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The "Youth Opposition" in Nazi Germany refers to various groups and individuals, primarily young people, who resisted and opposed the ideology and totalitarian control imposed by the Nazi regime. These resistance movements emerged within the context of strict Nazi youth organizations like the Hitler Youth, which aimed to indoctrinate young Germans with Nazi ideology and mold them into loyal supporters of the regime.

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Swing Heil; Swing Youth, Schlurfs, and others in Nazi Germany

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Swing Heil; Swing Youth, Schlurfs, and others in Nazi Germany

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Oath and Opposition; Education in the third reich. A Documentary.

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Oath and Opposition; Education in the third reich. A Documentary.

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Oath and Opposition: Education in the Third Reich

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Nazi Germany - A Child for Hilter - Youth in Hitler's Germany N04a

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We're going to get rid of Hitler, and he can't do a thing. Hitler's power may lay us low, and keep us locked in chains. We march by the banks of Ruhr and Rhine and smash the Hitler Youth in twain*. Our song is freedom, love, and life, We're Pirates of the Edelweiss. -Lillian Garrett-Groag

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We're going to get rid of Hitler, and he can't do a thing. Hitler's power may lay us low, and keep us locked in chains. We march by the banks of Ruhr and Rhine and smash the Hitler Youth in twain*. Our song is freedom, love, and life, We're Pirates of the Edelweiss. -Lillian Garrett-Groag

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"We will not be silent. We are your bad conscience. The White Rose will not leave you in peace!" – Leaflet by the White Rose group.

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"We will not be silent. We are your bad conscience. The White Rose will not leave you in peace!" – Leaflet by the White Rose group.

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"Eternal confrontation with a system that we reject! Down with the world of repression!" -Edelweiss Pirates

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"Eternal confrontation with a system that we reject! Down with the world of repression!" -Edelweiss Pirates

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Several groups constituted the Youth Opposition:

1. Swing Kids: These were teenagers, often from middle-class backgrounds, who rebelled against Nazi cultural norms by embracing swing music, fashion, and social behaviors considered "degenerate" by the regime.

2. Edelweiss Pirates: Mostly working-class youths, these groups engaged in anti-Nazi activities, such as distributing anti-government leaflets, helping deserters, and participating in physical confrontations with the Hitler Youth and Gestapo.

3. The White Rose: A small, non-violent resistance group mainly comprising students from the University of Munich. They distributed leaflets calling for passive resistance against the Nazi regime and were eventually arrested and executed.

These opposition movements varied in their approaches, from cultural rebellion to direct resistance through distributing anti-Nazi propaganda or engaging in acts of sabotage. They defied the Hitler Youth's strict regulations and often faced severe consequences, including imprisonment, torture, and execution.

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After the National Socialists took power on January 30, 1933, the "Hitler Youth" was to be the only youth organization in Germany. In a matter of months, almost all youth associations were banned, forced to disband, or affiliated with the "Hitler Youth." From the spring of 1939, all young people had to join the "League of German Girls" or the "Hitler Youth." They were required to show absolute obedience and received premilitary training. Not all young people accepted this total co-opting by the Nazi regime.

Political youth groups attempted to stay together illegally or to regroup. The Gestapo ruthlessly persecuted such attempts. Up to the mid-1930s, there were numerous trials against members of the Communist Youth Federation of Germany (KJVD) and the Young Socialist Workers (SAJ).

Young people had many different motives for their resistance. They came together as young Communists, Social Democrats, Christians, or young people of Jewish origin. They listened to banned foreign radio stations, passed on news, or tried to inform people of the course of the war and the National Socialist crimes of violence through flyers and leaflets. They risked death sentences if their activities were discovered.

During the war, the National Socialists stepped up the persecution of young people who defended their right to independence and self-determination outside the "Hitler Youth." Edelweiss Pirates in Cologne, Meuten in Leipzig, and Swing Kids in Hamburg, for example, resisted the dictatorship's coercion through their lifestyles. They were persecuted by the Gestapo, consigned to juvenile concentration camps, or given long prison sentences, although only few of them actively fought the regime.

