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Abstract: This article provides a development education perspective on Brexit. It assesses the real and potential impact of Brexit on concepts of globalism and identity, explores how the outcome relates to xenophobia and racism, and examines the implications for the attitudes of young people with regards to global citizenship. The article concludes by outlining how development education has an important role in combating insularity and isolationism in the wake of Brexit whilst addressing some the underlying reasons why many communities opted to vote Leave.

Key words: Global learning; Brexit; European Union; development education; racism.

The referendum vote in the UK in June 2016 that resulted in the majority of those who voted recommending leaving the European Union raises important questions and issues for those within education who are interested in promoting learning about the wider world. Development education practice in the UK has relied heavily on funding from the European Commission. Europe Aid has had a budget line specifically on awareness raising and learning about development issues. Many non-governmental organisations (NGOs), local authorities and higher education institutions have benefited from this budget line. More recently, other budget lines from the Commission including Erasmus and Horizon 20:20 have also provided opportunities for funding development education type activity. At a broader level, education at all levels within the UK has benefitted from the opportunities to share approaches towards learning, undertaking research and developing joint projects with partners elsewhere in Europe.

But perhaps even more important than the issue of funding is that the vote in the UK raises wider challenges to those within education about how best to respond to what is clearly a reaction to global influences, be they concerning refugees, economic migration or a growing sense of alienation from society. How should those who promote development education and global learning respond in terms of their work with schools, young people and other educational institutions? This article will outline some of the issues that development educationalists need to consider in responding to the challenges of Brexit, addressing particularly themes related to globalisation and identities and the influence of racism within UK society.

What is clear is that within the UK, or at least within a large number of communities in England and Wales particularly, is resentment amongst many working people to the recent influx of economic migrants from Central and Eastern Europe. What is also evident is that since the vote in June, the rise of racist attacks reflects perhaps a more deep-seated and latent xenophobia in the UK that has perhaps not been discussed openly enough before. These themes reflect a broader dislocation from society particularly amongst many working class communities that is a direct consequence of the impact of globalisation and neoliberal policies on local economies. These trends therefore suggest that for those involved within development education and global learning, the referendum result identifies three major, albeit interrelated themes:

The impact of globalisation on people's sense of identity, place, employment opportunities and culture;

The xenophobia and racism that exists in many communities needs also to be related to the postcolonial forces that are still ever present in British society; and

The role that education can play in equipping young people to play an active role in society, to feel included, valued and listened to.

Globalisation and globalism
Globalisation has many interpretations but underlying most of them is recognition that societies and communities are becoming interconnected socially, culturally and economically (Beck, 2000; Giddens, 1991; Held and McGrew, 2000). In much of the debate about the reasons for Brexit, the term globalisation has emerged as a major one, as a reason why many working class voters rejected the European framework (Elliott, 2016; Sharma, 2016). As Coyle has written:

"The UK's 'Leave' vote could be seen as a vote against globalisation and its uneven impact on different parts of the country, rather than a vote specifically against the EU. The proportions voting for Leave were higher in the Midlands and North of England, where deindustrialisation struck hardest and where average incomes have stagnated. London, the UK's only truly global city, saw growth and a high share of Remain voters" (2016: 1).

The economic changes that could be said to have influenced the referendum outcome go back to the Thatcher period in the UK and the consequent dominance of neoliberal economic strategies.

What globalisation has done is to accelerate these changes and increase the divisions in society between those who have access to stable forms of employment and those who do not. The consequences of these themes can be seen in terms of increased poverty, low self-esteem and within education, challenges in terms of role models and encouraging positive engagement in societies. As Younge (2010) suggests, globalisation has turned individuals into a 'universal tribe of consumers' who are 'economically interdependent but isolated and impotent as citizens'. These changes suggest that the more people sense a loss of control and access to democratic levers, the more people retreat into distinct identities or tribes (Cantle, 2013. Martin Jacques, a UK journalist, commented in 2016 that Brexit is a classic example of populism, of a reaction to political elites, a feeling amongst people who 'have lost out and been left behind...who feel dislocated by large scale immigration over which they have no control and who face an increasingly insecure and casualised labour market.'

This theme can be seen in numerous debates in and around globalisation. This sense of dislocation has been commented on in numerous academic debates around globalisation (Dolby and Rizvi, 2008; Nayak, 2003). These trends relate to what could be called the rise of 'identity politics' and the erosion of traditional forms of democratic engagement in societies. A consequence of this retreat into distinct identities has also been the reluctance to engage with difference, cultures and outlooks other than their own. But there is a danger of merely equating globalisation with the impact of these social, cultural and economic forces. Ulrick Beck (2000) has commented on the complex nature of globalisation and that it should be seen in a wider context than just the domination of global companies and the marketisation. He uses the term globalism as incorporating the domination of the world market in both an economic and ideological sense (Beck, 2000:9).

