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Severely traumatized after losing her four-year-old daughter during the April 2015 earthquake in Nepal, Kalpana Shrestha is on the road to recovery today, thanks to psychosocial counselling she received at a UN Women-supported multi-purpose women's centre in Sindhupalchok District. To date, the centre has provided psychosocial counselling to nearly 500 women and young girls
On 23 April, Kalpana Shrestha dropped her four-year-old daughter off at her mother's house for a few days. Kalpana returned home to her village in Sano Sirubari, two hours away in the central part of Nepal, but promised to pick her up soon. "My daughter loved spending time with her grandparents, and she got to drink fresh buffalo milk," she says.

Two days later, at around 11.30 a.m., Kalpana's mother left her granddaughter sleeping in her cot while she caught up on her household chores. At 11.56 a.m., the ground started shaking violently. It was the 7.8-magnitude earthquake that hit Nepal on 25 April and killed 9,000 people. The shock was so severe that her house collapsed immediately.

The strong aftershocks kept coming so no one could go in to pull Kalpana's daughter out. Kalpana rushed back to find the house turned to dust. She tried to dig her daughter out, with help from her parents, but it was too late.

"They told me she was dead. They pulled her body out. I don't remember what happened to me after that. I passed out," Kalpana says, recalling the horror of that day, tears welling in her eyes. "I had left her with my mother so that she could drink buffalo milk and be healthy. I should have kept her with me... Maybe then she would've survived."

This is not the first tragedy in Kalpana's life. A few years ago, she lost her eldest child, a two-year old, in a drowning accident. "It took me a long time to get over that tragedy. At least I had my younger daughter then. Now she is also gone," Kalpana says, wincing at the memory.

The days following the earthquake are all still a blur for Kalpana. She has little recollection of what happened to her.

"We lost her to the trauma and pain of losing her children," says her sister-in-law, Renu Shrestha. She says Kalpana suffered severe depression and would just stare into space, not responding to anything. Then she would disappear for weeks. "Her mother-in-law spent days looking for her, following her trail and bringing her safely back," says Renu.

Sarita Shrestha is a social mobilizer for the women's organization, SAATHI, in Sindhupalchok. In response to the April and May earthquakes, SAATHI, with support from UN Women Nepal, has been running a multi-purpose women's centre (MPWC) in Chautara, Sindhupalchok District, providing health, legal, psychosocial, livelihood and other support for women earthquake survivors. To date, the centre has provided psychosocial counselling to nearly 500 women and young girls.

Sarita learned about Kalpana's condition while visiting homes in her area, and knew right away that she needed counselling and mental health assistance, so she approached SAATHI's psychosocial counsellor, Juni Maya Shrestha, who decided to pay Kalpana a home visit.

When Juni arrived, Kalpana refused to come out and talk. After much coaxing, she did, but would not answer questions. "She had her head down; she refused to meet my eyes, and would keep staring at her hands mindlessly," recalls Juni.

She knew this was only the beginning of a long road to counselling. Juni spent a long time just talking to Kalpana and making her feel comfortable, building trust. Kalpana dropped by the MPWC several times over the following months, talking to Juni and participating in counselling sessions.

Almost seven months since Juni's first visit to Kalpana, on this particular March day, Kalpana greeted Juni and her team wearing her best clothes, eager to tell her story of recovery.

"Kalpana is a totally different person; she is happy; she is active helping her family; she is healthy. But most importantly, she is open to talking about the trauma she went through with the death of her children," says Juni.

There is warmth and trust between Juni and Kalpana. "I like visiting the Centre, it makes me feel safe to know that there are people that I can talk to about how bad or good I feel," says Kalpana. "They have taught me that what I have is a mental illness, and that it can be managed."

When she lost her first baby, she dealt with the trauma because she had another to take care of. "When I lost my youngest, I didn't have anyone to live for," says Kalpana, "But now I know that I have to live for me; that I have to be healthy and happy because my family, my in-laws depend on me."

Kalpana is now beginning to think about what she wants to do in the future. She wants to learn a skill she'll enjoy and to make money. "I've always wanted to open a hair and beauty salon-I could cut women's hair, put makeup on brides, do their nails and make them feel better."

And she is no longer in a rush to have more children. "My doctors, counsellors, family tell me I am just 25; that if I want to have children, I have plenty of time," she says, adding with a smile: "For now I want to concentrate on my health and on my happiness."

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Psychosocial counselling helps earthquake survivors in Nepal overcome loss - Nepal

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Severely traumatized after losing her four-year-old daughter during the April 2015 earthquake in Nepal, Kalpana Shrestha is on the road to recovery today, thanks to psychosocial counselling she received at a UN Women-supported multi-purpose women's centre in Sindhupalchok District.

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The co-ordinating agency, usually the UN, and the host country, have to take the difficult decision of when to stop looking for a few remaining trapped people and concentrate resources on looking after the thousands of other survivors. The average time for this switch is between five and seven days, but trapped individuals have been known to survive as long as 13 days, if they have access to water.

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Nepal earthquake: How does the search and rescue operation work?

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The co-ordinating agency, usually the UN, and the host country, have to take the difficult decision of when to stop looking for a few remaining trapped people and concentrate resources on looking after the thousands of other survivors.

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This book presents a summary of the Workshop on Public Response to Alerts and Warnings on Mobile Devices: Current Knowledge and Research Gaps, held April 13 and 14, 2010, in Washington, D.C., under the auspices of the National Research Council's Committee on Public Response to Alerts and Warnings on Mobile Devices: Current Knowledge and Research Needs.

The workshop was structured to gather inputs and insights from social science researchers, technologists, emergency management professionals, and other experts knowledgeable about how the public responds to alerts and warnings, focusing specifically on how the public responds to mobile alerting.

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Read "Public Response to Alerts and Warnings on Mobile Devices: Summary of a Workshop on Current Knowledge and Research Gaps" at NAP.edu

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This book presents a summary of the Workshop on Public Response to Alerts and Warnings on Mobile Devices: Current Knowledge and Research Gaps, held April 13 and 14, 2010, in Washington, D.C., under the auspices of the National Research Council's Committee on Public Response to Alerts and Warnings on Mobile Devices: Current Knowledge and Research Needs.

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preparing food in a special place to make it easier for them to take it and prevent hunger and starvation from occurring which can cause illness and death due to weakness due to being involved in disasters that have occurred.

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this is able to reduce the burden they face and buy back equipment and goods that have been destroyed due to the disaster that has damaged all their personal possessions.

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What is the best way to reduce the risk of damage from earthquakes ?

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What is the best way to reduce the risk of damage from earthquakes ?

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The best way i choose to reduce the risk of damage from earthquake rescue team.I like to help people who are in trouble because I can't see people trying to survive on their own when they are in trouble. If we could put our parents in their place, we would not be able to, that's how I see those who need help from good people.As the saying goes, do good and good will come to you easily.

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*3.2.3 -> 4.4

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Abstract

This research examines the ways in which social media is used to organize and manage volunteers during a flood. Flooding is currently one of the top risks highlighted within the UK National Risk Register and ways to help those affected need to be explored further. Social media is a valuable tool in disaster management as it enables information to be passed quickly and effectively to its target audience. Through semi-structured interviews with those who have experienced a flood disaster or worked during a flood recovery, we examined the potential role of social media, as well as traditional media, before, during, and in response to a flood. Interviews showed that the use of social media during a flood saved time and reached a larger audience than traditional media outlets (i.e., email, telephone). Social media was reported to be particularly useful for facilitating recruitment and management of volunteers, and for gathering equipment required during the recovery phase of a flood disaster. Our findings demonstrate that social media can play a crucial role in facilitating effective organization and management of volunteers during flood disasters.

1 INTRODUCTION

Flooding can be the result of excess rain the overflow of a river, stream, or lake (European Union, ). In extreme cases, floodwater can move bridges, houses, and trees destroying all in its path, causing deaths, people displacement and thousands of pounds worth of damage.

In the United Kingdom, floods are the most frequent form of disasters, with the number of people affected by floods rising due to climate change (Neelson, ) and an increasing number of houses being built upon flood plains (Fowler & Kilsby, ). Flooding can have a negative impact on people's health, relationships, and well-being (North, ). The psychosocial impact of flooding is often heightened by secondary stressors (personal and property losses, relocation), which impact on one's social support networks (Mitchell, Witman, & Taffaro, ; Nikapota, ; Stanke, Murray, Amlôt, Nurse, & Williams, ).

Flooding has often been described as a "social event" (Quarantelli, ).

