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Introduction of the mini-skirt

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Painting: Sunset Red and Gold

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Christopher Dresser

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Soviet Workers Club reading room

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"Tupperware," stackable, lids fit all size containers

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The Aesthetic Movement is characterized by leaf and floral designs that flow harmoniously together.  Christopher Dresser is credited as a major influential figure in the Aesthetic Movement.  Dresser focused his work on wallpapers and useful goods, which often included dishes.  Dresser was largely influenced by the artwork of Japan; he was drawn to their decorative patterns.  Dresser traveled to Japan in order to see the artwork first hand.  We viewed many of Dresser’s works at the V&A Museum.  The museum was able to portray each of the different mediums that dresser used to replicate Japanese artwork.

Another artist who is credited as leading the Aesthetic Movement is painter James Abbott McNeill Whistler.  Studio artwork was used as a marketing technique.  In 1893, The Journal was published.  This journal was similar to the Penny Magazine, but instead of focusing on wood imprints, it focused on aesthetic artwork.

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Design and Mass Appeal: A Culture of Consumption  

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Design and Mass Appeal: A Culture of Consumption  

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1.     Context

a.     Social

i.     Strip malls, discount stores, promotions, and mass distribution promoted the mass culture trend amongst consumers

ii.     Chain stores, hotels, and restaurants became increasingly popular

iii.     Many car companies began to develop new car designs for upscale cars and for the cheaper models

iv.     1960—first compact car, Chevrolet Corvair

v.     television series, movies, and music were used to enhance the appeal to personal automobiles in the 1960s—1980s

vi.     V-8 engines used in regular production vehicles

vii.     1958—Ford introduced a family size car, the Edsel, but it did not take off

1.     people wanted the cars that looked luxurious

2.     it was only produced for three model years and it never sold well

viii.     luxury resorts began emerging—first in Miami Beach then in Las Vegas

ix.     mass media began to focus on celebrities and what beauty is

x.     glitzy signs and billboards were made to draw one’s attention

1.     distinction between high and low class

b.     Political

i.     In general, this period had a conservative climate

1.     Reinforced social conformity and threatened free speech

ii.     Black Americans facing a lot of discrimination

1.     Could not buy houses in certain areas

2.     Segregation of schools, public services, and more

iii.     The American Dream

1.     However, there were racial and gender barriers

iv.     Two viewpoints of mass culture

1.     Focuses too much on corporate power and luxury through advertisements and product symbolism

2.     Is in touch with everyday people and allows them to consume the products, rather than just the wealthy

v.     Government funded highways

vi.     Government aid in mortgage loans for veterans and young couples

c.     Cultural

i.     1950s USA—middle class and industrial working class enjoying benefits of mass production and increased wages

1.     mass culture

ii.     Detroit-manufactured automobiles

1.     Slightly changing body of cars annually to keep consumers interested

iii.     1959—American goods showcased in Moscow

1.     Richard Nixon presented a heavy influence on this exhibition

2.     Showcased the American washing machine and commercial goods

3.     Soviets were more advanced in their weapons and space knowledge

iv.     Postwar affluence promoted travel

1.     Therefore, luxury hotels and resorts emerged

v.     Levittowns

1.     Suburbs become increasingly popular

a.     Houses become more unique due to the draw to these towns

d.     Homes

i.     Cape Cod homes

ii.     Colonial homes

iii.     Ranch models

iv.     Split level homes

v.     New materials

1.     Formica

a.     Hard plastic used for kitchen surfaces to replace metals

b.     Comes in many colors and textures

2.     Linoleum

a.     Softer floor used in kitchens and other rooms

3.     Naugahyde

vi.     Appliances

1.     Dishwashers and household cleaning products support freedom and leisure

vii.     Chairs

1.     La-Z-boy recling chair rather than the previous Eames lounge chair

a.     More comfortable, larger

e.     Children’s leisure

i.     Toys

1.     Spinning tops, yo-yos, hoola-hoops

2.     Today is dominated by video games rather than toys like these

f.      Aluminum

i.     Light weight

ii.     Could come in many colors and designs

iii.     However, dented easily

iv.     Best used for serving, rather than personal dishes

1.     Common at picnics

v.     Used for portable, outdoor folding chairs

1.     Not comfortable

2.     Not very supportive

3.     Easily replaceable—mass culture

g.     Packaged foods

i.     Highly processed

ii.     Products endorsed by “Betty Crocker”

iii.     Karal Ann Marling

1.     Cake mixes should involve some powder ingredients and some real ingredients, like eggs

iv.     Packaging in foods and other consumer products became more eye catching to compete with other brands

h.     After war, many women lost jobs due to male soldiers returning and taking them