Beck suggests on the other hand that globalisation could also be seen as globality; living in a world society where the totality of social relationships are not integrated into or determined by nation states (ibid.) This distinction is important because not only is globalisation here to stay, it has brought with it important openings and opportunities that can broaden one's outlook, provide access to instant information and put you in direct contact with peoples and communities from around the world. Global forces have enabled the potential mobilisation of communities through forms of social networking and an opportunity to develop partnerships and solidarity with peoples beyond the nation state.

Therefore, for development education, globalisation is not a simple economic or social force that needs to be exposed and campaigned against. It is much more complex phenomenon that brings with it opportunities as well as challenges. One of the challenges of the Brexit vote is to show through education that globalisation can result in the opening up of minds, ideas and experiences to different viewpoints and perspectives from around the world.
Xenophobia and racism
The UK is often lauded as being a more integrated and cosmopolitan society than much of continental Europe. Whilst there may be some evidence to support this, particularly in a city such as London (Block, 2006), there are deep ideological undercurrents that raise important challenges for global learning. Racism in the twenty-first century cannot be divorced from making reference to the influence of globalisation (Macedo and Gounari, 2016; Stavenhagen, 1999). There has been an assumption that increased social and economic mobility can and has led to a decrease in racist behaviours. There is certainly some evidence that access to a range of cultures can broaden peoples' horizons (Fennes and Hapgood, 1997), and that travel and social mobility can lead to a decrease in stereotyping (Bamber, 2016). However, there is also evidence that increased global mobility can result in indigenous communities feeling isolated and resentful. Racism breeds on a sense of alienation, of dislocation from society. It can also become more prevalent when education in whatever form, fails to address underlying causes of racism (Stavenhagen, 1999).

The rise of racist attacks in the UK post-Brexit suggests there is a correlation between globalisation, racism and tribal identities. More than 3,000 allegations of hate crimes were made to UK police in the week before and the week after the 23 June vote, a year-on-year increase of 42 percent (Butler, 2016). These events however need to be seen as more than just short-term responses to Brexit but reflecting deep seated prejudices and views that have existed in UK society for a long time but were given a new air of legitimacy with the vote in June (Troyna, 1993). Britain, despite its outward appearance of being a tolerant, multicultural society, has deeply ingrained traditions of racism and xenophobia, running right through its modern history. The British Empire was built on a sense of racial superiority. Hostility to perceived outsiders has been a theme, from the 'nineteenth century to the present day including anti-Semitism in the inter-war years, post-war racism towards Black and Asian people, and today's Islamophobia and resentment towards Eastern Europeans.

These themes have been well documented in a range of reports in the UK, most notably the MacPherson Report in response to the murder of Stephen Lawrence, but where there has been less discussion is on the undercurrents of xenophobia. This suggests that a neglected aspect of debates around these themes in the UK has been the relevance of postcolonial thinking. Whilst there has been some important recent work on postcolonial theories and development education and global citizenship, particularly through the work of Vanessa Andreotti (2012) and April Biccum (2010), there have few studies that have looked directly at the implications of racism and xenophobia for the practices of development education and global learning in the UK.
Young people and globalisation
The majority of young adults who voted in the referendum it appears tended to vote remain rather than leave. The reasons for this are probably numerous including being more socially and culturally mobile than their parents or grandparents, being more aware of wider world issues and above all recognising the integrated nature of UK within Europe and the wider world. It is likely that education has played an important role in this with considerable resources and opportunities being made available within formal education for cultural understanding and joint projects with partner schools elsewhere in Europe.

At a broader level, young people more than any other sector of society, have been the most direct recipients of globalisation (Furlong and Cartmel, 2007). This can be seen through the influences on their sense of personal identification, consumption patterns or use of social networking (France, 2007; Nayak, 2003). This influence of globalisation however does not automatically make young people global citizens. Many of them feel isolated, disenfranchised from decision-making processes and secure employment opportunities are by no means an option. Also, as a range of studies and research on global learning has shown, young people have also been influenced by the media and other forms of communication that perpetuate traditional and negative images about people elsewhere in the world (Brown, 2014; Cross et.al, 2010).