People become increasingly social during disasters and have a growing need for comfort and human connection (Knife, ). The need to communicate takes precedence over routines, with social media facilitating communication when physical interaction is impossible (Mejova, Weber, & Macy, ). Social media allows people to stay in touch with loved ones and enables them to keep up to date with information. Social media can also assist with the formation and management of flood action groups, which helps reduce feelings of isolation and loneliness (Keim & Noji, ). The Environment Agency in England and the UK National Flood Forum recognize the importance of such groups and provide support to local communities setting up their own flood action groups. The aim of these groups is to provide information and support to their own community in the prevention, recovery, and resilience phase of a flood (Midlands & Leach, ). This is important because research has shown that those who feel better informed and equipped will cope better with the effects of a flood (Midlands & Leach, ).

Social media has changed the very essence of communication, with portable technology and mobile apps improving the ease with which people can connect and keep up to date with information. However, while there are several potential advantages to using social media during floods and other types of disasters, it is not without complications. The most important one concerns the filtering of relevant from irrelevant information. If information is untrue or incorrect, it can delay, or even obstruct, emergency response (Brandtzaeg, Lüders, Spangenberg, Rath-Wiggins, & Følstad, ). Another downside of social media is the level of use among those aged over 30. However, this is changing, with social media use among this generation growing from 22% in 2004 to 42% in 2009 (Madden, ), and predicted to reach 2.95 billion users by 2020 (Statista, ).

The use of social media in disaster response is an emerging field but so far, it has shown promise in promoting effective flood response (White, Plotnick, Kushma, Hiltz, & Turoff, ). Literature relating to flood response highlights three key ways in which social media and mobile apps may potentially be used in the response to flooding: (a) to gather and disseminate information; (b) to enhance a sense of community and social support; and (c) to identify and organize volunteers to assist with the flood response. Each of these three uses is described and examined in more detail below.

1.1 Gathering and disseminating information

In the last 10 years, various research studies have illustrated the use of social media for gathering and disseminating information during disasters. Such uses include: locating people in need of assistance (Najar & Barry, ; Veinott, Cox, & Mueller, ), including the use of detailed heat maps to identify where help is needed; broadcasting warnings and news of recovery missions when more traditional media is not available (Resnyansky, ); providing vital information on shelters and medical advice to those in need (Corbin, ); and collecting data and eyewitness reports of a disaster's impact in real time in order to disseminate this to the appropriate emergency services (Howe, ).

Social media has several advantages over traditional communication methods (e.g., email, telephone) when communicating information during disasters. These advantages include facilitating improved communication between members of the public and response organizations through a wide range of different sources (Dufty, ; Gao, Barbier, Goolsby, & Zeng, ), and enabling rapid dissemination of information to a wide audience (Wood, ).

In 2017, after storm Harvey left Houston severely flooded, social media was used extensively by both victims and authorities to ask for help, coordinate rescue missions and provide vital information to those in need (Seetharaman & Wells, ). Mobile apps have also begun to be used for gathering and disseminating information during floods. In England, the Environment Agency promote free mapping tools through the "Flood Alert" app which can help individuals to identify where a flood plain is and provides them with flood warnings from the Environment Agency.

The availability of mobile apps for use during flood management is limited which creates difficulties in examining how effective these might be for communicating and disseminating information during floods. Despite this, evidence relating to the use of apps during disaster response suggests that mobile app usage increases during disasters (Musigdilok et al., ), and that apps can be effective in promoting and protecting the health of the public (Tucker, ). An app called "MatchApp" has been developed which matches local needs with available resources locally and regionally (iRevolutions, ). The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has also produced an app which gives updates on weather conditions and allows people to access shelters (FEMA, ). While these apps are in the public domain there is little detailed research looking at who uses them and how effective they are.

1.2 Enhancing a sense of community and social support

A community's ability to react and self-organize in response to a flood is central to their social resilience (Folke et al., ). Enhanced community organization and a sense of community has been shown to reduce risk during disasters (Bara & Brönnimann, ), demonstrating how important it is to enhance the sense of community people experience and feel.

While emergency services and government organizations have the initial responsibility for dealing with the immediate impacts of a flood, it is the involvement of individuals within the community and beyond that influence the long-term outcomes for the community (Werritty, Houston, Ball, Tavendale, & Black, ). In 2008, The Pitt Review highlighted the importance of the government working with local flood groups to better inform the public of the risks they may face before, during, and after a flood. This sense of "everyone being in it together," increases a community's cohesion during an incident as well as their resilience to a disaster in the future (Pitt, ). This is supported by the fact that over recent years the Environment Agency have been working with local communities and the UK charity National Flood Forum to enable communities to work on their own recovery plan and therefore increase their own ability to react to a flood.

The increased frequency of flooding in the United Kingdom means that it is becoming more important that communities are able to respond appropriately to floods. Research examining ways to increase a sense of community has shown that by educating people about flood prevention and who they can go to for help or advice during a flood can increase the sense of togetherness a community feels and their ability to cope with a flood (López-Marrero & Tschakert, ).

Social media can be used to promote a sense of community in times of disasters. Social media provides individuals with a route to connect with loved ones and the broader community, during, and after a disaster, which can provide reassurance, support, and routes to assistance (Taylor, Wells, Howell, & Raphael, ).

1.3 Identifying and organizing volunteers to assist with flooding response

The ability of individuals and communities to cope with the effects of a flood can be enhanced by volunteering (Smit & Wandel, ). Volunteering allows individuals to connect with those experiencing the same situation as them, allowing them to increase their knowledge on flood prevention and response (Smit & Wandel, ).

With the frequency of disasters increasing, the work of spontaneous (informal) volunteers is becoming increasingly important in order to fulfill the roles required. While there are specialized emergency management systems in place, members of the public are normally the first on the scene of a disaster and remain there long after emergency services arrive. Within developed countries, there is often resistance from professionals and official agency volunteers to use spontaneous volunteers because they may be considered a nuisance rather than a help, which undervalues their efforts (Whittaker, McLennan, & Handmer, ).

The UK National Flood Forum sponsors flood action groups formed in local communities. Their aim is to get people to take a more active role within their community, through volunteering their time and ideas in order to reduce their risk of flooding (Midlands & Leach, ). For example, The Bodenham Flood Protection Group was initially just spontaneous volunteers but later become a formal organized voluntary group (Shaw, Smith, Heike, Harris, & Scully, ).

Local authorities are responsible for the involvement of spontaneous volunteers during emergencies. However, there is often a lack of awareness of the type of roles and responsibilities required from these volunteers (Shaw et al., ). This makes the inclusion of spontaneous volunteers into recovery plans problematic to those whose responsibility it is to manage such recovery (Orloff, ). The UK Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (Defra), carried out research into how spontaneous volunteers can be better incorporated into official flood response. This research showed the importance of keeping detailed records of who is volunteering, how to contact them when help is needed and what role they are able to play based on their knowledge and physical ability. Specific knowledge and creativity is an important component of emergency response. Spontaneous volunteers can therefore provide skills that exceed those offered by official response agencies, as they are often from the local area, and therefore bring local knowledge (Wachtendorf & Kendra, ). The study also highlighted that there is often a lack of information communicated to spontaneous volunteers regarding what to do and how to recover from a flood. Volunteers are therefore underutilized, resulting in a less successful recovery process. This can be overcome by using social media to advertise, coordinate, and communicate with spontaneous volunteers before, during, and after the event (Shaw et al., ).

Social media is increasingly embedded in daily life (Howard & Jones, ), enabling individuals to create wider social networks. The increased connection with others who have similar interests, goals, and motives may increase an individual's desire to volunteer (Musick & Wilson, ). Research suggests that larger volunteer organizations such as Oxfam are not harnessing the full potential of social media when it comes to volunteer recruitment (Waters, Burnett, Lamm, & Lucas, ). Therefore, there is scope for more research to be conducted in order to provide practical guidance on how social media can help manage volunteers during a disaster.

1.4 The current study

The current study will examine the potential role of social media before, during, and in response to a flood. Specifically, the study will examine: the role of social media in gathering and disseminating information; how social media can enhance community support (both spontaneously and through organized community volunteering operations); and the efficacy of social media in identifying and organizing community volunteers.

2 METHODS

2.1 Design

This study used an inductive, qualitative design. Semi-structured interviews were carried out and analyzed using thematic analysis, involving the identification of common themes throughout, facilitating a unique understanding of people's experiences and ideas from a psychological perspective (Braun & Clarke, ).

2.2 Participants

Participants ( n = 11) were volunteers (5), flood community leaders (3), Environment Agency workers (2), and software developers (1) whose work relates to flooding. Five participants were female, six were male. Participants were contacted through social media (Facebook and Twitter), via email and using posters at Kings College London university sites, and through known flood groups. Inclusion criteria were that participants be over 18 years of age and have had a role in managing and/or working within a community affected by a flood. Participants received no payment for taking part but a donation of £10 was made to the Red Cross on their behalf.