i.     Women forced back into “traditional” gender roles

ii.     Many women did not like this idea

iii.     Men feel the need to show their masculinity—use of cigarettes and aftershave

iv.     1960s—women protest sexual discrimination

i.      1960s—dashboard controls on home appliances for easier use

j.      1960s—cars became less unique and changed models for reasons to improve car, rather than look different than previous models

i.     compact cars created by many car manufacturers

k.     1964 New York World’s Fair

i.     car manufacturers were a large presence, but people were more impressed with the exhibits on atomic energy, space exploration, and the dawning information age which could all bring new information and benefit mankind

ii.     IBM presented type writers and calculators for individual use

1.     computers for individual use were introduced

iii.     General Electric’s space-age pavilion

1.     Use of nuclear power for inexpensive electricity

l.      “do-it-yourself” products

i.     large national outlets like Home Depot promoted this idea

m.   Europe:

i.     1950s and 1960s—promotes self expression though music, dance, clothing, and more

1.     diversified youth culture with desire to acknowledge racial minorities, women, and the gay community

a.     many groups rebelled by wearing shorter skirts, using marijuana, using their freedom of speech, and supporting the passing of new human rights laws

n.     1964—first Ford Mustang—captured a younger audience than previous cars

o.     1960s—rock music & Pop Art movement

i.     “do your own thing”

p.     growing racial tensions in cities such as Las Angeles and Detroit

q.     people concerned about the US’s involvement in the Vietnam War

r.      1960s—posters used for protest

i.     however, in Poland, posters were used for state-sponsored events and public entertainment

s.     1960s-1970s—popular drug culture

t.      1960s—call for radical reform

i.     balance of individual expression with social and environmental responsibility

u.     1973—Middle East cartel on oil promoted smaller vehicles

i.     fuel prices over doubled

v.     1975 Honda Civic was introduced as a well liked, oil efficient car

2.     Key elements or aspects of the design

a.     Conformity

b.     Obsolescence

i.     Slightly altering the design of cars each year

c.     Suburbs

i.     “Levittowns”

ii.     houses become more unique due to the mass attraction to these towns

3.     Key Designers

a.     Brooks Stevens

i.     USA—industrial designer

ii.     Obsolescence

1.     Understands supply and demand and how to keep people wanting new products

iii.     Designed models of outboard motors for boats

b.     Thomas Hine

i.     USA journalist

ii.     “populuxe” – dream of wealth and luxury

c.     Harley Earl

i.     Chief of GM Styling Department

ii.     Changed the design of GM cars

1.     Longer and lower bodies

2.     Chrome accents, wrap around bumpers, tailfin

iii.     Made prototypes out of clay in order to showcase the curved body of the car

d.     Virgil Exner

i.     1952—Chrysler VP of Styling

ii.     long, low profile cars with emphasis on angles and tapered forms

iii.     implemented Loewry’s sloping rooftop

e.     Raymond Loewry

i.     1955—spoke out against the impractical designs that were becoming part of cars, as did other designers and critics

ii.     designed cars for Studebaker with sloping rooftop in order to make them more aerodynamic

iii.     1963—Studebaker Avanti received a lot of criticism

f.      Morris Lapidus

i.     Designed Florida beachfront hotels

1.     Fontainebleau in Miami Beach

2.     Contained many curves in architecture

ii.     Previously had designed many retail stores interiors and exteriors

iii.     Inspired by artists from all over the world and combined their ideas within his hotels

g.     Reyner Banham

i.     Journalist and critic

ii.     Talks about how “good design” is declared by elite men

h.     Richard Hamilton and Eduardo Paolozzi

i.     Just what is it that makes today’s homes so different, so appealing? Collage

1.     Focuses on how people are materialistic

i.      William Levitt

i.     Developed “Levittown” communities

1.     Suburbs became increasingly popular

2.     Affordable housing

3.     Built in less than 6 weeks

4.     Assembly line type production

5.     Began using drywall rather than plaster for quicker construction

6.     “Cape Cod” homes

a.     Simple in shape, rectangular with a sloping roof on a slab of concrete

j.      Charles and Ray Eames

i.     Influential in the design of computer screens presented at IBM Pavilion

ii.     Film Think

1.     Informed decision making and problem solving

k.     Mary Quant

i.     British fashion designer

ii.     Created clothes for a younger audience

1.     shorter skirts, bold colors, fishnet stockings, knee high boots

2.     credited for inventing the “mini-skirt”

l.      Andy Warhol

i.     Showcased violent acts from the USA in his art work which consisted of black and white silkscreen from press photographs

m.   Ken Garlund

i.     “first things first”