It is where development education and global learning has been well resourced, and provided opportunities for young people to develop their understanding about the wider world, that there is evidence of a global outlook and one that challenges perceptions and stereotypes (Bourn, 2015; Hunt, 2012). This evidence shows particularly that the impact is strongest and most long lasting where young people see their connections between this learning and their own lifestyles and personal situations.
Role of and response from education
Education is therefore an important response to Brexit. In purely economic terms, the UK education system has to address the challenge of Brexit by encouraging learning to look beyond the British Isles. 'Insular isolationism is not a viable option and we need to be part of larger entities that have the reach and resources required to tackle global problems' (Elliott, 2016). The benefits that the education system has gained from being part of the European Union must not be lost. Young people, teachers and schools need to continue to have access to learning about other cultures, understanding different perspectives on issues and recognising the value of broadening horizons beyond their own community and nation state.

The importance of these themes has been recognised by policy-makers around the world through for example the planned PISA study on global competencies in 2018 and the inclusion of concepts such as global citizenship in the United Nations UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Terms such as global and twenty-first century skills for example are not part of the vocabulary of educationalists around the world. Of course, globalisation has brought with it many negative consequences to education, including the emphasis on examinations and testing, measuring performance and promoting competition. But at the same time it has created opportunities for young people to have access to knowledge from a wide range of sources around the world, to be able to communicate with people and see that we live in an interconnected and interdependent world.
Development education and global learning and Brexit
A feature of development education and global learning practice over the past decade has been the promotion of an approach towards learning that moves beyond increasing knowledge about global and development issues to one that challenges assumptions, questions stereotypes and shows the underlying causes of inequality and injustice in the world. The growing popularity of terms such as global citizenship for example reflect this emphasis on making connections to the individual learners' sense of place in the world.

As already mentioned, the work of Vanessa Andreotti has been particularly influential. However, the influence of postcolonialism has not always been translated through to making links and connections to themes such as power, inequality and the ideological influence of colonial forces within, say, British society. There may be a number of reasons for this including funding constraints and the priorities of NGOs, but this is clearly an area that needs to be addressed in the light of Brexit. Through the Global Learning Programme in England there has been a number of initiatives around the British values debate but this is, of course, framed within an approach in which it is difficult to address some of the more underlying causes of racism and xenophobia in UK society (Bowden, 2016). There has also been some innovative work looking at influences of postcolonialism on educational partnerships and study visits (Leonard, 2014; Martin and Griffiths, 2014).

Development education and global learning in response to Brexit therefore need to be based more on promoting learning that looks at the issues and causes of inequality, understanding power relations and the ideological influences that underpin much of the dominant political ideas in UK society. Too often development educationalists have tended to respond to the challenges of globalisation by encouraging action against the influences of multi-national companies and global forces. What this has done is to ignore the complex influences of globalisation and the conflating of globalisation with neoliberal forces. Whilst there is a danger of education being seen as the panacea for addressing these issues of racism and alienation, there is no doubt that formal education particularly through schools can play an important role in promoting approaches towards learning what globalisation means, why there is economic migration from East to Western Europe and also the broader undercurrents in British society regarding a sense of superiority over other cultures. Merely encouraging and promoting cultural awareness it is suggested here is not enough. What cannot be denied is that some have perceived Brexit as permission for intolerance and racism in society. This makes schools' role in promoting respect and mutual understanding that much harder
Concluding thoughts
Brexit has laid down major challenges to educationalists throughout the UK and probably beyond. It has raised major issues and challenges in terms of the relationship between themes and viewpoints from within British society to what is taught within schools. To say that education should broaden horizons, encourage a sense of tolerance and cultural understanding whilst laudable in itself is perhaps not enough. Living in a complex, globalised world needs to be recognised within education but unless there is also a discussion about understanding why some communities feel left behind and excluded, then we are not equipping learners with the relevant knowledge and skills to make a positive contribution to society.

Development education and global learning theories and practices need to take far more account than they currently do of the complex influences on societies. Racism and xenophobia need to be tackled and debated within schools. But the issues need to be addressed in a way that connects with young people's everyday lives and shows that the challenges many communities are facing need to be understood in the context of global forces and influences.
References
Andreotti, V (2012) Actionable Postcolonial Theory in Education, New York: Palgrave MacMillan.

Bamber, P (2016) Transformative Learning Through International Service-Learning, Abingdon: Routledge.

Beck, U (2000) What is Globalization?, Cambridge: Polity Press

Biccum, A (2010) Global Citizenship and the Legacy of Empire, Abingdon: Routledge.

Block, D (2006) Multilingual Identities in a Global City: London stories, London: Palgrave.

Bourn, D (2015) The Theory and Practice of Development Education, Abingdon: Routledge.