2.3 Materials

2.3.1 Semistructured interview guide

Participants were asked a variety of questions, focusing on: participants' use of social media (For example, what type of social media did you use during the last flood?); openness to using social media (For example, do you think if you were flooded again you would utilize social media more next time?); issues in organizing volunteers (For example, did you find it hard to organize your volunteers?); and challenges of passing on information to those that needed it (For example, were there any issues in getting information to those that needed it?). These questions were designed to generate discussion around how different organizations and individuals use social media during flooding to inform and manage volunteers, identify the positive and negative aspects of using social media, and identify participants' openness to using social media in the future.

2.4 Procedure

Participants who expressed an interest in taking part in this study were provided with an information sheet and asked to sign a consent form if they wished to take part. Interviews were conducted over the phone and lasted on average 35 min (range 26-68 min). After the interview, participants received a debriefing statement.

2.5 Data analysis

Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. All data were reviewed, and a thematic framework was identified, based on the emerging themes. Themes were identified and organized both by hand and by using the QSR Nvivo 11 software. After interviewing the 11 participants, no new themes emerged, suggesting that data saturation had been reached (Glaser & Strauss, ).

2.6 Ethics

Ethical approval was granted by Kings College London; HR-17/18-5390.

3 RESULTS

Data were categorized into four broad themes: (a) gathering and disseminating information; (b) ways to organize volunteers; (c) enhancing a sense of community; and (d) willingness to use social media in the future. Within these themes, a total of seven subthemes were identified. Subthemes are presented within each theme, along with quotes relating to each subtheme. Two letters and a number appear in brackets after each quote, for example, (VP1). The letters denote whether each participant was a volunteer (VP) or an official authority/agency worker (OP). The number denotes the participant number.

3.1 Gathering and disseminating information

Two subthemes emerged within this theme: (a) communicating using traditional methods and (b) communicating using social media.

3.1.1 Communicating using traditional methods

When discussing the use of traditional methods for gathering and disseminating information, the most commonly reported method was face-to-face communication. The importance of face-to-face communication was highlighted by just over a third of participants. Reasons for the importance of face-to-face communication included: making people feel safer, for example, "Face-to-face communication will always be needed and it makes our presence known and people feel safer" (OP11); identifying and assisting members of vulnerable groups, for example, "It is also necessary to know who are the vulnerable ones in the community and that is only found out through face-to-face communication, you can't really tell that there is anything wrong with someone's mobility unless you see a ramp or handles outside of the house therefore it's about going out and getting that local knowledge" (VP3); and not everyone having access to communication technology, for example, "[Face-to-face communication is important] In terms of [providing] information as not everyone has Facebook or Twitter or a mobile phone so its about making sure that we go around to everyone, and we used to go around an awful lot," (VP3).

A few participants reported that email could also be an effective method of communication, particularly when communicating information to, or between, official agencies, for example, "Email was used to get in touch with official organizations and stakeholders to try and get funding" (VP9).

3.1.2 Communicating using social media

The vast majority of participants n = 10 reported that social media was a vital part of keeping communication links open between those who had been flooded, their loved ones, and organizations providing aid. Reported benefits of communicating using social media included: rapid information dissemination, "Social media is becoming a key element... it is the awareness raising aspect"(OP10); enabling people to find information easily, "Social media allows you to show people things without them having to go out of their way to find it" (OP5); and facilitating access to local information, "Social media is now taking the information much more hyper local which makes more sense as people want to know what is happening in their area, it is quick and refined and you can find out pretty much everything that you want to" (OP5), "I think social media can really help inform and coordinate people so they know what is happening and where" (VP6).

As well as the benefits associated with using social media to find and disseminate information, participants also commented on the broader ability of social media to enable people to keep in touch with one another. For example, it was commonly used to communicate with loved ones who lived outside the area, through individuals posting updates on how they were and giving updates on the flood or the recovery process, "As we couldn't really be reached, social media allowed people to inform their loved ones that they were OK" (VP2).

The majority of participants therefore saw social media as a positive tool for communication during floods. However, a negative aspect of social media that was highlighted by some participants was the potential for irrelevant, or inaccurate, information to be disseminated, "Social media is like thinking out loud and when we post it can be quite dangerous" (VP4), "Its great using social media when the information is relevant but as soon as it becomes irrelevant it doesn't really hold much use to anyone in the flooding field"(OP11). These participants therefore emphasized that while communicating using social media can be beneficial, information distributed in this way should be viewed with caution.

3.2 Ways to organize volunteers

Three subthemes emerged from this theme: (a) reasons for volunteering; (b) use of traditional communication methods in volunteer organization; and (c) use of social media in volunteer organization.

3.2.1 Reasons for volunteering

Participants included official volunteers (e.g., Environment Agency and Red Cross employees) and spontaneous volunteers (e.g., those who provided assistance in an informal way). Participants described various reasons why people might choose to volunteer. A key reason for volunteering was that people either lived in, or had family living in, the flooded area: "A lot of our volunteers either had family that lived in the affected areas and wanted to volunteer or they were affected themselves" (VP1). However, several participants noted that many volunteers were not from the affected area, and simply wanted to be helpful, "Volunteers weren't just local they came from everywhere. We were taken aback from the type of people that came down to help us out it was really touching" (VP4). "We had a lovely relatively fit retired man help us out a lot and he just came down for something to do as he was a little bored" (VP2). Some participants indicated that volunteering was in itself a positive experience, "To me it's the sense of relief you give people from helping them, which is nice, this then makes you happy" (VP6). While reasons for volunteering varied between participants, there was general agreement that people were keen to volunteer, and that volunteering had a positive impact on both individuals and communities.

3.2.2 Use of traditional communication methods for volunteer organization

The majority of participants ( n = 6) reported that phone calls were used to assist with organization of volunteers during flood response, particularly in order to communicate with those who were known not to use social media, for example, "I rang a few people I knew weren't on social media but would come and help" (VP4). However, a substantial minority ( n = 3) reported that phone calls were hardly ever used, with the most common reason for this being that people often did not have a signal. In this case, participants frequently reported that face-to-face communication was used instead, for example,: "Initially, it was as we had no phone signal we had no external landline signal so the only way of taking to people was to physically face to face talk to them". Participants therefore reported that it was necessary to be flexible in the approaches taken to organize volunteers, and to use different methods as and when appropriate.

3.2.3 Use of social media for volunteer organization

Participants reported that social media was able to assist with a rapid volunteer response during flooding. One way in which social media was used was to identify and organize volunteers, for example, "I know also that the volunteer sector, for example the Red Cross actually now have this thing called Community Reserve Volunteers where they encourage people to sign up online to say they want to help out if something was to happen in their area" (OP11). For example, "There was a Facebook page and people would write on the page where help was needed and we would just go there and then walk around and ask people what they needed help doing" (VP6).

Social media was also reported to be useful for requesting equipment and support; For example, "Facebook was vital to our response effort as it allowed us to reach out to people that could help and ask for specific help or equipment we needed. It also allowed us to monitor the numbers of people attending cleanup events" (VP2). For example, "Our Facebook page got a lot of attraction pretty quickly, and ERM that was when we did some posting for specific help, you know work parties to clear up that this and the other." (VP1). Participants therefore reported various ways in which social media could be used to rapidly and effectively organize volunteers in response to flooding.

3.3 Enhancing a sense of community

Two subthemes emerged from this theme: (a) enhanced sense of community as a result of flooding and (b) enhanced sense of community as a result of social media use.

3.3.1 Enhanced sense of community as a result of flooding

Participants commented on how being involved in a flood increased their sense of community. Over a third of participants reported that there was limited sense of community prior to the flood, but that this has improved as a result of the flood, "The community does gel well now it didn't so much before" (OP7). "There is no doubt that within the first week the community came together more than it has done" (VP1).

3.3.2 Enhanced sense of community as a result of social media use

Respondents also commented on how social media added to the sense of community they felt as a result of their being involved in a flood, "When the Environment Agency and council could finally get to us they asked if they could use our social media accounts to post updates as we had developed a good sense of our community needs already and were able to reach them better"(VP2), "It really shows us, just how important flood action groups are to the response situation, and also how important it is that communities get their own flood action groups together and making sure that there are flood plans in place. It helps everyone connect as well, who are going through the same thing, as it brings people together" (OP7).

Social media was also reported to enable flood-affected communities to learn from each other, for example, "Social media and the creation of flood action groups meant that we could learn from other communities and other communities could learn from us as well, everyone seems to post similar things though, so we must be doing something right" (VP9). While participants expressed that flooding itself enhanced a sense of community, there was therefore also a clear emphasis on the benefits of using social media to bring people together and to enhance the sense of community that developed in response to the flood.

