able to isolate from different sources, such as rainwater, pond and well water, and the human mouth and intestine. He also calculated their sizes.

In 1677 he described for the first time the spermatozoa from insects, dogs, and humans, though Stephen Hamm probably was a codiscoverer. Leeuwenhoek studied the structure of the optic lens, striations in muscles, the mouthparts of insects, and the fine structure of plants and discovered parthenogenesis in aphids. In 1680 he noticed that yeasts consist of minute globular particles. He extended Marcello Malpighi's demonstration in 1660 of the blood capillaries by giving the first accurate description of red blood cells, thereby contributing to the history of cell theory. In his observations on rotifers in 1702, Leeuwenhoek remarked that

in all falling rain, carried from gutters into water-butts, animalcules are to be found; and that in all kinds of water, standing in the open air, animalcules can turn up. For these animalcules can be carried over by the wind, along with the bits of dust floating in the air.

The Royal Society and later discoveries

A friend of Leeuwenhoek put him in touch with the Royal Society of England, to which he communicated by means of informal letters from 1673 until 1723 most of his discoveries and to which he was elected a fellow in 1680. His discoveries were for the most part made public in the society's Philosophical Transactions. The first representation of bacteria is to be found in a drawing by Leeuwenhoek in that publication in 1683.

His researches on the life histories of various low forms of animal life were in opposition to the doctrine that they could be produced spontaneously or bred from corruption. Thus, he showed that the weevils of granaries (in his time commonly supposed to be bred from wheat as well as in it) are really grubs hatched from eggs deposited by winged insects. His letter on the flea, in which he not only described its structure but traced out the whole history of its metamorphosis, is of great interest, not so much for the exactness of his observations as for an illustration of his opposition to the spontaneous generation of many lower organisms, such as "this minute and despised creature." Some theorists asserted that the flea was produced from sand, others from dust or the like, but Leeuwenhoek proved that it bred in the regular way of winged insects.

Leeuwenhoek carefully studied the history of the ant and was the first to show that what had been commonly reputed to be ants' eggs were really their pupae, containing the perfect insect nearly ready for emergence, and that the true eggs were much smaller and gave origin to maggots, or larvae. He argued that the sea mussel and other shellfish were not generated out of sand found at the seashore or mud in the beds of rivers at low water but from spawn, by the regular course of generation. He maintained the same to be true of the freshwater mussel, whose embryos he examined so carefully that he was able to observe how they were consumed by "animalcules," many of which, according to his description, must have included ciliates in conjugation, flagellates, and the Vorticella. Similarly, he investigated the generation of eels, which were at that time supposed to be produced from dew without the ordinary process of generation. The dramatic nature of his discoveries made him famous, and he was visited by many notables-including Peter I (the Great) of Russia, James II of England, and Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia.

Methods of microscopy

Leeuwenhoek's methods of microscopy, which he kept secret, remain something of a mystery. During his lifetime he ground more than 500 lenses, most of which were very small-some no larger than a pinhead-and usually mounted them between two thin brass plates, riveted together. A large sample of those lenses, bequeathed to the Royal Society, were found to have magnifying powers in the range of 50 to, at the most, 300 times. In order to observe phenomena as small as bacteria, Leeuwenhoek must have employed some form of oblique illumination, or other technique, for enhancing the effectiveness of the lens, but this method he would not reveal. Leeuwenhoek continued his work almost to the end of his long life of 90 years.

Contributions to scientific literature

Leeuwenhoek's contributions to the Philosophical Transactions amounted to 375 and those to the Memoirs of the Paris Academy of Sciences to 27. Two collections of his works appeared during his life, one in Dutch (1685-1718) and the other in Latin (1715-22); a selection was translated by Samuel Hoole, The Select Works of A. van Leeuwenhoek (1798-1807).

Kara Rogers.

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Antonie van Leeuwenhoek | Biography, Discoveries, & Facts

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Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Dutch microscopist who was the first to observe bacteria and protozoa. His researches on lower animals refuted the doctrine of spontaneous generation, and his observations helped lay the foundations for the sciences of bacteriology and protozoology.