Bowden, R (2016) 'British Values, character education and global learning', available: http://clients.squareeye.net/uploads/glp/GLP_pdfs/Resources/Topics/Values/British_values_and_GLP.pdf (accessed 24 September 2016).

Brown, K (2014) Responding to global poverty: young people in England learning about development, Unpublished Ph.d., London: Institute of Education.

Butler P (2016) 'Politicians fuelled rise in hate crimes after Brexit vote, says UN body', 26 August 2016, available: https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/aug/26/politicians-rise-hate-crimes-brexit-vote-un-committee (accessed 20 September 2016).

Cantle, T (2013) 'Interculturalism as a new narrative for the era of globalisation and super-diversity' in M Barrett (ed.) Interculturalism and Multiculturalism: similarities and differences, Strasbourg: Council of Europe, available: http://tedcantle.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/082-Interculturalism-as-a-new-narrative-for-the-era-of-globalisation-and-super-diversity-2014.pdf (accessed 25 September 2016).

Cross, S, Fenyoe,A, Wagstaff, M and Gammon, A (2010) Global Generation: How Young People In the UK Connect to the Wider World, London: IBT.

Coyle, D (2016) 'Brexit and Globalisation', available: http://voxeu.org/article/brexit-and-globalisation ( accessed 21 September 2016).

Dolby, N and Rizvi, F (eds.) (2008) Youth Moves: Identities and Education in Global Perspective, Abingdon: Routledge.

Dunford, J (2016) 'Brexit will make the job of teaching more difficult', TES, 21 June 2016, available: https://www.tes.com/news/school-news/breaking-views/brexit-will-make-job-teaching-more-difficult (23 September 2016).

Elliott, L (2016) 'Brexit is a Rejection of Globalisation', Guardian, 26 June 2016, available: https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/jun/26/brexit-is-the-rejection-of-globalisation (accessed 24 September 2016).

Fennes, H and Hapgood, K (1997) Intercultural Learning in the Classroom, London: Cassell.

France, A (2007) Understanding Youth in Late Modernity, Berkshire: Open University Press.

Furlong, A and Cartmel, F (2007) Young People and Social Change, Berkshire: Open University Press.

Giddens, A (1991) Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society In the Late Modern age, Cambridge: Polity Press.

Held, D and McGrew, A (eds.) (2000) The Global Transformation Reader, Cambridge, Polity Press.

Hunt, F (2012) Global Learning in Primary Schools, DERC Research Paper no.9, London: IOE/DERC.

Jacques, M (2016) 'The Death of New Liberalism and the Crisis of Western Politics', The Observer, 21 August 2016, available: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/aug/21/death-of-neoliberalism-crisis-in-western-politics.

Leonard, A (2014) School Linking: Southern Perspectives on the South/North Educational Linking Process: From Ghana, Uganda and Tanzania, Unpublished PhD Thesis, London: Institute of Education.

Macedo, D and Gounari, P (eds.) (2016) The Globalization of Racism, Abingdon: Routledge.

Martin, F and Griffiths, H (2014) 'Relating to the "Other": transformative, intercultural learning in post-colonial contexts', Compare, Vol.44, No. 6, pp. 938-959.

Nayak, A (2003) Race, Place and Globalisation, Oxford: Berg.

Sharma, R (2016) 'Globalisation as we know it is over - and Brexit is the biggest sign yet', 28 July 2016, available: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/jul/28/era-globalisation-brexit-eu-britain-economic-frustration (accessed 24 September 2016).

Stavenhagen, R (1999) 'Structural Racism and Trends in the Global Economy', available: http://www.ichrp.org/files/papers/164/112__Structural_Racism_and_Trends_in_the_Global_Economy_Stavenhagen__Rodolfo_1999.pdf (25 September 2016).

Troyna, B (1993) Racism and Education, Buckingham: Open University Press.

Younge, G (2010) Who Are We - and should it matter in the 21st century? Glasgow: Viking.

Douglas Bourn is Director of the Development Education Research Centre at UCL-IOE and author of The Theory and Practice of Development Education (2015). He has also written numerous articles on global learning, global skills and global citizenship within education.

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Abstract: This article provides a development education perspective on Brexit. It assesses the real and potential impact of Brexit on concepts of globalism and identity, explores how the outcome relates to xenophobia and racism, and examines the implications for the attitudes of young people with regards to global citizenship.