3.4 Willingness to use social media in the future

All respondents said that they would use social media in future incidents, for example, "I wouldn't have been able to do what I did around the times of floods without social media so I would definitely be using it next time" (VP9). Reported benefits of social media included rapid dissemination of information, for example, "I wouldn't have found out what I did if I wasn't on social media. I think I will continue to use it more in the future" (VP4), time saving, for example, "Social media saved me so much time during the flood. It will definitely be something we will be using again" (VP1), and awareness raising, for example, "Social media is really good to generate attention, so you can use it to generate interest and focus that's how we are going to use it more anyway" (VP1). In general, participants therefore expressed not only willingness to use social media in the future, but a belief that the use of social media would be vital to any future response efforts.

When asked about the potential use of mobile apps for flooding response, most participants ( n = 7) were not aware of the apps available in the market for flood information; however, they were signed up to receive flood alerts via text message. One participant commented, "Most people we spoke already received the flood alert updates" (OP8).

When asked about the likelihood of using an app that brought all sites and information together in one place, participant responses were mixed. While some were open to the idea: "I believe people would use it, if they were affected and they needed it and it was easy to use" (VP6), "We are talking about... using Whatsapp for that purpose... as a closed circle so we can communicate between 30 to 40 people that we would have as our network" (VP1), others were more skeptical, for example, "It would be nice to have a large sort of ERM database... but my first question would be who would regulate the App... as the worst part of social media and things is that people take advantage" (VP3), "I think there is definitely the space for it but it's just getting the right level of engagement in it really... perhaps what is being given out right now is not the local information people want" (OP11), "If people are interested in flooding they may install a flood alert app on their phone but then again they might not as not everyone likes to have apps on their phones that they might not necessarily use for a couple of years" (OP5). It is therefore clear that while most participants were open to the idea of an app that brought information together in one place, consideration would need to be given to the potential pitfalls of such an app before it would be widely accepted or used.

4 DISCUSSION

This study aimed to examine the role of social media in preparation for, and response to, flooding, and identify who uses social media in this context. The information provided by participants gave valuable insight into how social media is currently used during a flood, as well as potential ways that it could be used in the future. Participants recounted their experiences of dealing with a flood locally, including how they obtain and provide information to volunteers and the general public through different media channels. Several key findings emerged from this research.

4.1 Social media is an effective tool for disseminating and sharing flood-related information

A key finding was that social media may be used as an effective tool to communicate flood-related information. Participants reported that social media facilitated effective sharing of information, both prior to and during the response to flooding. Social media was seen as being particularly useful for sharing information relating to the local response to flooding. This is in-line with previous research by Seetharaman and Wells (), which revealed that individual communities use social media to create Facebook groups and Twitter accounts as a way of informing their local community and the general public on floods in their area (see also Riccardi, ).

4.2 Social media can be used to develop and enhance the shared sense of community and social support that is likely to develop spontaneously in response to flooding

It is well established that the need to communicate and interact with others is increased during disasters and emergencies (Quarantelli, ), and the current study suggests that social media can play a key role in meeting this need. Social media groups contribute to and enhance community resilience, by facilitating the dissemination of information and enhancing social support, but also by providing a key route through which donations and information can be gathered and disseminated to help with the flood recovery.

Social media was also found to be helpful in sharing information between communities and improving communities' resilience to flooding. This is because social media allows communities, through flood action groups, to learn from others to aid their own recovery and resilience efforts, as well as potentially building resilience through meeting the emotional needs of flood victims. However, this would benefit from further exploration.

4.3 Social media is an effective way to identify and mobilize volunteers

As well as being used to gather donations following a flood, findings show that social media can be used to advertise and organize help and support after a flood (e.g., through posts on social media asking volunteers for help cleaning up affected areas or for donations of specific equipment). Participants commented that social media allowed them to reach a wider audience quicker and that social media was often available when other communication outlets were not. This indicates that social media can save time and allow communication lines to remain open where they may otherwise be unavailable. Previous research has shown that social media can increase an individual's willingness to volunteer (Brown & Perkins, ). The current study builds on this previous research, by showing not only that social media encourages people to volunteer, but also showing how social media can bring people together, and enable people to find out what help is required. Social media can therefore ensure that people know what help is needed, and how they can get involved.

Findings also show that social media can be used effectively to manage volunteers and allocate them to specific roles, as well as enabling a record of this information to be kept. This facilitated better control over the recovery process, taking the pressure off emergency services that would otherwise be required to organize spontaneous volunteers to assist with the flood response.

4.4 Social media cannot replace more traditional methods of communication

While most participants reported that social media can play a positive role in flooding response, it was noted that not everyone uses social media, either because they do not have access to it, or because they choose not to use it. Thus, while social media may be a useful resource to many, through facilitating the dissemination of information and the gathering and organization of donations and volunteers, traditional methods of communication continue to be important. Using social media alongside more traditional methods will ensure that everyone affected by the flood is well informed, and that volunteer organizations are run smoothly and efficiently.

Social media also has technical drawbacks, namely that it requires access to the Internet (wired or wireless). Without such access, communication via social media is not possible. While the majority of people in developed countries are able to use mobile data to access the Internet when WIFI is not available, those in remote areas or developing countries may not have access to this, reducing their ability to use social media. Furthermore, if mobile devices are being used regularly, users will experience reduced battery levels; if there is a power shortage due to the flood then using or recharging these devices becomes problematic. This is an issue as it will prevent access to social media and the advantages that social media brings in these instances will not be able to be utilized.

4.5 Areas requiring further research

A potential issue with using social media for flooding response relates to data sharing. Social media has come under the spotlight for its use of data sharing, leading Facebook to change the way it handles users data. Research has indicated that this concern has reduced the trust that users have in the site (Cadwalladr & Graham-Harrison, ). Furthermore, with the General Data Protection Regulation changes coming into effect in 2018, privacy of information is at the forefront of society. The verification and sharing of information on social media requires better control to protect the privacy of those involved. Future studies could therefore explore reactions and responses to the use of social media data in response to flooding. The way people use social media is constantly developing and changing and further research in this area could monitor this ongoing change, in order to ensure optimal response to flooding and other major incidents.

4.6 Limitations

This study provides an in-depth examination of the role of social media in preparation for, and response to, flooding, and an understanding of factors associated with the use of social media in this context. Findings not only provide valuable insight into how social media is currently used during a flood, but also potential ways that it could be used in the future.

However, there are some limitations with the current study which should be noted. First, the sample size was relatively small ( n = 11). However, research suggests that 10-12 interviews is often enough to reach data saturation (Guest, Bunce, & Johnson, ). This was the case in the current study, as no new themes emerged by the 11th interview, illustrating that data saturation had been reached. Second, volunteer and stratified sampling was used to recruit volunteers. This method required people to opt in to taking part, potentially resulting in a less representative sample (Fay, Boyd, & Salkind, ). However, volunteers in the current study came from a variety of different backgrounds, capturing a range of views. Furthermore, this study was designed to be exploratory and to examine in-depth information about the ways in which social media and apps may be used during floods, in order to provide a basis for future research. Third, it should be noted that participants were users of social media, and thus may be more likely to report positive views on the use of social media for flooding response. Future research would benefit from incorporating individuals that do not use social media to provide a more generalizable sample.

5 CONCLUSION

This study contributes to a growing body of research that illustrates the potential uses of social media for disaster preparedness and response. It is a key starting point in establishing the current use of social media and mobile applications during response to flooding. This study shows the key strengths of social media in this context include improved organization and management of volunteers, the ability to quickly disseminate information to a wide audience, and the provision of open communication lines when other forms of communication are not possible. From this research, several key findings can be drawn. First, social media can be a key way to disseminate and share information during the response to flooding. Second, social media can be used to develop and enhance the shared sense of community and social support that is likely to develop spontaneously in response to flooding. Third, social media is an effective way to identify and mobilize volunteers. Fourth, social media cannot replace more traditional methods of communication. Overall, findings suggest that social media can help bring communities together during a flood and foster a sense of community and belonging. The research findings presented here may be used to encourage organizations to take advantage of the benefits that social media can bring to their organization when preparing for and responding to flooding.