1.     text document supporting alternative ways to self expression through art

n.     Emilio Ambasz

i.     1972 MoMA exhibition in Milan, Italy

ii.     included post war modern designs for household objects such as furniture and lighting

o.     Claes Oldenburg

i.     Used new bold patterns and shapes in his household furniture

1.     Zebra and cheetah print fabrics

2.     Diagonal furnishings

3.     Modern style

p.     Gaetano Pesce

i.     Donna chair

1.     1969

2.     looks like a female body with a chain attached to her foot

a.     metaphor for how women are always confined and restrained

q.     Victor Papanek

i.     Design for the Real World

1.     Utopian and apocalyptic

2.     Do it yourself

3.     Anti-technology

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"The Object"
cover of a journal

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Development of Transportation, Five-Year Plan

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 Gustav Klutsis Development of Transportation 

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Bauhuas Exhibition Poster

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Bubble hanging lamps, steel wire and sprayed plastic shell

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Image result for George Nelson Associates, Bubble hanging lamps, steel wire and sprayed plastic shell

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title page of the Weimar Bauhaus prospectus

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On wall for easy access, round shape to distinguish itself from previous rectangular thermostats, spring coil within to replace mercury filled thermostats

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Pavillon de I'Espirit Nouveau

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Use of white space, woman wearing pants to not sexualize her, sitting in a casual manner

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film poster: Casanova

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sketch of smoke room for French embassy

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jean dunland sketch of smoke room for French embassy 

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Wine vase, looks like it belongs in arts and crafts era, unique shape

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London Underground logo

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cell exhibit, made of plastic, 24 foot diameter

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The City

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first World Geographical Atlas

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Plywood is made-up of many thing pieces of wood glued together in alternating ways.  This process makes plywood stable, flexible, and strong.  The process of creating plywood is first, rotary veneer cutting, in which a sharp cutter rotates a log against a blade, thus peeling the outer layer of the log into a sheet of wood.  Today, machines can produce a full log of plywood in seven seconds.  Finally, the plywood is cut by a CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machine.

1790s: development of merchandise saws

1850s: an increase in the amount of inventions, patents were used for many products.  With the invention of plywood, patents became increasingly popular.

1858: John Henry Belter submitted a patent of a model chair, which included a scale model to be displayed at the Washington D.C. Patent Office, where all patented inventions were showcased.

1880s: manufacturers were able to mass produce plywood products

1900s: Plywood was often disguised as regular wood

1917: Canoes manufactured by Haskell.  They were made out of a single sheet of plywood and a water resistant glue.  These canoes were very sturdy and could float with a lot of weight inside of them.

1920s: plywood was celebrated for its efficiency and was no longer hidden.  Furniture designers began experimenting with it.

1920s: people begin using plywood for light-weight smaller luggage that can be transported in airplanes and cars.  Includes hatboxes, bags, and suitcases.

1920: Harris-Costin Protos Car and spare body were manufactured by Ron Harris Racing.  There were each made of 3-ply birch plywood with birch plywood bulkheads and metal fittings.  The wheels were made of rubber and the hood was acrylic.  Plywood was used for these cars because it was stronger, lighter, and more elastic than the previously used metals.

1930s: invention of synthetic glues that allowed plywood manufacturers to produce waterproof materials

1930s: to compensate for metal shortages, plywood was used to create handles, hooks, and hinges.

1932: armchair designed by Paimio Tuberculosis Sanitorium in Finland.  1933: the factory began manufacturing the chairs for general sale

1939: New York World’s Fair

1939: waterproof plywood boards were attached to the metal frame of the Trylon after slabs of plaster broke off from the frame

1942: The Spruce Goose—the most luxurious plane flown in WWII.  It was designed to transport cargo, and therefore was the largest and fastest plane ever built.  It was made out of plywood and painted with aluminum paint.

1944: Mosquito aircraft body was constructed of two 3mm thick plywood pieces with a layer of balsa wood in between them by De Havilland.  Plywood was used for this aircraft because De Havilland believed that the smooth surfaces and overlapped plates would allow for easy flying.

1962: plywood nuclear fallout shelter model.  Shown at fairs to encourage people to build them to protect themselves and their families in case of an emergency.

1965: hallow surfboards made out of plywood—lighter and more waterproof than before

2011: Ice-skating shelters in Winnipeg, Canada made out of plywood.

Today: plywood is used in many different ways.  It can be cut by computers in order to be mass produced.