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josephine

Globalisation, Education and Development: Ideas, Actors and Dynamics is the outcome of a State of the Art Synthetic Review of the literature on Globalisation, Education and Development. This volume reports the findings of a 14 month-long project commissioned by the Department for International Development (DfID) where we reviewed the literature on key global actors, their policies and programmes on development as is mediated through education. The purpose of this review is to provide a basis for informed policymaking and programme implementation. The focus of this particular project was on the policies and programmes of the multilateral and supranational organisations, such as those tied to the system of global governance, that have implications for countries in alleviating poverty and in meeting the Millennium Development Goals.

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Globalisation is a process, which has affected many areas of human life, one of those being education.

In the twentieth century, many developing countries have experienced growth in the educational

facilities available to them due to the entry of institutions from the West. Some believe that this

process is an invaluable opportunity for the people of the developing countries to raise their skills and

standards of education. Others fear that it is merely a modern version of cultural imperialism that will

lead to the creation of a universal, ultimately Western society.

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http://www.ncyu.edu.tw/files/site_content/geche/1-Educational%20Reform%20in%20a%20Globalised%20Age%20What%20is%20globalisation%20and%20how%20is%20it%20affecting%20education%20world-wide1.pdf

The direct impact of globalisation on curriculum and pedagogy has been relatively small. However, the more general effects of economic restructuring and associated economic and political ideologies have been great. The implementation of neo-liberal economic reforms and associated structural adjustment policies have led to the increasing privatisation of educational provision, with the emergence of a new managerial and professional discourse adapted to a competitive market-led model of education.

The similarities and differences in national educational responses to global pressures are illustrated in the paper by two comparative qualitative research projects comparing the work of primary school teachers in England and Finland and England and New Zealand respectively. On the one hand, in Finland, the pressures of globalisation have been mediated by pre-existing national ideologies of social welfarism and equity. This has led to marked discontinuities of response in England and Finland. For example, where England introduced a national curriculum, Finland dismantled its previous national curriculum and moved instead to school-based curricula, arguing that this was more appropriate for the kind of flexible and lifelong learning approach required in a globalised era. In addition, unlike the strong target-based and audit culture developed recently in England, Finland abandoned its national school inspection system and moved to a policy of school self-evaluation. On the other hand, in New Zealand, whose government shared with England a neo-liberal market ideology, there were strong continuities in response between the two countries. There were very similar changes to curriculum and pedagogy and the development in each country of a strong audit culture and discourse of ‘new professionalism’ in primary schools.

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Globalisation is a rapidly ongoing phenomenon that refers to some economic features that increasingly link countries together trade in goods and services, private cross-border investment and migration. This dictates the kind of job sector that is prominent in a society and therefore affects the education system needed to train the students for the demand of the sectors.

http://www.lsda.org.uk/the-impact-of-globalisation-on-education.html

(Globalisation and Education : What do the trade, investment and migration literatures tell us?, 2005)
http://www1.pucminas.br/imagedb/documento/DOC_DSC_NOME_ARQUI20060214114604.pdf

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Education is undergoing constant changes under the effects of globalisation. The effects of

globalisation on education bring rapid developments in technology and communications are

foreseeing changes within learning systems across the world as ideas, values and knowledge,

changing the roles of students and teachers, and producing a shift in society from industrialisation

towards an information-based society.

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Many views regarding globalization either extol it for the interdependence, connectivity and flow of information it has made possible in all spheres of human life, while others deem it responsible for the dilution of culture and dissemination of ‘western’ values; in other words a new form of imperialism known as cultural imperialism (Al'abri 2011

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"Globalization can be thought of as a process (or set of processes) which embodies a transformation of the spatial organisation of social relations and transactions." (Held 1999).

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Available at: https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=5&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjP-L-imeXUAhVEKcAKHYrkCx0QFghIMAQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.leeds.ac.uk%2Feducol%2Fdocuments%2F00001941.doc&usg=AFQjCNEvb0sTJnU6nsefzrKadFUdbUDfcA

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Globalisation refers to the growing interconnectedness of societies and and institutions across the world.  This has had and will continue to have many impacts on education here in the UK. For example, ensuring our children leave school with the correct skills in order to be competitive in a global labour market.

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http://www.lsda.org.uk/the-impact-of-globalisation-on-education.html
Learning & Development Agency

Home / The Impact of Globalisation on Education

The Impact of Globalisation on Education

Globalisation has radically transformed the world in every aspect. But it has especially transformed the world economy which has become increasingly inter-connected and inter-dependent. But it also made the world economy increasingly competitive and more knowledge based, especially in the developed western countries including the UK. While blue collar jobs have been decreasing, white collar jobs have been increasing, especially in the service sector. At the moment of writing, almost 80 percent of Britain’s GDP comes from the service sector. As a result, there is an increased demand for highly-educated and highly-skilled labour force. In contrast, work performed by unskilled workers has either been taken over by robots or unskilled workers in the developing countries.