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

Abstract

This research examines the ways in which social media is used to organize and manage volunteers during a flood. Flooding is currently one of the top risks highlighted within the UK National Risk Register and ways to help those affected need to be explored further. Social media is a valuable tool in disaster management as it enables information to be passed quickly and effectively to its target audience. Through semi-structured interviews with those who have experienced a flood disaster or worked during a flood recovery, we examined the potential role of social media, as well as traditional media, before, during, and in response to a flood. Interviews showed that the use of social media during a flood saved time and reached a larger audience than traditional media outlets (i.e., email, telephone). Social media was reported to be particularly useful for facilitating recruitment and management of volunteers, and for gathering equipment required during the recovery phase of a flood disaster. Our findings demonstrate that social media can play a crucial role in facilitating effective organization and management of volunteers during flood disasters.

1 INTRODUCTION

Flooding can be the result of excess rain the overflow of a river, stream, or lake (European Union, ). In extreme cases, floodwater can move bridges, houses, and trees destroying all in its path, causing deaths, people displacement and thousands of pounds worth of damage.

In the United Kingdom, floods are the most frequent form of disasters, with the number of people affected by floods rising due to climate change (Neelson, ) and an increasing number of houses being built upon flood plains (Fowler & Kilsby, ). Flooding can have a negative impact on people's health, relationships, and well-being (North, ). The psychosocial impact of flooding is often heightened by secondary stressors (personal and property losses, relocation), which impact on one's social support networks (Mitchell, Witman, & Taffaro, ; Nikapota, ; Stanke, Murray, Amlôt, Nurse, & Williams, ).

Flooding has often been described as a "social event" (Quarantelli, ).

People become increasingly social during disasters and have a growing need for comfort and human connection (Knife, ). The need to communicate takes precedence over routines, with social media facilitating communication when physical interaction is impossible (Mejova, Weber, & Macy, ). Social media allows people to stay in touch with loved ones and enables them to keep up to date with information. Social media can also assist with the formation and management of flood action groups, which helps reduce feelings of isolation and loneliness (Keim & Noji, ). The Environment Agency in England and the UK National Flood Forum recognize the importance of such groups and provide support to local communities setting up their own flood action groups. The aim of these groups is to provide information and support to their own community in the prevention, recovery, and resilience phase of a flood (Midlands & Leach, ). This is important because research has shown that those who feel better informed and equipped will cope better with the effects of a flood (Midlands & Leach, ).

Social media has changed the very essence of communication, with portable technology and mobile apps improving the ease with which people can connect and keep up to date with information. However, while there are several potential advantages to using social media during floods and other types of disasters, it is not without complications. The most important one concerns the filtering of relevant from irrelevant information. If information is untrue or incorrect, it can delay, or even obstruct, emergency response (Brandtzaeg, Lüders, Spangenberg, Rath-Wiggins, & Følstad, ). Another downside of social media is the level of use among those aged over 30. However, this is changing, with social media use among this generation growing from 22% in 2004 to 42% in 2009 (Madden, ), and predicted to reach 2.95 billion users by 2020 (Statista, ).

The use of social media in disaster response is an emerging field but so far, it has shown promise in promoting effective flood response (White, Plotnick, Kushma, Hiltz, & Turoff, ). Literature relating to flood response highlights three key ways in which social media and mobile apps may potentially be used in the response to flooding: (a) to gather and disseminate information; (b) to enhance a sense of community and social support; and (c) to identify and organize volunteers to assist with the flood response. Each of these three uses is described and examined in more detail below.

1.1 Gathering and disseminating information

In the last 10 years, various research studies have illustrated the use of social media for gathering and disseminating information during disasters. Such uses include: locating people in need of assistance (Najar & Barry, ; Veinott, Cox, & Mueller, ), including the use of detailed heat maps to identify where help is needed; broadcasting warnings and news of recovery missions when more traditional media is not available (Resnyansky, ); providing vital information on shelters and medical advice to those in need (Corbin, ); and collecting data and eyewitness reports of a disaster's impact in real time in order to disseminate this to the appropriate emergency services (Howe, ).

Social media has several advantages over traditional communication methods (e.g., email, telephone) when communicating information during disasters. These advantages include facilitating improved communication between members of the public and response organizations through a wide range of different sources (Dufty, ; Gao, Barbier, Goolsby, & Zeng, ), and enabling rapid dissemination of information to a wide audience (Wood, ).

In 2017, after storm Harvey left Houston severely flooded, social media was used extensively by both victims and authorities to ask for help, coordinate rescue missions and provide vital information to those in need (Seetharaman & Wells, ). Mobile apps have also begun to be used for gathering and disseminating information during floods. In England, the Environment Agency promote free mapping tools through the "Flood Alert" app which can help individuals to identify where a flood plain is and provides them with flood warnings from the Environment Agency.

The availability of mobile apps for use during flood management is limited which creates difficulties in examining how effective these might be for communicating and disseminating information during floods. Despite this, evidence relating to the use of apps during disaster response suggests that mobile app usage increases during disasters (Musigdilok et al., ), and that apps can be effective in promoting and protecting the health of the public (Tucker, ). An app called "MatchApp" has been developed which matches local needs with available resources locally and regionally (iRevolutions, ). The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has also produced an app which gives updates on weather conditions and allows people to access shelters (FEMA, ). While these apps are in the public domain there is little detailed research looking at who uses them and how effective they are.

1.2 Enhancing a sense of community and social support

A community's ability to react and self-organize in response to a flood is central to their social resilience (Folke et al., ). Enhanced community organization and a sense of community has been shown to reduce risk during disasters (Bara & Brönnimann, ), demonstrating how important it is to enhance the sense of community people experience and feel.

While emergency services and government organizations have the initial responsibility for dealing with the immediate impacts of a flood, it is the involvement of individuals within the community and beyond that influence the long-term outcomes for the community (Werritty, Houston, Ball, Tavendale, & Black, ). In 2008, The Pitt Review highlighted the importance of the government working with local flood groups to better inform the public of the risks they may face before, during, and after a flood. This sense of "everyone being in it together," increases a community's cohesion during an incident as well as their resilience to a disaster in the future (Pitt, ). This is supported by the fact that over recent years the Environment Agency have been working with local communities and the UK charity National Flood Forum to enable communities to work on their own recovery plan and therefore increase their own ability to react to a flood.

The increased frequency of flooding in the United Kingdom means that it is becoming more important that communities are able to respond appropriately to floods. Research examining ways to increase a sense of community has shown that by educating people about flood prevention and who they can go to for help or advice during a flood can increase the sense of togetherness a community feels and their ability to cope with a flood (López-Marrero & Tschakert, ).

Social media can be used to promote a sense of community in times of disasters. Social media provides individuals with a route to connect with loved ones and the broader community, during, and after a disaster, which can provide reassurance, support, and routes to assistance (Taylor, Wells, Howell, & Raphael, ).

1.3 Identifying and organizing volunteers to assist with flooding response

The ability of individuals and communities to cope with the effects of a flood can be enhanced by volunteering (Smit & Wandel, ). Volunteering allows individuals to connect with those experiencing the same situation as them, allowing them to increase their knowledge on flood prevention and response (Smit & Wandel, ).

With the frequency of disasters increasing, the work of spontaneous (informal) volunteers is becoming increasingly important in order to fulfill the roles required. While there are specialized emergency management systems in place, members of the public are normally the first on the scene of a disaster and remain there long after emergency services arrive. Within developed countries, there is often resistance from professionals and official agency volunteers to use spontaneous volunteers because they may be considered a nuisance rather than a help, which undervalues their efforts (Whittaker, McLennan, & Handmer, ).

The UK National Flood Forum sponsors flood action groups formed in local communities. Their aim is to get people to take a more active role within their community, through volunteering their time and ideas in order to reduce their risk of flooding (Midlands & Leach, ). For example, The Bodenham Flood Protection Group was initially just spontaneous volunteers but later become a formal organized voluntary group (Shaw, Smith, Heike, Harris, & Scully, ).

Local authorities are responsible for the involvement of spontaneous volunteers during emergencies. However, there is often a lack of awareness of the type of roles and responsibilities required from these volunteers (Shaw et al., ). This makes the inclusion of spontaneous volunteers into recovery plans problematic to those whose responsibility it is to manage such recovery (Orloff, ). The UK Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (Defra), carried out research into how spontaneous volunteers can be better incorporated into official flood response. This research showed the importance of keeping detailed records of who is volunteering, how to contact them when help is needed and what role they are able to play based on their knowledge and physical ability. Specific knowledge and creativity is an important component of emergency response. Spontaneous volunteers can therefore provide skills that exceed those offered by official response agencies, as they are often from the local area, and therefore bring local knowledge (Wachtendorf & Kendra, ). The study also highlighted that there is often a lack of information communicated to spontaneous volunteers regarding what to do and how to recover from a flood. Volunteers are therefore underutilized, resulting in a less successful recovery process. This can be overcome by using social media to advertise, coordinate, and communicate with spontaneous volunteers before, during, and after the event (Shaw et al., ).