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. . . my work, which I've done for a long time, was not pursued in order to gain the praise I now enjoy, but chiefly from a craving after knowledge, which I notice resides in me more than in most other men. And therewithal, whenever I found out anything remarkable, I have thought it my duty to put down my discovery on paper, so that all ingenious people might be informed thereof.
Antony van Leeuwenhoek. Letter of June 12, 1716

Antony van Leeuwenhoek was an unlikely scientist. A tradesman of Delft, Holland, he came from a family of tradesmen, had no fortune, received no higher education or university degrees, and knew no languages other than his native Dutch. This would have been enough to exclude him from the scientific community of his time completely. Yet with skill, diligence, an endless curiosity, and an open mind free of the scientific dogma of his day, Leeuwenhoek succeeded in making some of the most important discoveries in the history of biology. It was he who discovered bacteria, free-living and parasitic microscopic protists, sperm cells, blood cells, microscopic nematodes and rotifers, and much more. His researches, which were widely circulated, opened up an entire world of microscopic life to the awareness of scientists.

Leeuwenhoek was born in Delft on October 24, 1632. (His last name, incidentally, often is quite troublesome to non-Dutch speakers: "layu-wen-hook" is a passable English approximation.) His father was a basket-maker, while his mother's family were brewers. Antony was educated as a child in a school in the town of Warmond, then lived with his uncle at Benthuizen; in 1648 he was apprenticed in a linen-draper's shop. Around 1654 he returned to Delft, where he spent the rest of his life. He set himself up in business as a draper (a fabric merchant); he is also known to have worked as a surveyor, a wine assayer, and as a minor city official. In 1676 he served as the trustee of the estate of the deceased and bankrupt Jan Vermeer, the famous painter, who had had been born in the same year as Leeuwenhoek and is thought to have been a friend of his. And at some time before 1668, Antony van Leeuwenhoek learned to grind lenses, made simple microscopes, and began observing with them. He seems to have been inspired to take up microscopy by having seen a copy of Robert Hooke's illustrated book Micrographia, which depicted Hooke's own observations with the microscope and was very popular.

Leeuwenhoek is known to have made over 500 "microscopes," of which fewer than ten have survived to the present day. In basic design, probably all of Leeuwenhoek's instruments -- certainly all the ones that are known -- were simply powerful magnifying glasses, not compound microscopes of the type used today. A drawing of one of Leeuwenhoek's "microscopes" is shown at the left. Compared to modern microscopes, it is an extremely simple device, using only one lens, mounted in a tiny hole in the brass plate that makes up the body of the instrument. The specimen was mounted on the sharp point that sticks up in front of the lens, and its position and focus could be adjusted by turning the two screws. The entire instrument was only 3-4 inches long, and had to be held up close to the eye; it required good lighting and great patience to use.

Compound microscopes (that is, microscopes using more than one lens) had been invented around 1595, nearly forty years before Leeuwenhoek was born. Several of Leeuwenhoek's predecessors and contemporaries, notably Robert Hooke in England and Jan Swammerdam in the Netherlands, had built compound microscopes and were making important discoveries with them. These were much more similar to the microscopes in use today. Thus, although Leeuwenhoek is sometimes called "the inventor of the microscope," he was no such thing.

However, because of various technical difficulties in building them, early compound microscopes were not practical for magnifying objects more than about twenty or thirty times natural size. Leeuwenhoek's skill at grinding lenses, together with his naturally acute eyesight and great care in adjusting the lighting where he worked, enabled him to build microscopes that magnified over 200 times, with clearer and brighter images than any of his colleagues could achieve. What further distinguished him was his curiosity to observe almost anything that could be placed under his lenses, and his care in describing what he saw. Although he himself could not draw well, he hired an illustrator to prepare drawings of the things he saw, to accompany his written descriptions. Most of his descriptions of microorganisms are instantly recognizable.

In 1673, Leeuwenhoek began writing letters to the newly-formed Royal Society of London, describing what he had seen with his microscopes -- his first letter contained some observations on the stings of bees. For the next fifty years he corresponded with the Royal Society; his letters, written in Dutch, were translated into English or Latin and printed in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, and often reprinted separately. To give some of the flavor of his discoveries, we present extracts from his observations, together with modern pictures of the organisms that Leeuwenhoek saw.