In order to meet the needs of the fundamentally changed economy at both global and local levels, education system needs to adapt to new realities. But besides equipping the students with the necessary skills and knowledge to meet the employers’ needs, the students should also be equipped with the necessary skills and knowledge to recognise and ‘capitalise’ the many opportunities offered by an increasingly global world.

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https://revisesociology.com/2016/05/01/globalization-and-education/

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Globalization is an elimination of barriers to trade, communication, and cultural exchange. The theory behind globalization is that worldwide openness will promote the inherent wealth of all nations.
https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-globalization-3310370

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"The processes of globalisation are having profound effects on education across the world."

Vulliamy, G (2010)  Educational Reform in a Globalised Age: What is globalisation and how is it affecting Education world-wide? Available at:  http://www.ncyu.edu.tw/files/site_content/geche/1-Educational%20Reform%20in%20a%20Globalised%20Age%20What%20is%20globalisation%20and%20how%20is%20it%20affecting%20education%20world-wide1.pdf

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Globalisation describes how the world has become increasingly interconnected, for example areas such as, technology, culture and economics are no longer isolated but stretched across the globe. In relation to education, fluctuation in migration patterns and geographical mobility has increased competition within the employment sector. This is demonstrated in the shift from blue collar (manual) work, to the development of white collar (service) sectors; predominately in the west. 'In 2015 80 percent of Britain’s GDP came from the service sector' although this figure is prone to fluctuate. This creates a need for a highly-educated and highly-skilled labour force, as blue collar/un-skilled work is moved to developing countries or completed by robots. In the late 1990's New Labour tried to tackle this by increasing spending on education. This was to ensure that students were taught specific skills that would enable them to engage in a highly competitive and now globalised marked. Their aim was for '50% of children to enter Higher Education.' However, this goal was never achieved.

http://www.lsda.org.uk/the-impact-of-globalisation-on-education.html

https://revisesociology.com/2016/05/01/globalization-and-education/

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Globalisation refers to the increasing interconnectedness between societies across the globe.
There are many dimensions to globalisation:
- Economic globalisation is the globalisation of trade, production and consumption. Most of what we consume in the UK is produced and manufactured abroad, for example, often through Transnational Corporations, or companies which operate in more than one country, such as Shell. As a result of globalisation we have seen a decline in manufacturing jobs in recent years, because these have moved abroad (to countries such as China) and most jobs in the UK are now in the service and leisure sectors.

- Cultural Globalisation refers to the increasingly rapid spread of ideas and values around the globe. This is mainly brought about as a result of the growth of ICT - communications technology which makes it possible to communicate with people in other countries instantaneously. Cultural globalisation includes everything from the spread of music and fashion and consumer products and culture to the spread of political and religious ideas.

- I ncreasing migration is also part of globalisation - with more people moving around the globe for various reasons. Sometimes this is voluntary, with people moving abroad for work or education, other times it is involuntary - as is the case with refugees from conflicts or climate disasters. As a result of increasing immigration, the UK is now a much more mulitcultural society than in the 1950s.
What are the consequences of globalisation for Education in the UK?
1. Increased competition for jobs abroad meant the New Labour government increased spending on education in order to try and give children skills to make them more competitive in a global labour market. New Labour wanted 50% of children to enter Higher Education, although this goal was never achieved.

2. Part of economic globalisation is the establishment of global ICT companies such as Google and Apple. These powerful institutions are now involved in writing curriculums, and online learning materials for various governments around the world. Thus education is increasingly shaped by Transnational Corporations, who make a profit out of providing these services to government. If you have an exam with the edexcell exam board for example, that would have been written by Pearsons (along with your text book), a global corporation.

3. Increasing migration has meant education is now more multicultural - all schools now teach about the 'six world religions' in RE, and we have many faith schools in the UK serving Muslim and Jewish students. In more recent years schools have had to respond to increasing numbers of Polish children entering primary and secondary schools.

4. Increasing cultural globalisation challenges the relevance of a 'National Curriculum' - what is the place of the Nation State and the idea of a 'national curriculum' if we live in an increasingly global culture. It also challenges what type of history and literature we should be teaching.

5. Finally, the growth of global ICT companies and global media more generally challenges the authority of traditional schooling and possibly teachers. What role does a traditional school model have when you can get all your information for free on YouTube, the Student Room and so on....