Social media is increasingly embedded in daily life (Howard & Jones, ), enabling individuals to create wider social networks. The increased connection with others who have similar interests, goals, and motives may increase an individual's desire to volunteer (Musick & Wilson, ). Research suggests that larger volunteer organizations such as Oxfam are not harnessing the full potential of social media when it comes to volunteer recruitment (Waters, Burnett, Lamm, & Lucas, ). Therefore, there is scope for more research to be conducted in order to provide practical guidance on how social media can help manage volunteers during a disaster.

1.4 The current study

The current study will examine the potential role of social media before, during, and in response to a flood. Specifically, the study will examine: the role of social media in gathering and disseminating information; how social media can enhance community support (both spontaneously and through organized community volunteering operations); and the efficacy of social media in identifying and organizing community volunteers.

2 METHODS

2.1 Design

This study used an inductive, qualitative design. Semi-structured interviews were carried out and analyzed using thematic analysis, involving the identification of common themes throughout, facilitating a unique understanding of people's experiences and ideas from a psychological perspective (Braun & Clarke, ).

2.2 Participants

Participants ( n = 11) were volunteers (5), flood community leaders (3), Environment Agency workers (2), and software developers (1) whose work relates to flooding. Five participants were female, six were male. Participants were contacted through social media (Facebook and Twitter), via email and using posters at Kings College London university sites, and through known flood groups. Inclusion criteria were that participants be over 18 years of age and have had a role in managing and/or working within a community affected by a flood. Participants received no payment for taking part but a donation of £10 was made to the Red Cross on their behalf.

2.3 Materials

2.3.1 Semistructured interview guide

Participants were asked a variety of questions, focusing on: participants' use of social media (For example, what type of social media did you use during the last flood?); openness to using social media (For example, do you think if you were flooded again you would utilize social media more next time?); issues in organizing volunteers (For example, did you find it hard to organize your volunteers?); and challenges of passing on information to those that needed it (For example, were there any issues in getting information to those that needed it?). These questions were designed to generate discussion around how different organizations and individuals use social media during flooding to inform and manage volunteers, identify the positive and negative aspects of using social media, and identify participants' openness to using social media in the future.

2.4 Procedure

Participants who expressed an interest in taking part in this study were provided with an information sheet and asked to sign a consent form if they wished to take part. Interviews were conducted over the phone and lasted on average 35 min (range 26-68 min). After the interview, participants received a debriefing statement.

2.5 Data analysis

Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. All data were reviewed, and a thematic framework was identified, based on the emerging themes. Themes were identified and organized both by hand and by using the QSR Nvivo 11 software. After interviewing the 11 participants, no new themes emerged, suggesting that data saturation had been reached (Glaser & Strauss, ).

2.6 Ethics

Ethical approval was granted by Kings College London; HR-17/18-5390.

3 RESULTS

Data were categorized into four broad themes: (a) gathering and disseminating information; (b) ways to organize volunteers; (c) enhancing a sense of community; and (d) willingness to use social media in the future. Within these themes, a total of seven subthemes were identified. Subthemes are presented within each theme, along with quotes relating to each subtheme. Two letters and a number appear in brackets after each quote, for example, (VP1). The letters denote whether each participant was a volunteer (VP) or an official authority/agency worker (OP). The number denotes the participant number.

3.1 Gathering and disseminating information

Two subthemes emerged within this theme: (a) communicating using traditional methods and (b) communicating using social media.

3.1.1 Communicating using traditional methods

When discussing the use of traditional methods for gathering and disseminating information, the most commonly reported method was face-to-face communication. The importance of face-to-face communication was highlighted by just over a third of participants. Reasons for the importance of face-to-face communication included: making people feel safer, for example, "Face-to-face communication will always be needed and it makes our presence known and people feel safer" (OP11); identifying and assisting members of vulnerable groups, for example, "It is also necessary to know who are the vulnerable ones in the community and that is only found out through face-to-face communication, you can't really tell that there is anything wrong with someone's mobility unless you see a ramp or handles outside of the house therefore it's about going out and getting that local knowledge" (VP3); and not everyone having access to communication technology, for example, "[Face-to-face communication is important] In terms of [providing] information as not everyone has Facebook or Twitter or a mobile phone so its about making sure that we go around to everyone, and we used to go around an awful lot," (VP3).

A few participants reported that email could also be an effective method of communication, particularly when communicating information to, or between, official agencies, for example, "Email was used to get in touch with official organizations and stakeholders to try and get funding" (VP9).

3.1.2 Communicating using social media

The vast majority of participants n = 10 reported that social media was a vital part of keeping communication links open between those who had been flooded, their loved ones, and organizations providing aid. Reported benefits of communicating using social media included: rapid information dissemination, "Social media is becoming a key element... it is the awareness raising aspect"(OP10); enabling people to find information easily, "Social media allows you to show people things without them having to go out of their way to find it" (OP5); and facilitating access to local information, "Social media is now taking the information much more hyper local which makes more sense as people want to know what is happening in their area, it is quick and refined and you can find out pretty much everything that you want to" (OP5), "I think social media can really help inform and coordinate people so they know what is happening and where" (VP6).

As well as the benefits associated with using social media to find and disseminate information, participants also commented on the broader ability of social media to enable people to keep in touch with one another. For example, it was commonly used to communicate with loved ones who lived outside the area, through individuals posting updates on how they were and giving updates on the flood or the recovery process, "As we couldn't really be reached, social media allowed people to inform their loved ones that they were OK" (VP2).

The majority of participants therefore saw social media as a positive tool for communication during floods. However, a negative aspect of social media that was highlighted by some participants was the potential for irrelevant, or inaccurate, information to be disseminated, "Social media is like thinking out loud and when we post it can be quite dangerous" (VP4), "Its great using social media when the information is relevant but as soon as it becomes irrelevant it doesn't really hold much use to anyone in the flooding field"(OP11). These participants therefore emphasized that while communicating using social media can be beneficial, information distributed in this way should be viewed with caution.

3.2 Ways to organize volunteers

Three subthemes emerged from this theme: (a) reasons for volunteering; (b) use of traditional communication methods in volunteer organization; and (c) use of social media in volunteer organization.

3.2.1 Reasons for volunteering

Participants included official volunteers (e.g., Environment Agency and Red Cross employees) and spontaneous volunteers (e.g., those who provided assistance in an informal way). Participants described various reasons why people might choose to volunteer. A key reason for volunteering was that people either lived in, or had family living in, the flooded area: "A lot of our volunteers either had family that lived in the affected areas and wanted to volunteer or they were affected themselves" (VP1). However, several participants noted that many volunteers were not from the affected area, and simply wanted to be helpful, "Volunteers weren't just local they came from everywhere. We were taken aback from the type of people that came down to help us out it was really touching" (VP4). "We had a lovely relatively fit retired man help us out a lot and he just came down for something to do as he was a little bored" (VP2). Some participants indicated that volunteering was in itself a positive experience, "To me it's the sense of relief you give people from helping them, which is nice, this then makes you happy" (VP6). While reasons for volunteering varied between participants, there was general agreement that people were keen to volunteer, and that volunteering had a positive impact on both individuals and communities.

3.2.2 Use of traditional communication methods for volunteer organization

The majority of participants ( n = 6) reported that phone calls were used to assist with organization of volunteers during flood response, particularly in order to communicate with those who were known not to use social media, for example, "I rang a few people I knew weren't on social media but would come and help" (VP4). However, a substantial minority ( n = 3) reported that phone calls were hardly ever used, with the most common reason for this being that people often did not have a signal. In this case, participants frequently reported that face-to-face communication was used instead, for example,: "Initially, it was as we had no phone signal we had no external landline signal so the only way of taking to people was to physically face to face talk to them". Participants therefore reported that it was necessary to be flexible in the approaches taken to organize volunteers, and to use different methods as and when appropriate.

3.2.3 Use of social media for volunteer organization

Participants reported that social media was able to assist with a rapid volunteer response during flooding. One way in which social media was used was to identify and organize volunteers, for example, "I know also that the volunteer sector, for example the Red Cross actually now have this thing called Community Reserve Volunteers where they encourage people to sign up online to say they want to help out if something was to happen in their area" (OP11). For example, "There was a Facebook page and people would write on the page where help was needed and we would just go there and then walk around and ask people what they needed help doing" (VP6).

Social media was also reported to be useful for requesting equipment and support; For example, "Facebook was vital to our response effort as it allowed us to reach out to people that could help and ask for specific help or equipment we needed. It also allowed us to monitor the numbers of people attending cleanup events" (VP2). For example, "Our Facebook page got a lot of attraction pretty quickly, and ERM that was when we did some posting for specific help, you know work parties to clear up that this and the other." (VP1). Participants therefore reported various ways in which social media could be used to rapidly and effectively organize volunteers in response to flooding.