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1.     Key elements or aspects of the design

a.     Post war modernism

i.     Applying war technology and materials to inventions and creations

ii.     Use of cheap materials

iii.     Use of natural materials

iv.     Modularity—shelving

v.     Light weight materials

vi.     Designs for comfort

vii.     After economy started to rise, artists could move back towards arts ideas of unique artwork

viii.     Space became a problem in big cities—especially London

1.     Key Designers

a.     Earl Tupper

i.     Began marketing Tupperware, flexible plastic storage units and serving containers often used to hold food

1.     Smooth and built to stack well with other pieces of Tupperware

b.     George Nelson Associates

i.     Bubble hanging lamps

1.     Constructed of steel wire attached to rings and then sprayed with plastic in order to create translucent shells

c.     Henry Dreyfuss

i.     Lightweight plastic telephones with a receiver, so the phone could fit between the shoulder and cheek, in order to allow the speaker to use hands freely to do other tasks while talking on the phone

ii.     Published The Measure of Man: Human Factors in Design which showcased designs that were best fitted for average humans

1.     Table heights, where to place machines or appliances, where to place knobs and controls, safety, and reduce error

iii.     Wall-mounted thermostat

1.     Unique circular design

d.     Carl Kronmiller

i.     Redesigned the circular thermostat to be more cost efficient version with a spring

e.     Charles & Ray Eames

i.     Designed a molded plywood chair

ii.     Won first place at the Museum of Modern Art for Organic Design in Home Furnishing

iii.     Continued to experiment with chair designs

1.     Constructed the lounge chair and ottoman, each made out of molded plywood, leather, and a metal supporting base

a.     Comfortable but not cheap to make like the other chairs; moving out of the “low-cost” societal idea

iv.     1946—solo furniture exhibit in the Museum of Modern Art

v.     1949—Detroit Institute of Arts featured their work

vi.     1959—designed a multi-screen display for the American National Exhibition in Moscow—showcasing images of technology and everyday life

1.     informational exhibits becoming increasingly popular

f.      Eero Saarinen

i.     Partner of Charles Eames

ii.     Interested in using organic materials in their designs

iii.     Red Lion Company

1.     Rectangular, sliding doors, molded plywood, small shelving units, colorful

g.     Herman Miller

i.     Manufactured abstract sculptural designs created by Isamu Noguchi

h.     Isamu Noguchi

i.     Japanese-American artist

ii.     Unique looking products

1.     Coffee table with an ebonized birch base and a triangular glass top

i.      Alexander Calder

i.     Mobiles

j.      Henry Moore

i.     Bronze sculptures

1.     Three Way Piece Number 1

k.     Hans Knoll

i.     Established Knoll Associates with his wife

ii.     Manufacotred furniture designed by former director of the Bauhaus, Mies van der Rohe

iii.     Manufactured Harry Bertoia’s designs

l.      Harry Bertoia

i.     Italian

ii.     Abstract designs

iii.     Diamond chair – steel wire and upholstery

m.   Walter Teague

i.     Design for Boeing 707

1.     Recessed indirect lighting

2.     Curved molded plastic surfaces

3.     Less distracting patterns

4.     Molded plastics

ii.     1936 Kodak Bantam camera

n.     Herbert Matter

i.     Graphic designer

ii.     Promoted “new advertising”—using white space and simple designs

iii.     Knoll Tulip Chair—lots of white space, woman is wearing pants, woman sitting in a rather casual way

o.     Paul Rand

i.     From New York

ii.     Wrote Thoughts on Design—a book on “new advertising” sharing its focus on the use of symbols, humor, and surprise, in order to create unique, memorable, and meaningful messages in the ads

iii.     Advertisement for Coronet Brandy—polka dotted background symbolizes using sparkling water to mix with the Brandy, shape of the waiters body is surprising, waiter juggling the cups is humorous

p.     Gene Federico

i.     Used household errands in many of his advertisements—promote buying power of the postwar housewives

ii.     Woman’s Day advertisement, also showcased in New Yorker, shows woman and her daughter, well dressed, driving a car—create a relationship between female readers and the ad

q.     Alvin Lustig

i.     New York

ii.     Uses abstract ideas and connects words and images

iii.     Book cover for A Season in Hell

1.     Bold red background (inferno) with symmetrical black and white shapes placed asymmetrically on the page and containing words within the shapes

r.      Dr. M. F. Agha

i.     Director of Vogue and Vanity Fair

ii.     Incorporated modernity in these posh magazines

iii.     Experimented with various mediums and types of typography, colors, pictures, and more—in order to draw an audience and show the excitement of living a contemporary life

s.     Cipe Pineles

i.     Director of Seventeen and Charm

ii.     Understood how to create a magazine for a specific audience (i.e. Seventeen for teenage girls)