In a letter of September 7, 1674, Leeuwenhoek described observations on lake water, including an excellent description of the green charophyte alga Spirogyra: "Passing just lately over this lake, . . . and examining this water next day, I found floating therein divers earthy particles, and some green streaks, spirally wound serpent-wise, and orderly arranged, after the manner of the copper or tin worms, which distillers use to cool their liquors as they distil over. The whole circumference of each of these streaks was about the thickness of a hair of one's head. . . all consisted of very small green globules joined together: and there were very many small green globules as well."

A letter dated December 25, 1702, gives descriptions of many protists, including this ciliate, Vorticella: "In structure these little animals were fashioned like a bell, and at the round opening they made such a stir, that the particles in the water thereabout were set in motion thereby. . . And though I must have seen quite 20 of these little animals on their long tails alongside one another very gently moving, with outstretched bodies and straightened-out tails; yet in an instant, as it were, they pulled their bodies and their tails together, and no sooner had they contracted their bodies and tails, than they began to stick their tails out again very leisurely, and stayed thus some time continuing their gentle motion: which sight I found mightily diverting."

On September 17, 1683, Leeuwenhoek wrote to the Royal Society about his observations on the plaque between his own teeth, "a little white matter, which is as thick as if 'twere batter." He repeated these observations on two ladies (probably his own wife and daughter), and on two old men who had never cleaned their teeth in their lives. Looking at these samples with his microscope, Leeuwenhoek reported how in his own mouth: "I then most always saw, with great wonder, that in the said matter there were many very little living animalcules, very prettily a-moving. The biggest sort. . . had a very strong and swift motion, and shot through the water (or spittle) like a pike does through the water. The second sort. . . oft-times spun round like a top. . . and these were far more in number." In the mouth of one of the old men, Leeuwenhoek found "an unbelievably great company of living animalcules, a-swimming more nimbly than any I had ever seen up to this time. The biggest sort. . . bent their body into curves in going forwards. . . Moreover, the other animalcules were in such enormous numbers, that all the water. . . seemed to be alive." These were among the first observations on living bacteria ever recorded.

Leeuwenhoek looked at animal and plant tissues, at mineral crystals and at fossils. He was the first to see microscopic foraminifera, which he described as "little cockles. . . no bigger than a coarse sand-grain." He discovered blood cells, and was the first to see living sperm cells of animals. He discovered microscopic animals such as nematodes and rotifers. The list of his discoveries goes on and on. Leeuwenhoek soon became famous as his letters were published and translated. In 1680 he was elected a full member of the Royal Society, joining Robert Hooke, Henry Oldenburg, Robert Boyle, Christopher Wren, and other scientific luminaries of his day -- although he never attended a meeting. In 1698 he demonstrated circulation in the capillaries of an eel to Tsar Peter the Great of Russia, and he continued to receive visitors curious to see the strange things he was describing. He continued his observations until the last days of his life. After his death on August 30, 1723, the pastor of the New Church at Delft wrote to the Royal Society:

. . . Antony van Leeuwenhoek considered that what is true in natural philosophy can be most fruitfully investigated by the experimental method, supported by the evidence of the senses; for which reason, by diligence and tireless labour he made with his own hand certain most excellent lenses, with the aid of which he discovered many secrets of Nature, now famous throughout the whole philosophical World.
British scientist Brian J. Ford has rediscovered some of Leeuwenhoek's original specimens in the archives of the Royal Society of London. His study of these historic specimens and other material, using Leeuwenhoek's own microscopes and other single-lens microscopes, has shown how remarkably good a scientist and craftsman Leeuwenhoek really was. Here's the full story of Dr. Ford's research.
Berkeley, California resident Al Shinn manufactures replicas of Leeuwenhoek microscopes. He has also made plans and instructions available, for those who would like to make their own Leeuwenhoek-type microscopes.

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. my work, which I've done for a long time, was not pursued in order to gain the praise I now enjoy, but chiefly from a craving after knowledge, which I notice resides in me more than in most other men.

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Kepler discovered the three major law of how the planets move or also called planetary motion. sothe first of the three is the planets move in an oval way with the sun at the middle, the second law was the time that is needed to transverse any arc of the planetary (planet) orbit is proportional to the area of the sector and the third and final one is an exact relationship between the distance of the planets to the sun which is also called the harmonic law.