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German Resistance Memorial Center - 13 Resistance by Young People

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Helmuth Warnke with a group of young communists and socialists

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Helmuth Warnke with a group of young communists and socialists

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One of the rare photographs of swing kids in Germany.

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One of the rare photographs of swing kids in Germany.

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Advertisement for the exhibit on degenerate art in Salzburg, Austria in 1938. Photo courtesy of the German Federal Archives.

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Advertisement for the exhibit on degenerate art in Salzburg, Austria in 1938. Photo courtesy of the German Federal Archives.

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In 2004 I lived in Vienna, Austria and had discovered the local swing music scene. At one of the many dances I started talking with an older gentleman who danced incredibly well and told me that he used to be a "Schlurf." I had never heard the term but it sounded funny and interesting. He explained that there were groups of young men and women in Vienna during the Nazi years who would meet in private, dance to American swing music, and opposed the harsh Nazi reality with their behavior and dress. I was intrigued. Who were these young people?

"Schlurf" was but one term used to describe this underground youth culture. Nowadays, the term "swing kids" is usually used to describe the phenomenon based on a 1993 Hollywood feature film of the same name. While not a huge box office success, the film influenced the swing revival of the late 90s and early 2000s by telling the fictionalized story of a group of teenagers in Nazi Germany. The kids themselves called each other "swings," "swing heinis" (swing dudes), or "swing boys and girls." The swings were not organized in cohesive groups or clubs, but instead were loose circles of like-minded teenagers in larger cities across Germany, Austria, and other European countries varying greatly in their socioeconomic backgrounds and interests. What they had in common was a love for jazz and an affinity for British and American pop culture which stood in stark contrast to the enforced Nazi culture of German nationalism, uniformity, and military regulation.

Jazz as a musical form appeared in Germany in the 1920s and, as was true globally, became popular as the soundtrack of the Roaring 20s. As the social and political atmosphere grew darker in the 1930s, the new widely popular form of jazz, swing music, made its way across the Atlantic.

Swing was not proscribed by the Nazi regime initially. Authorities at first accepted claims by the German music industry, trying to cash in on the new sounds, that swing was a more 'cultured' form of jazz and, if not desirable, at least acceptable for German ears. Soon enough, however, the music's black roots, its perceived Jewishness, and lack of restraint in the accompanying dances began to raise alarm.

Restrictions on the music and its dissemination came gradually. Broadcasting of jazz was forbidden as early as 1935. In the following years records of individual artists were banned; listening to non-German radio stations was criminalized. Orchestras had to follow strict rules like not exceeding 20 percent of the repertoire to jazz, and some areas outlawed swing dancing and dances.

Swing music per se, however, was never completely outlawed. Propaganda Minister Goebbels knew that music was a necessity in keeping morale up. This led to an odd duality in the way Nazi authorities dealt with jazz. On the one hand, massive propaganda and strict rules were used to keep swing at bay. This "degenerate" "jungle music" played by such people like the Jewish Benny Goodman, whom a publication called the "Pied Piper of New York" with "criminal hands," had to be suppressed as much as possible.

On the other hand, the Nazis attempted to recreate a more Germanic form of jazz music-for entertainment, to boost the morale of young German troops, and to undermine Allied morale by broadcasting pro-German propaganda jazz numbers by the Nazi-sponsored "Charlie & His Orchestra" across the Channel.

Music is hard to regulate and this ambiguity offered many ways to circumvent rules and trick the system. Teenagers, the most ardent followers of a new musical trend, were also hard to regulate and for some of them the anti-jazz propaganda had the exact opposite effect. Not only did it make the music more attractive, it also offered ways to access it. Some flocked to the cinemas to catch anti-American propaganda reels that showed Americans dancing the Lindy Hop so they could learn to imitate the movements. A touring exhibit on "degenerate music" included the playing of American jazz records which, according to one "Schlurf," could easily be "snagged" after involving the promoter in a conversation.