1.     Used younger models

t.      Henry Wolf

i.     Used photographs, color, and typography in a clever combination

ii.     Director of magazine Esquire

u.     Alexey Brodovitch

i.     Ballet—black and white, portrayed from an angle that shows only parts of the dancers; collaborated with Edward Denby

ii.     Used blurred images

iii.     Harper’s Bazaar—collaborated with Richard Avedon

v.     Will Burtin

i.     Used graphic design to produce training manuals

ii.     Art director for Fortune magazine

iii.     Unique combination of medium in art—especially cover drawings

1.     Photos with drawing

2.     Black and white with color

3.     Line drawing with brushwork

iv.     Also worked with 3D art

1.     Created a 24 foot diameter human cell for the American Medical Association

v.     Used ideas from Ladislav Sutnar to create charts and other means of displaying quantitative information

1.     Sutnar and K. Lönberg-Holm’s book Catalog Design Progress describing the use of text and visual clarity

w.   Herbert Bayer

i.     Bauhaus student

ii.     Produced the World Geographic Atlas

1.     Displayed the information in a cohesive manner

x.     Alvar Aalto

i.     Maximizing space

1.     Built in storage

2.     Exposed pipes and waterlines

ii.     Use of simple materials such as brick, wood, and tile

y.     Poul Kjaerholm

i.     Danish designer

ii.     Emphasized use of light-weight materials and metals

iii.     Used natural materials

iv.     Focus on comfort, economic materials, and flowing linear enhancement

v.     Created chairs out of steel and wicker

vi.     Hanging lamps and lights

1.     Simple, curved, and geometric to help evenly spread the light

z.     Arne Jacobsen

i.     Danish designer

ii.     Individual and structural designs in his work

iii.     Egg chair—fiberglass and chromed steel, leather-covered foam rubber

aa.  Henning Koppel

i.     Danish designer

ii.     Metal work/silver

iii.     Smooth surfaces and abstract shapes—arts and crafts influence

iv.     Wine pitcher—silver, large curved handle, unique shape

bb.  Sixton Sason

i.     Strong influence on 1950 Saab 92

1.     Focused on exterior design of the car

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John Ruskin, an English writer and art critic, was very concerned about the relationship that existed between social reform and the arts, and he thus promoted handmade decorative arts.  Ruskin, like Pugin, was attracted to the Gothic style artwork of the middle ages.  Ruskin felt that mass production of products was much less beautiful and special, compared to handmade works.  Because of his love for elegant, handmade objects, Ruskin was not a fan of the Crystal Palace of the Great Exhibition.  Similar to Ruskin, William Morris was felt a call to help with the social reform of the Victorian era.  Ruskin and Morris’s drive to unite craftsmanship with the Victorian social reform persuaded the beginning of the Arts and Crafts Movement.  Morris’s influence on handcrafted artwork included ceramic tiles, embroideries, wall-papers, carpets, and printed fabrics.  He refused to use machines for any of this work. Morris was an avid supporter of socialism.  He wanted there to be no divide between the rich and the poor.  In addition to his work on manufactured goods, Morris also was a renowned publisher.  He, like Knight, used wood-engraved illustrations to print designs onto paper. Morris possessed a lot of influence in Britain and the United States.  Many artists began linking art to life and focusing on the idea of craft, rather than mass production.

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Artists lost their attraction to nature and moved back towards industrialization.  Futurism changed the focus of artwork from fine arts to applied arts. (pictured) This means that the artists realized they did not need to outline their work, like in the apple, for the viewer to understand that the apple has a shape to it.  One way in which applied arts were shown was through the use of time lapses or chronophotography.

Italian poet Filipo Tommaso Marinetti used machinery to help reproduce his works, as it was fast and efficient.  He used symbols and and spacing to deliver his message on the page.  The words on the page may be hard to follow, but the reader’s eyes are drawn from the top of the page down.  There are abstract words and shapes on the page that allow the reader to picture what is going on in the poems in his or her mind.  (pictured)

Painer Giacomo Balla became interested in men’s fashion; he used may bold colors and asymmetrical designs in his apparel designs.  (pictured) Asymmetrical art became a large part of Futurist artwork.

De Stijl:

De Stijl, translating to “the style,” was a journal that was published in Holland in 1917 by Theo van Doesburg.  This journal included a collection of paintings, sculptures, furniture, and architecture.  The idea of this journal, as described by architect Henrik Berlage, was “unity in diversity,” meaning, the pieces are distinctive, yet ordinary, through individual expression.  Berlage was a fan of American architect Frank Lloyd Wright’s work, which included flat roofs and wide overhangings, which was incorporated in more art than just architecture, such as furniture.  (pictured)

The most well known De Stijl project is the Schröder house in Utrecht.  The house included privacy though moveable partitions, in an open floor plan.  The interior contained many colors n the floor and furniture, as seen in the work of van Doesburg, as well as a flat roof, large windows, and an overhanging balcony.  This house contained many of the ideas contributed by various artists in De Stijl.  (pictured)

Constructivism:

Alessandr Rodchenko, a Russian artist, designed and furnished the interior of the Soviet Workers Club in Paris.  His design was very simple; the room was a rectangle, there were two rectangular tables in it that could be adjusted to be flat or tilted, to hold papers, and there were no paintings or decorations covering the walls of the room, which were orange.  (pictured) In addition, there were two multi purpose chairs: when put together, these chairs formed a chess table.  Everything in the room seemed to have a dual purpose.