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1. Hennig Brand discovered phosphorus in 1669 all by accident. He was actually trying to find the Philosopher's Stone by fermenting urine and then boiled it and dry-stilled it to create phosphorus. link link

2. We should still learn about Hennig Brand because he was one of the first known people to discover an element. link

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Anders Celsius was a Swedish astronomer who created the Celsius temperature scale. He also went on many trips around Europe in order to work with other astronomers and learn from each other. During one expedition he went on, they found that the earth is flat at the poles.

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Andreas Vesalius was born December 1514 in modern-day Belgium and died June 1564 in modern-day Greece. Vesalius studied medicine and biology at the Catholic University of Leuven, the University of Paris, and the University of Padua. He studied Arab medicine, anatomy, and dissections of cadavers at the three universities. Vesalius was a Renaissance physician who contributed to Galen's anatomical work. By dissecting human cadavers from Paris cemeteries, Vesalius revolutionized knowledge of human anatomy. He published his work in the first comprehensive textbook of anatomy which he wrote and illustrated himself.

We still learn about Vesalius because his description and record of human anatomy led to the surgical and anatomical knowledge we have now on the human body. We still learn about him because his revolutionary record of human anatomy is still mostly accurate.

Links:

https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/andreas-vesalius-1514-1564#:~:text=Vesalius%20was%20one%20of%20the,body%20and%20enhanced%20surgery%20techniques.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andreas-Vesalius

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Focus on WHY we should still learn about them.

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Focus on WHY we should still learn about them.

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we still should learn him because he discovered three new law that supported idea of heliocentric thing of the solar system so it was a big push in the right direction to understanding how the solar system was set up.

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“Isaac Newton.” New Scientist, www.newscientist.com/people/isaac-newton/.

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The StarChild Team. “Sir Isaac Newton.” Nasa.gov, 2019, starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/whos_who_level2/newton.html.

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Adam Ruins Everything - Why Anatomy Was Taught Incorrectly For 1000 Years | truTV

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Robert Boyle - Man of Science, Man of Faith

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Robert Boyle was a chemist and a natural philosopher. He is very esteemed when it comes to chemistry. He is one of the reasons chemistry is where it is today. He helped come up with the scientific method. And he made Boyle's Law which helps scientists to this day. We still learn about him to this day because he is one of the key players in the scientific revolution. He helped develop science to where it is today. And he made theories and laws that explain why things happen and still play a part today.

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Francis Bacon is known as the father of empiricism because he advanced his ideas with empiricism. Francis wrote many essays about his philosophical and scientific works. In one of his works, he expressed his doctrine of idols: The Idols of the Tribe, The Idols of the Cave, The Idols of the Marketplace, and The Idols of the Theatre. The Idols were the weaknesses and tendencies that were natural to human nature. We should still study Francis Bacon today because he was a major contributor to the advancement of empiricism and many new inventions from his many ideas.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mj4N0O7QnPY&pp=ygUNZnJhbmNpcyBiYWNvbg%3D%3D

https://iep.utm.edu/francis-bacon/

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We should continue to learn about Anders Celsius because although we have answered many questions since his time, it is still important to learn about the processes they used to gain knowledge. As well as what they learned that helped us get to where we are today.

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Study.com, 2022, study.com/learn/lesson/keplers-role-scientific-revolution-accomplishments-model-contributions.html.

“Johannes Kepler.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 19 Aug. 2024, www.britannica.com/biography/Johannes-Kepler.

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Anders Celsius
1701-1744
Anders Celsius, born in Uppsala, was one of a large number of scientists (all related) originating from Ovanåker in the province of Hälsingland. The family name is a latinised version of the name of the vicarage (Högen). His grandfathers were both professors in Uppsala: Magnus Celsius the mathematician and Anders Spole the astronomer. His father, Nils Celsius, was also professor in astronomy. Celsius, who was said to have been very talented in mathematics from an early age, was appointed professor of astronomy in 1730.
He began his "grand tour", lasting for four years, in 1732, and he visited during these years almost all the notable european observatories of the day, where he worked with many of the leading 18th century astronomers.

Soon after his return to Uppsala he participated in the French astronomer Maupertuis' famous expedition 1736 to Torneå, in the most northern part of Sweden. ("The Lapland expedition.") The aim of the expedition was to measure the length of a degree along a meridian, close to the pole, and compare the result with a similar expedition to Peru (today Ecuador) near the equator. The expeditons confirmed Newton's belief that the shape of the earth is an ellipsoid flattened at the poles.

