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- THE CONTINUOUS ASPECT: It focuses on the action and its duration, rather than the result. It is used to show that an activity is temporary and its duration is limited.
State verbs are not usually used in the continuous, e.g: "love, prefer, hear, smell, believe, understand"
- DESCRIBING HABITS: Use WILL to describe present habits and behaviour.
Use PRESENT CONTINUOUS + always, keeps + -ing and WILL KEEP + -ing int he same way
Use WOULD to describe past habits and behaviour (both good and bad)
Use KEEP ON to emphasies that the action is repeated frequently.
Use TEND TO to describe typical states
- DESCRIBING HABITS SPOKEN GRAMMAR: I'm inclined to.../I have an inclination to...
I tend to.../I have a tendency to...
I'm prone to
I'll spend hours.../I'd spend hours...
As a rule, I...
Nine times out of ten, I...

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- CONDITIONALS AND REGRETS:

0 conditional: permanent facts: IF + PRESENT SIMPLE..., + PRESENT SIMPLE

1st conditional: future possibility: IF + PRESENT SIMPLE..., + WILL + INFINITIVE

2nd conditional: Imaginary situations: IF + PAST SIMPLE...+ WOULD + INFINITIVE

3rd conditional: Something that cpuld have happened, but didn't, or should not have happened, but did: IF+PAST PERFECT...+ WOULD/COULD/MIGHT + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE

In more formal contexts, it is possible to replace if by inverting the subject and had. Or replace if with but for + noun + (gerund)

- MIXED CONDITIONALS:  Use to say how,  if something had been different in the past, the present or future would be different.
- REGRETS:

Use REGRET+GERUND, IF ONLY + PAST PERFECT or WISH + PAST PERFECT to say we want something in the past to have been different

Use IF ONLY + PAST SIMPLE or WISH + PAST SIMPLE  to say we want something different now

- VERB PATTERNS:

VERB + ING: "Like, dislike, adore, love, detest, can't bear/stand"

Prepositions are followed by an -ing form

-Ing forms when they functions as nouns (gerunds) are often the subject of a sentence

INFINITIVE + TO: After "appear, decide, fail, need, offer, refuse, want, wish" and verbs with a future meaning "hope, expect, promise. etc.."

PASSIVE INFINITIVE OR -ING FORM: Use the passive -ing to describe actions which are done to the subject. Use the passive infinitive after some verbs (reporting verbs. Use the PERFECT INFINITIVE OR -ING FORM to emphasise when one action happened before another.

NEGATIVE INFINITIVE OR -ING FORM: "It's quite common not no understand at first. Not understanding is quite common. To learn is important. Not to thank her would be impolite"

- INTRODUCING OPINIONS

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- NOUN PHRASES

- RELATIVE CLAUSES:

Defining relative clauses: Between commas. It gives essential information about a noun.

Non-defining relative clauses: Give xtra information about a noun.

Relative pronouns: who, which, where, whose, that. Use relative pronouns after some of, all of, a few of, none of.

Fixed prepositional: at which point, in which case, the result of which.

- MAKING A PROPOSAL

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- MODAL VERBS AND PHRASES: To express degrees of obligation. HAVE TO, MUST, SHOULD, PUGHT TO, HAD BETTER FOR OBLIGATION
We use NEED for talking abput obligation or lack of it.
CAN, BE ALLOWED TO, BE SUPPOSED TO, BE PERMITTED TO for talking about what is PERMISSIBLE/POSSIBLE
Other phrases which can be used with modal meaning: BE ALLOWED, BE PERMISSIBLE, BE FORBIDDEN, BE BANNED, BE/FEEL COMPELLED, BE COMPULSORY, BE FORCED TO, BE OBLIGATORY, HAVE TO COURAGE TO, DARE TO
- THE PASSIVE: Use it to sound objective and impersonal. Is it common to use the passive with an infinitive or with to have + past participle.
We can use a causative form with a passive meaning. The form is have/get + object + past participle: "She had her car broken into"
- MAKING A POINT

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- INTRODUCTORY IT: Use it as an 'empty' subject to introduce or identify something later in the phrase.

Use it+ be to talk about weather, time, dates, situations, distance.

Use it before some phrases to describe probability

Use it before some phrases to report events

IT + BE + ADJECTIVE

IT + VERB PHRASE

IT IN THE MIDDLE OF THE PHRASE.

FIXED EXPRESSIONS: It's no wonder/No coincidence that... It's considered rude to... It's pontless/no use + ing...

- THE PERFECT ASPECT

Present perfect: Use it to look back from noe to a time before now. Use the present perfect continuous to focus on the lenght of time the action takes.

Past perfect: Use it to look back from a time in the past to a time before that. Use it to focus on  the lenght of time the action takes.

Future perfect: Use it to look back from a time in the future ti a time before that.

Perfect infinitive:

Use it after verbs like seem and appear to look back to a previous time period

- HYPOTHETICAL PREFERENCES

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- VERB TENSES FOR UNREAL SITUATIONS:
Would rather/Would sooner + past simple to describe preferences. If the person expressing the preferences is also the subject of the preferences, use the infinitive.
Use as if/as thought + past simple to say that appearances is different from reality.
- ADVERBIALS: of manner, of time, of frequency, of probability, adverbials of purpose, comment adverbials
- RANTING/RAVING

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- FUTURE IN THE PAST: Sometimes we want to mention something that was in the future at that time. We use future structures but make the verb form past. "Was going to, past continuous, would, was/were + to + infinitive, was/were + to have + past participle.
To describe a plan that did not become reality, use: WAS/WERE SUPPOSED TO, MEANT TO
For events that very nearly happened, use: WAS/WERE ON THE VERGE OF + GERUND, WAS/WERE ON THE POINT OF + GERUND, WAS/WERE ABOUT TO + INFINITIVE.
- ELLIPSIS AND SUBSTITUTION: Sometimes words which we might expect to be present from a grammatical point of view are left out because we can understand the meaning from the context. Often the words are auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, subjects.
It is possible to leave out repeated verb phrases or adjectives and just repeat the auxiliary or modal verb.
Substitution: Many, a little, some,... do, so and not.
- DISCUSSING IDEAS

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- FUTURE FORMS: Use the future perfect to talk about a future event which will be finished at a certain point in the future. Use the future perfect continuous to talk about the lenght of an action as seen from a moment in the future. Modal verbs: COULD, MIGHT AND MAY are also used to make predictions.
BE + TO + INFINITIVE: To describe official plans and arrangements.
BE DUE TO + INFINITIVE: To describe a formal arrangement.
- CONCESSION CLAUSES:  Use concession clauses to give information that contrasts with the information in the main clause.

-The clauses can be introduced with conjuctions: althought, however, even thought, while, whilst, much as with verbs for like and hate, however, whatever, wherever, in spite of and despite.

- DESCRIBING CAUSE AND EFFECT

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-CLEFT SENTENCES: In cleft sentences, one sentence is divided into two parts, each with its own verb. To emphasise with what, all and it + be + that/who.
- PARTICIPLE CLAUSES
- EXCHANGING OPINIONS

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- INVERSION: It is when we put an auxiliary verb before the subject of a clause: NEVR AGAIN, NO WAY, NOT IN A MILLION, AT NO TIME, NOT UNTIL, HARDLY, NEVER BEFORE/RARELY/SELDOM, LITTLE, NO SOONER, NO LONGER, ONLY THEN, ONLY NOW, NOT ONLY..., BUT.. ALSO, UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES/ON NO ACCOUNT, SCARCELY.
In formal English, inversion can be used with conditional sentences.
- COMPARATIVE STRUCTURES

- NEGOTIATING