Revision notes on globalisation...
If you like this sort of thing and want some more context on globalisation, then you might like these revision notes on globalisation, specifically designed for A-level sociology. Nine pages of summary notes covering the following aspects of globalisation: Five mind-maps covering the following:
- Basic definitions and an overview of cultural, economic and political globalisation
- Three theories of globalisation - hyper-globalism, pessimism and transformationalism.
- Arguments for and against the view that globalisation is resulting in the decline of the nation state.
- A-Z glossary covering key concepts and key thinkers.

- Cultural, economic, and political globalisation: a summary
- The hyper-globalist view of globalisation
- The pessimist view of globalisation
- The transformationalist/ postmodernist view of globalisation.
- The relationship between globalisation and education.

These revision resources have been designed to cover the globalisation part of the global development module for A-level sociology (AQA) but they should be useful for all students given that you need to know about globalistion for education, the family and crime, so these should serve as good context.

They might also be useful to students studying other A-level or first year degree subjects such as politics, history, economics or business, where globalisation is on the syllabus.

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Globalisation refers to the increasing interconnectedness between societies across the globe. There are many dimensions to globalisation: - Economic globalisation is the globalisation of trade, production and consumption. Most of what we consume in the UK is produced and manufactured abroad, for example, often through Transnational Corporations, or companies which operate in more than one...

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“there is an increased demand for highly-educated and highly-skilled labour force. In contrast, work performed by unskilled workers has either been taken over by robots or unskilled workers in the developing countries.”

“In order to meet the needs of the fundamentally changed economy at both global and local levels, education system needs to adapt to new realities.”

Learning and Development Agency (2015) The Impact of Globalisation on Education, Available at: http://www.lsda.org.uk/the-impact-of-globalisation-on-education.html

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Sue: Will Straw, Higher Education Network Blog, The Guardian Will Straw is associate director of The Institute for Public Policy Research. 

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Sue: Will Straw, Higher Education Network Blog, The Guardian Will Straw is associate director of The Institute for Public Policy Research. 

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Higher education institutions are worth £59bn to the UK economy annually and are a major export earner. Last year they brought in £5.3bn or around 3% of all services exports. Through their international activities, these universities are one of the UK's fastest growing sources of export earnings with the number of students coming to the UK growing fast. In 2008-09, there were just under 370,000 foreign students enrolled in undergraduate or graduate level degrees at UK universities – up 16% over five years.

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The continued fallout from the 2007-08 global financial crisis has shown clearly how economic power is shifting from west to east. While most advanced economies experienced a recession of some kind, many developing countries continued to grow - buoyed in many cases by significant stimulus packages. In its latest report, the IMF projects that advanced economies will grow by 2.2% in 2011 and 2.6% in 2012 compared with 6.6% for emerging and developing economies this year and 6.4% next.

The continued fallout from the 2007-08 global financial crisis has shown clearly how economic power is shifting from west to east. While most advanced economies experienced a recession of some kind, many developing countries continued to grow - buoyed in many cases by significant stimulus packages. In its latest report, the IMF projects that advanced economies will grow by 2.2% in 2011 and 2.6% in 2012 compared with 6.6% for emerging and developing economies this year and 6.4% next.

China, in particular, stands out as an economic behemoth outperforming all others. It has grown at around 10% year for 32 years and now boasts the world's second largest economy. Measured in terms of purchasing power parities, China may overtake the United States in economic size within five years. The country is now the world's largest exporter of goods and the second largest importer. It contributed a staggering 18% of global growth in 2009 - more even than the US.

The good position of the UK

These extraordinary figures are viewed by many in the west as a threat to the current levels of prosperity. But globalisation is not a zero-sum game and the rise of China (and the rest) presents a huge opportunity for the UK. McKinsey predicts that annual spending by the global middle class will rise from $6.9tn today to $20tn over the next decade. Much of this will come in the form of increased demand for consumer goods such as cars, household appliances and electronics, where Britain is poorly placed. But some of this increased demand will be met by services too.

The UK currently runs a trade deficit, with imports outpacing exports by around £50bn per year - just over 3% of GDP. But this masks a markedly different performance between goods and services. While Britain runs a huge deficit in relation to goods, it runs a modest surplus on services. Indeed, the value of services exports grew twice as fast goods exports from 1998 to 2008 and the UK is the second biggest exporter of services after the US.

A globalised service asset: UK HE in demand

An important part of this growth has been due to higher education. Higher education institutions are worth £59bn to the UK economy annually and are a major export earner. Last year they brought in £5.3bn or around 3% of all services exports. Through their international activities, these universities are one of the UK's fastest growing sources of export earnings with the number of students coming to the UK growing fast. In 2008-09, there were just under 370,000 foreign students enrolled in undergraduate or graduate level degrees at UK universities - up 16% over five years.