Celsius' participation in this expedition made him famous and was important in his efforts to interest the Swedish authorities in donating the resources necessary to build a modern observatory in Uppsala. He was successful, and the Celsius observatory was ready in 1741, equipped with instruments purchased during his long voyage abroad, comprising the most modern instrumental technology at that time.

In those days geographical measurements, metereological observations and other things, not considered as astronomy today, were included in the work of an astronomy professor. He carried out many geographical measurements for the Swedish General map, and was also one of the first to note that the land of the nordic countries is slowly rising above sea level, a process which has been going on since the melting of the ice from the latest ice age. He believed though, that it was the water that was evaporating.

For his metereological observations he constructed his world famous Celsius thermometer, with 0 for the boiling point of water and 100 for the freezing point. After his death in 1744 the scale was reversed to its present form.

Together with his assistant Olof Hjorter he also was the first to realize that the aurora phenomenon has magnetic causes through observing the inclination of a compass-needle and finding that the larger deviations correlated with stronger aurora activity.

In astronomy he made observations of eclipses and various astronomical objects. He published catalogues of carefully determined magnitudes for a total of 300 stars using his own photometric system (mean error=0.4 mag). The idea of his system consists of using identical transparent glass plates and viewing the ray of light from a star through them. He could then compare the magnitudes of the stars by the number of glass plates needed to extinguishe the light. (The star Sirius, the brightest star in the sky, needed 25 of his plates to be extinguished.)

Celsius published most of his work in the publications of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala, which is the oldest Swedish scientific society founded in 1710, where Celsius was the secretary 1725-1744, and in the publications of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, founded in 1739. He also presided at about twenty dissertations in astronomy where, as was the general rule in those days, he was the main author. His popular book Arithmetics for the Swedish Youth was typical of the spirit of his period, the Enlightenment.
Celsius was a very active supporter for introducing the Gregorian calender in Sweden but he wasn't successful until 1753, almost ten years after his death, when the Julian calender was abandoned by dropping 11 days.

Anders Celsius died of tuberculosis in april 1744, only 42 years old. His grave is next to his grandfather's, Magnus Celsius, in the church at Gamla Uppsala, about 5 km north of central Uppsala.

References:

Collinder, Per, Swedish Astronomers 1477-1900 , Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, Ser. C. 19, Uppsala, 1970
Links:

Anders Celsius from English Wikipedia

300th anniversary of the birth of Celsius, November 27, 2001

Beckman, Olof, Anders Celsius (Elementa,84:4,2001)

Nordenmark, N.V.E., Anders Celsius: Professor i Uppsala 1701-1744, 1936

Anders Celsius från svenska WikipediaUppsala Astronomical Observatory: History Home 765k 454k 350k
Painting by Olof Arenius(1701 - 1766)
Uppsala University - Astronomical Observatory

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Anders Celsius 1701-1744 Anders Celsius, born in Uppsala, was one of a large number of scientists (all related) originating from Ovanåker in the province of Hälsingland. The family name is a latinised version of the name of the vicarage (Högen). His grandfathers were both professors in Uppsala: Magnus Celsius the mathematician and Anders Spole the astronomer.

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Born on June 18, 1636 and died on March 3, 1703.

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2. What did they accomplish/discover?

English physicist Robert Hooke is known for his discovery of the law of elasticity (Hooke’s law)

Besides, his first use of the word cell in the sense of a basic unit of organisms (describing the microscopic cavities in cork).

Moreover, for his studies of microscopic fossils, which made him an early proponent of a theory of evolution.

3. Why we should still learn about him?

Because he is the greatest person. His discoveries are still used today. In addition, it is the foundation for the development of many fields.

For example:

He invented the universal joint, the iris diaphragm, and an early prototype of the respirator.

He discovered his law of elasticity. The law laid the basis for studies of stress and strain and for understanding of elastic materials.

In addition, Hooke's law forms the basis for seismology, acoustics, and molecular mechanics.

4. Citation Link:

YouTube, YouTube, www.youtube.com/watch?v=chtxPnS1_GQ&pp=ygUMcm9iZXJ0IGhvb2tl. Accessed 9 Oct. 2024.

Robert Hooke, ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/hooke.html. Accessed 9 Oct. 2024.

“Robert Hooke.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-Hooke. Accessed 9 Oct. 2024.