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We are gallerists, artists, writers, editors, curators, directors, arts administrators, assistants, and interns - workers of the art world - and we have been groped, undermined, harassed, infantilised, scorned, threatened, and intimidated by those in positions of power who control access to resources and opportunities. We have held our tongues, threatened by power wielded over us and promises of institutional access and career advancement.

We are not surprised when curators offer exhibitions or support in exchange for sexual favours. We are not surprised when gallerists romanticise, minimise, and hide sexually abusive behaviour by artists they represent. We are not surprised when a meeting with a collector or a potential patron becomes a sexual proposition. We are not surprised when we are retaliated against for not complying. Abuse of power comes as no surprise.

This letter stems from a group discussion about sexual harassment within our field, following the recent allegations about Knight Landesman's behaviour. The conversation has branched out internationally to include artists, writers, editors, curators, directors, assistants, interns, and those with positions within institutions. Harder work to advance equity is often expected of and performed by women of colour, trans, and gender nonconforming people. Our efficacy relies on taking this intersection very seriously and not excluding other corroborating factors that contribute to bias, exclusion, and abuse. These additional factors include, but are not limited to, gender identity, ability, religion, class, and immigration status. There is an urgent need to share our accounts of widespread sexism, unequal and inappropriate treatment, harassment and sexual misconduct, which we experience regularly, broadly, and acutely.

Many institutions and individuals with power in the art world espouse the rhetoric of feminism and equity in theory, often financially benefiting from these flimsy claims of progressive politics, while preserving oppressive and harmful sexist norms in practice. Those in power ignore, excuse, or commit everyday instances of harassment and degradation, creating an environment of acceptance of and complicity in many more serious, illegal abuses of power.

The resignation of one publisher from one high-profile magazine does not solve the larger, more insidious problem: an art world that upholds inherited power structures at the cost of ethical behaviour. Similar abuses occur frequently and internationally on a large scale within this industry. We have been silenced, ostracised, pathologised, dismissed as "overreacting", and threatened when we have tried to expose sexually and emotionally abusive behaviour.

We will be silenced no longer.

We will denounce those who would continue to exploit, silence, and dismiss us. Your actions will no longer be a secret, whispered among us for fear of ostracisation, professional shunning, and recrimination. Where we see the abuse of power, we resolve to speak out, to demand that institutions and individuals address our concerns seriously, and to bring these incidents to light regardless of the perpetrator's gender.

We will no longer ignore the condescending remarks, the wayward hands on our bodies, the threats and intimidations thinly veiled as flirtation, or the silence from ambitious colleagues. We will not tolerate being shamed or disbelieved, and we will not tolerate the recrimination that comes with speaking out. We will not join "task forces" to solve a problem that is perpetrated upon us.

We, the undersigned - those who have experienced abuse and those standing in solidarity with them - call upon art institutions, boards, and peers to consider their role in the perpetuation of different levels of sexual inequity and abuse, and how they plan to handle these issues in the future.

We are too many, now, to be silenced or ignored.