Reflecting wider shifts in the global economy, the top two countries of origin for these students are China and India. In 2008-09, more than 47,000 came from China while 34,000 came from India. In 2007, the UK was the second top destination for international students after the US. And while the US had slipped back from providing a quarter of all international places in 2000 to 19.7% in 2007, the UK had held firm with 11.6%. Meanwhile, Universities UK is quite rightly encouraging Britain's universities to export our HE provision to these countries and others by setting up campuses overseas.

The reason for this strong performance is clear. The UK is home to three of the world's top 10 higher education institutions and 29 of the top 200 as judged by the Times Higher Education Supplement. Only the US, which dominates the list, does better.

Attracting international students: risks and challenges

Nonetheless Britain's status as a leading destination for international students is under threat and faces four key risks. First, Britain's HE performance against international standards is slipping. As recently as 2008, the UK had four universities in the top 10 while in 2007, Cambridge and Oxford were tied for second place with Yale. Those ancient institutions have slipped back to 6th and 4th respectively while University College London has fallen from 7th to 17th.

Meanwhile, despite large increases in higher education enrolments, average increases elsewhere mean that the UK has slipped to mid-table in the OECD's rankings and is now below the average.

Second, the government's tighter visa regime is likely to reduce the number of students coming to the UK to study. The UK government proposes reducing net migration from its current level of around 240,000 to "tens of thousands". The burden of this reduction is likely to take place through restrictions on non-EU work, family and student migration. The Migration Advisory Committee has suggested that to achieve their target, net migration via student routes will have to fall by almost 88,000 a year by 2015.

Analysis from the Institute for Public Policy Research shows that even halving the number of student visas from outside the European Economic Area will only reduce net migration by about 40,000. This is because seven in 10 students return to their country of origin after completing their degrees (and so don't show up in the net migration figures). Much of this anticipated squeeze will undoubtedly fall on countries where growth is expanding most rapidly. The only hope is that the government abandons its unachievable target when it realises the damage it is placing on our HE sector.

Third, Britain's total spending on higher education lags many other countries in the rich world. While spending rose from 1% of GDP in 2000 to 1.3% in 2007, it is still below the OECD average of 1.5%. Indeed, the US, which unsurprisingly tops the list, spent 3.1% of GDP.

And while overall expenditure has risen, public spending has fallen. According to the OECD, the UK government spent 0.7% of GDP on higher education in 2000 but just 0.5% in 2007. This represented a fall in the share of HE funding contributed by the state from 68% in 2000 to 36% in 2007. This trend is set to continue with all of the additional tuition fee income following the Browne review being used to replace cuts to the government's overall higher education budget. The 2010 spending review, for example, outlined cuts to teaching budgets of 40% with public support for arts and humanities cut to virtually zero. It will be unclear until the new fees regime has had time to bed down whether the increased fees are enough to cover the government cuts.

Fourth, and related, there is a danger that the lived experience of international students in the UK goes backwards. Even before the government's recent reforms, the student visa regime placed huge strain on the experience of students looking to earn a degree in the UK. Those coming from outside the EU are expected to prove independent means by showing that they have over £7,000 in a bank account and to pay an administrative fee of at least £255 for the privilege of gaining a visa. Making this system more onerous is likely to harm further the impression that international students have of the UK as a place to study.

International students may also find that their facilities are squeezed as universities respond to increasingly assertive domestic students who have to pay fees of £9,000 per year. In many universities, international students are already treated like second-class citizens in relation to student accommodation and facilities. There is a grave risk that this will become the norm.

If allowed to flourish, higher education can continue to become an important part of the UK's economic response to globalisation. The UK's universities are second only to the US and attract thousands of students every year from China, India and many other countries around the world. These trends will continue so long as the UK remains a welcoming place for students from around the world. The great concern is that the government's new student visa regime and its funding reforms, in particular, place this opportunity under severe threat.
Will Straw is associate director of This content is brought to you by Guardian Professional. To get more articles like this direct to your inbox, sign up for free to become a member of the Higher Education Network.The Institute for Public Policy Research. This is an excerpt from the Higher Education Careers Services Unit's autumn edition of Graduate Market Trends. The full article can be viewed at hecsu.ac.uk.

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Globalisation: reflecting on the position and future of UK higher education

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The continued fallout from the 2007-08 global financial crisis has shown clearly how economic power is shifting from west to east. While most advanced economies experienced a recession of some kind, many developing countries continued to grow - buoyed in many cases by significant stimulus packages.