While Nazis hated jazz and every form it came in, the existence of these swing kids and their lifestyle posed a much bigger threat to their world view. The first "swing cliques," as they were described, showed up around 1935 in Hamburg, Berlin, and Frankfurt. These teens and young adults that mostly knew each other from school or leisure activities, shared a love for swing, Anglo-American style and culture and were much more interested in self-indulging activities than the uniformity, military drill, and ideology of the Hitler Youth (Hitler Jugend, HJ for short) or the League of German girls (Bund Deutscher Maedel, BDM for short.) The swing kids hence raised many red flags with Nazi authorities, most shockingly, they tended to welcome Jewish teenagers into their midst. Coco Schuman, a Berlin swing kid, famous jazz guitarist, and Holocaust survivor (he was a member of the band "Ghetto Swingers" in Theresienstadt), put the difference in clear musical terms when he pointed out that both military marches and jazz are in common time, however, one cannot march to jazz due to its syncopation.

One of the rare photographs of swing kids in Germany.

The way the swings dressed reflected this stance on life. Most boys would wear long, often oversized and checked sports jackets, hats with American-style brims, shoes with thick crepe soles and, in some cities, an umbrella, no matter the weather. The look varied from location and sometimes reflected differences in social background. The "Schlurfs" in Vienna for example were mostly working-class and often had to adjust the look to what clothing was available. What they all had in common was long hair-long enough to touch the collar, and slicked back in what was perceived as Hollywood style. Visually they could not have been in starker contrast to typical Hitler Youth style.

Swing girls had their own look too. They wore make-up, used nail polish, and favored long and open hair-as opposed to the 'natural' and braided-hair look propagated by the authorities for the 'proper' German girl. Nazis were particularly concerned with the ideal German female, and the way swing girls dressed and behaved showed the world that they did not care about these ideals. They were a threat to regulated order.

Apart from the clothing, the teenagers' behavior caused outcry as well. The dancing was considered vulgar, inappropriate, and often connected to claims of sexual promiscuity. Further, a key element of their culture was a laissez-faire outlook on life. A cool and laid-back demeanor, modeled after Hollywood movies, went hand-in-hand with a desire to just hang around with no particular aim or goal. They used English words and called each other "Old Hot Boy" or "Hot Old Boy." They were ironic and flippant. Some would use "Swing Heil!" (instead of Sieg Heil) as a greeting. Some engaged in provocative actions and violent confrontations, mostly with their counterparts in the Hitler Youth.

For many of them, especially those of privileged backgrounds, these actions were not so much a part of orchestrated rebellion and active resistance, but more of a game whose gravity they did not grasp. A Hamburg swing kid, Tommie Scheel, said, "We were going to tell these dumb bastards that we were different, that was all."

Despite their open display of disassociation from the system, swing kids were not actually political. Their rebellion came more from a teenage desire for self-expression than a resistance mindset. It was more an attempt to "wish away" harsher realities of life with idle conversation, creating a make-believe world through music, and withdrawing from the totalitarian regime growing around them. Their rebellion was in the forms of visual cues, their dress and behavior, but not so much in subversive political action.

Hans-Jürgen Massaquoi, a German-American journalist with African ancestry and a Hamburg swing kid, noted in Stud Terkel's The Good War:

However, the longer the Nazi regime lasted, the more the swings' very existence became political. Even if they themselves didn't perceive it that way, Nazi authorities certainly did.

This photo of four swings shows the difference in style, behavior, and attitude to the Hitler Youth.

Measures and sanctions against swing kids varied based on location. In Vienna, the Schlurfs' lifestyle was criminalized in March of 1940 with a police ordinance to "protect" minors. What followed were years of raids on music events, dance schools, and other informal meeting places. If caught, the youths faced punishments ranging from the public cutting of their hair, forced entry into the Hitler Youth or the Wehrmacht to, in 'severe' cases, incarceration in youth concentration camps.

In Hamburg, which had a very active swing culture, an overzealous Gestapo head, helped by the local Hitler Youth who observed and reported on the swing kids, cracked down hard on them.

Here, the teens had been particularly bold in their gatherings, from volunteering for lookout shifts and using those to sit on the rooftops and listen to illegal songs, to organizing dances of several hundred participants. These infuriated the local Hitler Youth who, in February 1940, reported that these dances are "an appalling sight. None of the couples danced normally; there was only swing of the worst sort." As a result, the Gestapo raided a swing event on March 2, 1940, and 408 people were identified and recorded. That fall, based on these records, 63 swings were arrested.