Kasimir Malevich, a Russian spokesperson for abstract art, developed the term Suprematism, the expression of feeling in art.  He used the term Suprematism to explain that art should be universal, rather than individualistic.  Performance was a substantial part of Modernism in Russia.  The idea of movement was key to this idea—whether it be in movement in clothing, the actual object moving, or movement though theater.

20th century graphic design developed from experimentation with traditional printings.  El Lissitzky and Vladimir Tatlin used visual ideas and common, ordinary materials to form abstract works of art.  Lessitzky published a journal, Vesch/Objet/Gegenstand, meaning Object.  This journal included works of art from De Stijl, as well as other works of fine art, decorative art, and industrial art and products.  In his journal, rather than using etchings to showcase the artwork, Lissitzky used photomechanical images, which allowed him to mass-communicate his journals. (pictured) Lissitzky was able to make his journals abstract by incorporating various styles of text and organizing the text in different ways, such as at diagonals.  Rather than creating an image with the diagonal words and letters, like Marinetti, Lissitzky used diagonals in an easy to read way.

Gustav Klutsis, a Russian Constructivist, was able to capture the idea of movement in his works in a different way.  In his work, Development of Transport, he showcased a five-year plan for the progression of the railway.  (pictured)

In addition, photography became increasingly popular, as it was easily replicable and it was mechanical, requiring little work by the artist.  However, with Stalin gaining power in the 1920s, it was difficult for artists to express themselves as they pleased—through text.

Rodchenko and other INKHUK artists began promoting a world, rather than a utopian world.  INKHUK members promoted and became involved with the Higher State Technical College, a college that was developed by the Communist Party, and integrated artists with production.  It promoted the use and practicality of artwork, rather than paintings and artwork, that have no particular use.  In reality, few of the production-oriented Constructivists “realistic” inventions were actually mass manufactured, as they were intended for.

The Bauhaus:

The Bauhaus opened in 1919, due to the previous art schools being closed during WWI.  The Bauhaus were interested in the collaboration between artists and craftsmen, to create a living art, that occupied fine art and applied art in unison, rather than opposition.  During their first semester, Vorkurs, students studying the at the Bauhuas studied each of the various types of art available for them to specialize and then chose one area in which they would continue their studies: ceramics, glass, painting, murals, furniture, metalwork, or textiles.  Vorkurs also served as a principle basis for students to all have and incorporate in all forms of art.  The school faced criticism from Constructivists because they said the school’s focus seemed to align better with arts and crafts or fine arts, rather than industrialization.

In 1923, the Bauhaus hosted an exhibition to showcase their work.  The poster (pictured) used to advertise for their exhibition, created by Joost Schmidt, a former Bauhaus student, had a strong influence on many young artists.  The exhibit centered around the construction of a model for low-cost housing.  The furniture and rugs in the room contained many abstract geometric shapes.

The Bauhaus, namely László Moholy-Nagy and Herbert Bayer, introduced a new form of letterpress printing.  Bayer fashioned the sans serif typefaces; this font eliminated the use of uppercase letters, and set different heights for letters that contained tails, such as “b” or “g,” and incorporated new letters to look differently by combining the previous style of the uppercase and lowercase letters, like in the letter “k.”  Moholy-Nagy used different sizes and bolds of the sand serif font, as well as incorporated colors and lines, to created a work of art within a page of text.  (pictured) The Bauhaus are an important contributor to art history because of their unique ideas of art.

Beyond the Bauhaus:

The Bauhaus school closed in 1933.  Following that, few of the Bauhaus stayed in Germany.  However, Wilhelm Wagenfeld, who studied and taught at the Bauhaus, constructed Kubus glassware.  This glassware was designed to be heat resistant, easy to stack, and as developed around dimensions that allowed each piece to use the same lids.  Later, Trude Petri created a similar dishware line, but his was made from porcelain. (pictured) Both of these sets of dishes, though relatively cheap to make, were produced and sold in limited quantity, for the elite.

Frederick W. Taylor’s idea of efficiency in the factory was carried over to efficiency in design of kitchens and workplaces by Christine Frederick in her book, Scientific Management in the Home.  This book contained information about where to place each of the appliances and items in a kitchen based on how food is prepared and available storage.