3.3 Enhancing a sense of community

Two subthemes emerged from this theme: (a) enhanced sense of community as a result of flooding and (b) enhanced sense of community as a result of social media use.

3.3.1 Enhanced sense of community as a result of flooding

Participants commented on how being involved in a flood increased their sense of community. Over a third of participants reported that there was limited sense of community prior to the flood, but that this has improved as a result of the flood, "The community does gel well now it didn't so much before" (OP7). "There is no doubt that within the first week the community came together more than it has done" (VP1).

3.3.2 Enhanced sense of community as a result of social media use

Respondents also commented on how social media added to the sense of community they felt as a result of their being involved in a flood, "When the Environment Agency and council could finally get to us they asked if they could use our social media accounts to post updates as we had developed a good sense of our community needs already and were able to reach them better"(VP2), "It really shows us, just how important flood action groups are to the response situation, and also how important it is that communities get their own flood action groups together and making sure that there are flood plans in place. It helps everyone connect as well, who are going through the same thing, as it brings people together" (OP7).

Social media was also reported to enable flood-affected communities to learn from each other, for example, "Social media and the creation of flood action groups meant that we could learn from other communities and other communities could learn from us as well, everyone seems to post similar things though, so we must be doing something right" (VP9). While participants expressed that flooding itself enhanced a sense of community, there was therefore also a clear emphasis on the benefits of using social media to bring people together and to enhance the sense of community that developed in response to the flood.

3.4 Willingness to use social media in the future

All respondents said that they would use social media in future incidents, for example, "I wouldn't have been able to do what I did around the times of floods without social media so I would definitely be using it next time" (VP9). Reported benefits of social media included rapid dissemination of information, for example, "I wouldn't have found out what I did if I wasn't on social media. I think I will continue to use it more in the future" (VP4), time saving, for example, "Social media saved me so much time during the flood. It will definitely be something we will be using again" (VP1), and awareness raising, for example, "Social media is really good to generate attention, so you can use it to generate interest and focus that's how we are going to use it more anyway" (VP1). In general, participants therefore expressed not only willingness to use social media in the future, but a belief that the use of social media would be vital to any future response efforts.

When asked about the potential use of mobile apps for flooding response, most participants ( n = 7) were not aware of the apps available in the market for flood information; however, they were signed up to receive flood alerts via text message. One participant commented, "Most people we spoke already received the flood alert updates" (OP8).

When asked about the likelihood of using an app that brought all sites and information together in one place, participant responses were mixed. While some were open to the idea: "I believe people would use it, if they were affected and they needed it and it was easy to use" (VP6), "We are talking about... using Whatsapp for that purpose... as a closed circle so we can communicate between 30 to 40 people that we would have as our network" (VP1), others were more skeptical, for example, "It would be nice to have a large sort of ERM database... but my first question would be who would regulate the App... as the worst part of social media and things is that people take advantage" (VP3), "I think there is definitely the space for it but it's just getting the right level of engagement in it really... perhaps what is being given out right now is not the local information people want" (OP11), "If people are interested in flooding they may install a flood alert app on their phone but then again they might not as not everyone likes to have apps on their phones that they might not necessarily use for a couple of years" (OP5). It is therefore clear that while most participants were open to the idea of an app that brought information together in one place, consideration would need to be given to the potential pitfalls of such an app before it would be widely accepted or used.

4 DISCUSSION

This study aimed to examine the role of social media in preparation for, and response to, flooding, and identify who uses social media in this context. The information provided by participants gave valuable insight into how social media is currently used during a flood, as well as potential ways that it could be used in the future. Participants recounted their experiences of dealing with a flood locally, including how they obtain and provide information to volunteers and the general public through different media channels. Several key findings emerged from this research.

4.1 Social media is an effective tool for disseminating and sharing flood-related information

A key finding was that social media may be used as an effective tool to communicate flood-related information. Participants reported that social media facilitated effective sharing of information, both prior to and during the response to flooding. Social media was seen as being particularly useful for sharing information relating to the local response to flooding. This is in-line with previous research by Seetharaman and Wells (), which revealed that individual communities use social media to create Facebook groups and Twitter accounts as a way of informing their local community and the general public on floods in their area (see also Riccardi, ).

4.2 Social media can be used to develop and enhance the shared sense of community and social support that is likely to develop spontaneously in response to flooding

It is well established that the need to communicate and interact with others is increased during disasters and emergencies (Quarantelli, ), and the current study suggests that social media can play a key role in meeting this need. Social media groups contribute to and enhance community resilience, by facilitating the dissemination of information and enhancing social support, but also by providing a key route through which donations and information can be gathered and disseminated to help with the flood recovery.

Social media was also found to be helpful in sharing information between communities and improving communities' resilience to flooding. This is because social media allows communities, through flood action groups, to learn from others to aid their own recovery and resilience efforts, as well as potentially building resilience through meeting the emotional needs of flood victims. However, this would benefit from further exploration.

4.3 Social media is an effective way to identify and mobilize volunteers

As well as being used to gather donations following a flood, findings show that social media can be used to advertise and organize help and support after a flood (e.g., through posts on social media asking volunteers for help cleaning up affected areas or for donations of specific equipment). Participants commented that social media allowed them to reach a wider audience quicker and that social media was often available when other communication outlets were not. This indicates that social media can save time and allow communication lines to remain open where they may otherwise be unavailable. Previous research has shown that social media can increase an individual's willingness to volunteer (Brown & Perkins, ). The current study builds on this previous research, by showing not only that social media encourages people to volunteer, but also showing how social media can bring people together, and enable people to find out what help is required. Social media can therefore ensure that people know what help is needed, and how they can get involved.

Findings also show that social media can be used effectively to manage volunteers and allocate them to specific roles, as well as enabling a record of this information to be kept. This facilitated better control over the recovery process, taking the pressure off emergency services that would otherwise be required to organize spontaneous volunteers to assist with the flood response.

4.4 Social media cannot replace more traditional methods of communication

While most participants reported that social media can play a positive role in flooding response, it was noted that not everyone uses social media, either because they do not have access to it, or because they choose not to use it. Thus, while social media may be a useful resource to many, through facilitating the dissemination of information and the gathering and organization of donations and volunteers, traditional methods of communication continue to be important. Using social media alongside more traditional methods will ensure that everyone affected by the flood is well informed, and that volunteer organizations are run smoothly and efficiently.

Social media also has technical drawbacks, namely that it requires access to the Internet (wired or wireless). Without such access, communication via social media is not possible. While the majority of people in developed countries are able to use mobile data to access the Internet when WIFI is not available, those in remote areas or developing countries may not have access to this, reducing their ability to use social media. Furthermore, if mobile devices are being used regularly, users will experience reduced battery levels; if there is a power shortage due to the flood then using or recharging these devices becomes problematic. This is an issue as it will prevent access to social media and the advantages that social media brings in these instances will not be able to be utilized.

4.5 Areas requiring further research

A potential issue with using social media for flooding response relates to data sharing. Social media has come under the spotlight for its use of data sharing, leading Facebook to change the way it handles users data. Research has indicated that this concern has reduced the trust that users have in the site (Cadwalladr & Graham-Harrison, ). Furthermore, with the General Data Protection Regulation changes coming into effect in 2018, privacy of information is at the forefront of society. The verification and sharing of information on social media requires better control to protect the privacy of those involved. Future studies could therefore explore reactions and responses to the use of social media data in response to flooding. The way people use social media is constantly developing and changing and further research in this area could monitor this ongoing change, in order to ensure optimal response to flooding and other major incidents.

4.6 Limitations

This study provides an in-depth examination of the role of social media in preparation for, and response to, flooding, and an understanding of factors associated with the use of social media in this context. Findings not only provide valuable insight into how social media is currently used during a flood, but also potential ways that it could be used in the future.

However, there are some limitations with the current study which should be noted. First, the sample size was relatively small ( n = 11). However, research suggests that 10-12 interviews is often enough to reach data saturation (Guest, Bunce, & Johnson, ). This was the case in the current study, as no new themes emerged by the 11th interview, illustrating that data saturation had been reached. Second, volunteer and stratified sampling was used to recruit volunteers. This method required people to opt in to taking part, potentially resulting in a less representative sample (Fay, Boyd, & Salkind, ). However, volunteers in the current study came from a variety of different backgrounds, capturing a range of views. Furthermore, this study was designed to be exploratory and to examine in-depth information about the ways in which social media and apps may be used during floods, in order to provide a basis for future research. Third, it should be noted that participants were users of social media, and thus may be more likely to report positive views on the use of social media for flooding response. Future research would benefit from incorporating individuals that do not use social media to provide a more generalizable sample.