Waves of raids and arrests over two years had very little effect on the swing kids' activities, so much so that concerns reached top Nazi brass. On January 26, 1942, Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, wrote to his deputy Reinhard Heydrich and instructed him that "all the ringleaders ... and all teachers with enemy views who are encouraging the swing youth are to be assigned to a concentration camp." Himmler believed that only brutal measures would "prevent the dangerous spread of this anglophile tendency at a time when Germany is fighting for her existence."

Overall, 383 people were arrested between October 1940 and December 1942 in Hamburg alone, of which 90 percent were younger than 21 years old. They often endured weeks in jail and brutal interrogations by the Gestapo. Most were sent home at one point or the other, their jazz records confiscated and hair cut short. Not all fared so well. Some were sent to the front lines, suspected leaders were sent to concentration camps as political prisoners, and Jewish swing kids, like Coco Schuman, faced the Holocaust.

The swing youth hardly started out as a political group. In their heart of hearts, they were teenagers who loved American popular jazz connected to ideas of freedom, self-determination, and self-expression. Though a teenage fad in many ways, within the political system of the time, their courage to just be different stands out. I do not know what became of the older gentleman I danced with that evening. But I do hope he still dances wherever he may be.

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"Swing Heil": Swing Youth, Schlurfs, and others in Nazi Germany | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans

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In 2004 I lived in Vienna, Austria and had discovered the local swing music scene. At one of the many dances I started talking with an older gentleman who danced incredibly well and told me that he used to be a "Schlurf." I had never heard the term but it sounded funny and interesting.

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What role did teachers play during the Holocaust?

Under the authority of the Third Reich, teachers were obligated to join the National Socialist Teacher's League, which was responsible for carrying out the educational goals of the Nazi Party, and to take an oath of loyalty to the Führer, Adolf Hitler. Despite these obligations, though, teachers were still able to make individual choices. Some chose to comply with Nazi ideology, while others chose to act in opposition.

The Museum has developed the materials below to help today's educators explore the pressures teachers felt under the Nazi regime, the range of decisions individuals made in the face of those pressures, and the relevance of this history now. The content is organized into three components.
I. Introductory Film
This short film introduces the historical context of education under the authority of the Third Reich.
II. Case Studies and Discussion Guide
The case studies presented in this PDF feature the stories of individual teachers who responded in different ways during the Holocaust, from a Roman Catholic teacher in Belgium who saved 2,000 Jewish children to a German principal who had children as young as ten sterilized against their parents' wishes. Following the case studies are a list of questions to guide discussion.
Download the Case Studies and Discussion Guide (PDF). III. Survivor Testimony
In this video gallery, survivors recount their classroom experiences as students during the Holocaust and reflect on both the teachers who helped them and those who did them harm.

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Oath and Opposition: Education under the Third Reich - United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

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What role did teachers play during the Holocaust? Under the authority of the Third Reich, teachers were obligated to join the National Socialist Teacher's League, which was responsible for carrying out the educational goals of the Nazi Party, and to take an oath of loyalty to the Führer, Adolf Hitler.

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Movie about the "Youth Opposition", Mentioning the Swing Kids. 

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Movie about the "Youth Opposition", Mentioning the Swing Kids. 

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Swing Kids Movie Trailer 1993 - Christian Bale

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JOJO RABBIT | Official Trailer [HD] | FOX Searchlight

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The History Guy: History Deserves to Be Remembered

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Cultural Opposition in Nazi Germany: the Swingjugend

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"The future belongs to us, and we will live it our own way." -Swing Kids

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"The future belongs to us, and we will live it our own way." -Swing Kids

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The youth opposition in Nazi Germany made a significant impact. Even though their actions didn't immediately change things, they stood up against the strict rules imposed by the regime.

By rebelling through things like music and fashion, they showed they wouldn't give in to the Nazis' control. They also spread messages against the regime and sometimes even took part in secret activities, which weakened the Nazi authority.

Sadly, many faced harsh consequences for resisting, but their bravery inspired others. Their legacy reminds us that standing up against oppression is always important, no matter the challenges.