Beyond the Bauhaus:

The Bauhaus school closed in 1933.  Following that, few of the Bauhaus stayed in Germany.  However, Wilhelm Wagenfeld, who studied and taught at the Bauhaus, constructed Kubus glassware.  This glassware was designed to be heat resistant, easy to stack, and as developed around dimensions that allowed each piece to use the same lids.  Later, Trude Petri created a similar dishware line, but his was made from porcelain. (pictured) Both of these sets of dishes, though relatively cheap to make, were produced and sold in limited quantity, for the elite.

Frederick W. Taylor’s idea of efficiency in the factory was carried over to efficiency in design of kitchens and workplaces by Christine Frederick in her book, Scientific Management in the Home.  This book contained information about where to place each of the appliances and items in a kitchen based on how food is prepared and available storage.   This idea coincided with Henry Ford’s philosophy when he began mass producing vehicles.

The Printing Industry and the "New Typography:"

Sans serif typography was used for many printing means, but people began experimenting with new fonts—some of these fonts being illegible.  Additionally, standard paper and envelope sizes, as well as other office needs, such as file sizes were developed.  In the United States, Franklin Gothic designed and produced a new font, known as “gothic,” and was based off of Roman letterforms, which are thicker and narrower in different areas of the letter.  Furthermore, Paul Renner, of Germany, added a new twist to the sans font: bold, light, condensed, and expanded.

Jan Tschichold and the New Typography:

Jan Tschihold was an avid supporter of the Constructivist ideology.  In addition to having a fond attraction to sans, he was very proficient with calligraphy.  His work encompassed asymmetry in a way that drew the viewers’ eyes across the page. (pictured) Other artists that followed in the footsteps of Tschihold’s advertisements include: John Heartfield, Herbert Bayer, René Binder, Max Eichheim, and Leonid.

Britian and Modern Design:

In 1916, Edward Johnston, an English typographer, created the sans serif typeface for the tube signs in London that are still used today. In addition, Johnston inspired one of his students, Eric Gill, to develop a typeface, known as Gill Sans, which was used for the London and North Eastern Railway.

Stanley Morison developed the font Times New Roman, in 1932, one of the most well known fonts today.  Times New Roman became quickly popular, as it was very legible and economic space-wise.

Frank Pick, the Vice-President of the London Passenger Transport Board, developed what is still used today as the logo for the London underground.  (pictured)

Scandinavia and Modern Design:

After WWII, Scandinavia became a model for modern design.  They focused on organic forms in their furniture.  The items produced in Scandinavia also took into account the best use of space, in order to fulfill the object’s purpose.

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In the twentieth century, luxury French furniture appeared.  This furniture was comprised of tight curves and spirals, bold color contrasts that are created by lacquered exteriors and off-white pieces.  These elements work together to produce a sense of nature within the furniture.  One artist that created such chairs is Maurice Dufrène (pictured).  Dufrène started his career as a painter, but then began working as a furniture designer, which allowed him to express his love for the arts and crafts.

Two additional painters from the time are Louis Süe and André Mare.  These two painters worked together on their artwork; however, they did not have the woodworking and craftsman background that Dufrène had so their furniture consisted of simpler shapes, and then was embellished by beautiful paintings.

Another French painter, Jacques-Émile Ruhlmann became interested in the furniture craftsmanship as well, but with a twist.  He used rare expensive materials to make his products, such as exotic woods.

This led into artists using new materials for furniture, such as bronze, used by Armand-Albert Rateau.

Glass experimentation (pictured) also was heavily prevalent during the time.  Like with the furniture artists, many of these artists were originally painters that saw the shift in artwork moving towards the decorative arts.  The artists used a technique called pâte de verre, which involves refiring colored ground glass in molds, which then results in a colorful, translucent glaze.  René Lalique introduced a new form of glass artwork, blown glass.

Other art techniques that were widely practiced include using decorative strips of silver on a black cabinet to form an elegant, yet unique look to a basic cabinet.  A different way in which precious metals were used in a cheaper way was by placing metal leaf on plaster.  The Chariot of Aurora, by Jean Dupas and Jean Dunand, depicts mythical gods and is 26 feet long.  After World War I, Jean Puiforat began making geometric, practical objects out of metal.

At the same time, advertisements and posters were becoming increasingly popular.  These posters and ads helped promote various artists or products.

The Paris Exposition of 1925:

This exposition, the Paris Exposition of 1925, was planned to occur much earlier than it did, but they ran into some complications.  First, there was much disagreement on what is deserving of being in the exhibit and what was not deserving.  Then, World War I broke out, putting everything on hold.