5 CONCLUSION

This study contributes to a growing body of research that illustrates the potential uses of social media for disaster preparedness and response. It is a key starting point in establishing the current use of social media and mobile applications during response to flooding. This study shows the key strengths of social media in this context include improved organization and management of volunteers, the ability to quickly disseminate information to a wide audience, and the provision of open communication lines when other forms of communication are not possible. From this research, several key findings can be drawn. First, social media can be a key way to disseminate and share information during the response to flooding. Second, social media can be used to develop and enhance the shared sense of community and social support that is likely to develop spontaneously in response to flooding. Third, social media is an effective way to identify and mobilize volunteers. Fourth, social media cannot replace more traditional methods of communication. Overall, findings suggest that social media can help bring communities together during a flood and foster a sense of community and belonging. The research findings presented here may be used to encourage organizations to take advantage of the benefits that social media can bring to their organization when preparing for and responding to flooding.

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.

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Examination of how social media can inform the management of volunteers during a flood disaster

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This research examines the ways in which social media is used to organize and manage volunteers during a flood. Flooding is currently one of the top risks highlighted within the UK National Risk Register and ways to help those affected need to be explored further.

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As most flood victims would have lost many of their belongings, any donations of essential items are much appreciated. If you’d like to send food directly to relief centres, consider packing dry or canned food as they can be kept for longer. It would be advisable to send vegetarian items so that they can be consumed by Malaysians from various religious backgrounds.

As for clothing, please pack up clothes that are in decent condition only. Avoid clothes that are damaged and no longer wearable. You can send those to centres that upcycle old clothing such as Kloth Cares instead.

If you’re not sure of what essentials to pack, some things you can include are:

soaps & shampoo

sanitary napkins

wet wipes

diapers for both adults and babies

candles & matches

Paracetamol

power bank

You can also make individual care packages with a bit of everything so that it can be distributed more easily.

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help each other noble practice

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KUALA LUMPUR - The #KitaJagaKita hashtag was first coined during the height of the Covid-19 pandemic last year, but the term could not be more relevant today.

As devastating floods wreaked havoc across the nation and laid bare the weaknesses of the government, Malaysians took it upon themselves to help other victims ride through this trying time.

The past week has revealed the true heroes amongst us - the rakyat.

Good Samaritans such as Abang Viva, the Sikh community, independent non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and food delivery riders are but just a few who had actually responded more swiftly than those in the cosy offices of Putrajaya.

As the floodwaters recede, more members of the public are now beginning to come out in droves to assist with volunteer work - including university students.

Nureen Auni Izzati Ishak, 21, says university students are currently collaborating with other non-governmental organisations to reach out to flood victims. - Pic courtesy of Nureen Auni Izzati Ishak, December 26, 2021

In several higher education institutions, The Vibes found some lecturers have cancelled the week's classes to allow students to take part in flood aid missions.

Other students had taken their own initiative to help those affected.

Universiti Selangor (Unisel) student Nureen Auni Izzati Ishak told The Vibes that over 200 students from its Bestari Jaya campus have volunteered to help flood victims clean up various locations.

Nureen Auni - who is Unisel's Centre for Community Engagement member, and coordinator of the students' flood relief efforts - said they are currently collaborating with other NGOs to reach out to victims.

"Many lecturers have cancelled classes for the week. A hundred of us went to SK Rantau Panjang, 40 to Taman Sri Nanding in Hulu Langat, about 40 to SK Jaya Setia, and 40 more are assisting villagers in Kg Bestari Jaya.

Education and social sciences undergraduate Nureen Auni Izzati Ishak is particularly frustrated at the apparent lack of assistance provided by government agencies in helping flood victims. - Pic courtesy of Nureen Auni Izzati Ishak, December 26, 2021

"Groups like the Malaysian Youth Council and Global Peace Foundation Malaysia are the ones coordinating with us on where we should be going," she said.

The 21-year-old education and social sciences undergraduate said she is particularly frustrated at the apparent lack of assistance provided by government agencies in helping victims, when even students are volunteering.

I have never seen them (government officials). We are moving on our own. Any help only came from the NGOs, like catering buses for us to travel to affected areas and giving food to victims.

"A lot of students across the state are helping out here. As a student myself, I would say I am very disappointed that it appears we have been left on our own without help from the government.

"If we have to do everything, then I have to ask, 'Where is the government? Aren't you going to help?'" she queried.
'Many Malaysians feel the same way'
The Vibes on Friday reported that villagers in Kg Bestari Jaya spent four days in darkness waiting for help, and had no choice but to eat expired food as destructive floodwaters swept through the village on December 18.

Assistance only arrived after a group of social media influencers and young executives, acting on information provided by Nureen Auni, drove through muddy roads carrying basic necessities to victims.

Electricity and water supply are back, yet the hard work of cleaning up houses is still ongoing, and it could take years to replace lost and damaged items.

The hard work of cleaning up houses is still ongoing after the floods, and it could take years to replace lost and damaged items. - Pic courtesy of Nureen Auni Izzati Ishak, December 26, 2021

Meanwhile, an International Islamic University Malaysia student - who wishes to remain anonymous - said she and her classmates made the decision to volunteer after seeing how aid has been slow to arrive.

The student said she understands what the residents are going through, as she herself had been a victim of floods in the past, with her family's place in Terengganu often inundated during the monsoon seasons.

So, I understand how it feels like to have your house filled with muddy water and your belongings damaged.

"Helping victims here is the least I can do. And going by the volunteer work we see everywhere, I believe many Malaysians feel the same way."

Although the floodwaters continue to subside, the same cannot be said about public outrage towards the government over its handling of the disaster, which has so far taken the lives of 46 individuals.

On social media, anti-government campaigns are still ramping up - with Malaysians urging the public not to channel any donations to the government, but to instead do so through trusted NGOs.

The phrase "Do not donate to the government" is currently trending on Twitter, with over 28,000 tweets as at press time.

Netizens have also called out those in power for merely "showing face", and "not getting their hands dirty" during their visits to affected areas.

It is understood that the presence of high-profile individuals such as politicians had been causing delays in flood relief efforts due to massive traffic congestion at many locations. - The Vibes, December 26, 2021

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Flood relief: students volunteer in droves as frustration towards govt grows

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KUALA LUMPUR - The #KitaJagaKita hashtag was first coined during the height of the Covid-19 pandemic last year, but the term could not be more relevant today. As devastating floods wreaked havoc across the nation and laid bare the weaknesses of the government, Malaysians took it upon themselves to help other victims ride through this trying time.

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1.Donate blood

(Image: Red Cross Chat)

Unknown to most people, there are more health and safety risks to flood victims than drowning. Flood victims are also susceptible to injuries related to being swept and hit by objects. They are also highly exposed to water-borne diseases in the aftermath of the flood.

2.Donate essentials and supplies

(Image: Pinterest)

Floods can destroy properties and cars but that is unavoidable. Additionally, losing many possessions to a flood adds financial strains to families. Make sure you donate to reputable organizations that will bring your donations over to the affected site. Some necessities you can donate are food, water, clothing and etc.

3. Help with the clean up once the water recedes

(Image: Spitwater)

Flood causes a lot of damage to homes and forces people to stay in evacuation centers. Usually, there is nothing left to salvage when they return. Furniture that was floating around during the flood will have to be thrown out and the streets need to be cleaned. You can volunteer your time to help speed up the difficult process for the victims.

4. Volunteer your skills

(Image: Daily Mail)

Regardless if you have a medical background or if you only know to navigate a boat, there is always a way for you to volunteer! All help is needed especially providing moral support to the victims and volunteers. From truck driving to food, water, and medication supply, a small good act can go a long way.

5.Pray for our neighbors

(Image: YouTube)

When the floods hit Pahang, people went on Twitter to remind everyone else to #Prayforpahang. Prayer is much needed especially during a natural disaster. A flood is something that humans are unable to control. If you live far from the site of the flood and you are not physically able to help, or if you do not have the financial capability to donate, then prayers are always welcomed. Prayers are always something anyone can give.

As many of us are looking for the right ways and means to help the flood victims during this monsoon season, why not try doing something from this list. Helping out someone is not a hard task to do and you should definitely go for it if you can. Let's show kindness to one another during hard times like this.

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5 Things You Can Do To Help Flood Victims

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1.Donate blood (Image: Red Cross Chat) Unknown to most people, there are more health and safety risks to flood victims than drowning. Flood victims are also susceptible to injuries related to being swept and hit by objects. They are also highly exposed to water-borne diseases in the aftermath of the flood.