This exposition, the Paris Exposition of 1925, was planned to occur much earlier than it did, but they ran into some complications.  First, there was much disagreement on what is deserving of being in the exhibit and what was not deserving.  Then, World War I broke out, putting everything on hold.  For differing reasons, both Germany and the United States did not participate in this exposition.

The S.A.D., after displaying many of their own pieces at the Exposition, was asked to collaborate and design a model of the French embassy. (Pictured)  In addition to the art work on display, the interior of the building, as well as the furniture, featured the beautiful and unique artwork of some of the artists.

There were two main types of interiors created by artists who prefer curves and artists who prefer sharp angles in their work.  Also, some of the artists preferred to use natural or handmade substances in their work, while others leaned more towards industrial work.

Fernand Léger used stencil lettering in his art, rather than hand written letters.  He used stencils in signs and printed advertisements, in order for the letters to remain uniform.  He also emphasized the smooth surfaces in his art work, such as in his oil on canvas work of The City.  (pictured)

Many French artists opposed showing machinery and industrialization in their artwork.  Therefore, the Eiffel Tower was not showcased in artwork for over 20 years after it was built.

Sonia Terk Delaunay brought a new idea to French design.  She combined many abstract shapes and colors in her designs of interiors, furniture, and clothing.  Her work was featured on the cover of Vogue in 1925, along with a matching roadster.  This was a leap in French artwork as it incorporated machinery and abstract artwork on the cover of a largely read fashion magazine.

A shift in interest in exercise, health, and hygiene promoted many new fashion ideas and interior layouts of homes.  However, health and wellness were seen as an elite idea, and were not largely available to the public.

Le Corbusier, following WWI, had a different idea for interior design than many of the other artists of his time.  He promoted simple, commercial items that could be purchased in bulk through catalogues. (pictured) His work included building and attaching storage units into the interior of the home, as permanent structures.  His basis of design was to promote universal and practical living, rather than unique and expensive furniture.   The interior of his homes looks like what today is still known as “modern” style in the United States, even though it dates back almost 100 years.  His art was more practical, based on principles of physics and economics, rather than fashion trends, which are ever changing.  Artists began to understand the need to affordable furniture after WWI, so they began experimenting with cheaper industrial materials, such as steel, rubber, glass, plywood.

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In 1830, there were outbreaks of social unrest within the working class people of Europe, which therefore led to armed conflict.  Reformers largely were split into two categories: Gothic style or a more practical design style.  Gothic style was able to model and portray beauty and unified faith and social order.  The others, who took a more practical approach, spent their time focusing on the establishment of schools of design.  The purpose of the design reform was to set ideals for taste.

One of the leading artists in the Gothic Revival was A.W.N. Pugin, whose work we saw and studied at the V&A Museum last week.  One of Pugin’s most famous works was his work on London’s Houses of Parliament. ( pictured) In his designs, he as able to able to bring together the contemporary English architecture with past gothic styles, creating an aesthetic view.  He converted to Roman Catholicism later in his life and contributed his designs and art to many churches in London; there was an area at the V&A exhibit designated to his displays in the churches.  Pugin’s idea that paintings and sculptures belong as part of the structure they are in, rather than separate entities, allowed him to pull entire rooms together.

Another artist, Henry Cole, was well represented at the V&A Museum.  Cole’s principle from his artwork was that creating a strong correlation between artwork and manufactured goods.  He promoted The Art Journal, a publication for designers and manufacturers to follow, as well as influencing the newly reformed schools of design in the UK.

The Great Exhibition of 1851 was the first time that decorative and industrial artwork were promoted on such a large scale, and drawn to by such a widespread group of people.  The building itself was a piece of art as well.  The Crystal Palace (pictured) was constructed of iron casts surrounded entirely by glass walls, designed by architect Joseph Praxton.  Although the turnout of the Great Exhibition was tremendous, some of the artists were concerned that the exhibitions goal, to improve public taste, was met.

The expansion of print technology and decline in taxes on paper allowed for mass production of weekly journals.  One of the earliest examples of this is The Penny Magazine, developed by Charles Knight, which included pictures, which were imprinted from wood-engraved reproductions.  Soon other magazines began developing as well.   Following this, book makers were also able to bring the artistry into their works.  An example of this is in James Burns’ Nursery Rhymes, Tales and Jingles.

Simultaneously, weekly magazines were becoming increasing popular in the United States.  Two of the first popular magazines in the US include: Leslie’s Weekly (pictured) and Harper’s Weekly.

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red & blue chair

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Low Chair; simple chair, cheap, light

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anti-neutral suits

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Lounge Chair; comfort, economy getting better after the war, so they can make more elaborate designs

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Poetry

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Black Cabinet

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Louis Süe and André Mare black cabinet 

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Glass experimentation