With all we have experienced and witnessed, this letter should come as no surprise.
Following are some of the signatories. A full list is available at notsurprised.org. A.L. Steiner, artist Abigail Browde, theater artist, 600 HIGHWAYMEN, Brooklyn Abigail Child, filmaker Abigail Toll, Artist assistant and writer, Berlin Ad Minoliti, artist, Buenos Aires Ada Potter, Artist & curator, New York City Addie Wagenknecht, artist, NYC Adele Eisenstein, curator, New York Adi Gura, Gallery Director, BRAVERMAN Gallery, Tel Aviv, Israel Adriana Ramić, Artist, New York Adriana Zavala, PhD, Curator and Art Historian Adrianne Rubenstein, artist, New York Agar Ledo, Curator, MARCO, Museo de Arte Contemporánea, Vigo Agnieszka Polska, Artist, Warsaw / Berlin Agustina Ferreyra, Gallery Owner, Galería Agustina Ferreyra, Mexico City Aileen Murphy, Artist Aily Nash, Curator, New York Aimee Friberg, Owner, CULT | Aimee Friberg Exhibitions, San Francisco Alanna Lockward, Founding Director of Art Labour Archives, Berlin and Santo Domingo Alessandra Saviotti, Curator Alex Goldberg, Artist , Self , New York Alex Mawimbi (formerly Ato Malinda), artist, Rotterdam Alexandra Baudelot, Co-Director of Les Laboratoires d'Aubervilliers, Paris Alexandra Giniger, Director, Rachel Uffner Gallery, New York Alexandra Schwartz, Art history faculty and independent curator, School of Visual Arts, New York Alexandra Tatarsky, Writer & Performer, NY Alexine Chanel , Artist, Weissensee Hochkunstschule, Berlin Alexis Johnson, Gallery Director Alhena Katsof, Curator , New York Alia Farid, Artist Alice Conconi, Gallery Director, Andrew Kreps Gallery, New York Alice Rawsthorn, Chair and trustee, London Alice Tippit, Artist, Chicago Aline Bouvy , Artist, Brussels Alison Coplan, Curator, New York Alison Dillulio, Studio Manager Alison Fox, Artist Alissa Bennett, Writer, New York Alissa McKendrick, Artist, New York Alix Dana, Director, Independent, New York Aliza Nisenbaum, Artist, Professor, Columbia University, NYC Allison Card, Gallery Partner, New York Allison Weisberg, Executive Director & Founder, Recess, Brooklyn Alyson Shotz, Artist, New York Amalia Pica, Artist, London Amanda Ross-Ho, Artist, Los Angeles Amelia Jones, Professor, USC, Los Angeles Amy Zion, curator and writer, New York Amy Balkin, Artist, San Francisco Amy Whitaker, Assistant Professor, Visual Arts Administration, NYU Steinhardt, New York Amy Wolf, Private art dealer, New York Ana Castella, Gallerist, josegarcia ,mx, Mexico City Ana Gallado, artista, argentina Ana Janevski, Curator, Museum of Modern Art, New York Anastasia James , Curator , New York Andrea Belag, Artist, studio, New York Andrea Crespo, Artist, New York Andrea Giunta, Writer and professor, Buenos Aires University, Buenos Aires Andrea Longacre-White, Artist, Los Angeles Andrea Scott, writer, New York City Andrea Valdés, Writer, Barcelona Andrianna Campbell, Art Historian, CUNY Graduate Center , New York Angela Dimitrakaki , Writer Angelina Volk, Gallery owner, Emalin, London Angie Keefer, Artist Anicka Yi, Artist, New York Ann Greene Kelly, Artist, Los Angeles Anna Daneri, curator, Genova Anna Craycroft, artist, NYC Anna Goetz, Curator, Frankfurt am Main / Mexico-City Annabeth Marks, Artist, New York Anne Dressen, Curator, Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, Paris Anne Ellegood, Curator Anne Washburn, Playwright, New York Annette Lemieux, Artist, Professor, Harvard University, Cambridge Annie Godfrey Larmon, Writer and Editor Antonia Alampi, Curator, SAVVY Contemporary, Extra City, Berlin Antonia Hirsch, artist, Berlin Antonia Majaca, Curator, Berlin Anuradha Vikram, Artistic Director, 18th Street Arts Center, Los Angeles April Gornik, Artist, 61 Fresh Pond Rd, Sag Harbor, NY 11963 Apsara DiQuinzio, Curator, BAMPFA Ashton Cooper, writer, curator, and gallery worker Aslihan Demirtas, Architect, artist, writer, teacher, Istanbul Astrid Mania, Professor for art history / art critic, Berlin Attilia Fattori Franchini, Curator, London Aude Pariset, Artist, Berlin Ava Ansari, Artist, Curator, Poetic Societies, The Arab American National Museum, Detroit Avery Singer, Artist, New York, NY Aya Ogawa, Theatre artist, Brooklyn B. Ingrid Olson , Artist Banu Cennetoglu, artist, Istanbul Barb Choit, artist Barbara Bloemink, Former art museum director, Smithsonian national design museum, cooper-hewitt, New york Barbara Gladstone, Gallerist, Gladstonegallery, New York Barbara Sirieix, Independent curator, Paris Beatriz Santiago Muñoz, Artist, San Juan, Puerto Rico Becca Albee, Artist, New York Becky Kinder, Artist, New York benedicte Gyldenstierne sehested, Artist Beth B, Artist, Filmmaker , B Productions, New Jersy Beth Fiore, Art Advisor & Curator, Fiore Art Advisory , New York City Beverly Fishman, Artist, Head of PAinting, Cranbrook Academy of Art, Bloomfield Hills Bharti Kher, Artist, Delhi Bianca Schreiber, Program Coordinator, BAU Institute, New York, NY Biljana Ciric, independent curator, Shanghai and Belgrade Binna Choi, Director, Casco, Utrecht Birgit Rathsmann, Artist, Animator, Brooklyn, NY Bouchra Khalili, Artist, Berlin Brandy Carstens, Director, New York Bridget Donahue, Gallery Owner, New York Bridget Finn, Co-founder, Cleopatra's, New York Brigitte Neufeldt, Media Artist, Germany , Monakam Britta Thie, visual artist, performer, Berlin Brittany Nelson, Artist, Richmond, VA Brittni Collins, Arts Administrator , Creative Capital, New York City Brittni Collins, Arts Administrator , NYC Caitlin Keogh, Artist Cajsa von Zeipel , artist, New York City Candice Breitz, Artist, Berlin Cara Benedetto, Artist Caragh Thuring , Artist, London Carin Kuoni, Director/Curator, Vera List Center for Art and Politics, New York Carissa Rodriguez, Artist, New York Carla Acevedo-Yates, Curator, MSU Broad, Lansing, Michigan Carla Chammas, advisor, New York City Carmen Hermo, Assistant Curator, Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art, Brooklyn Museum, New York Carol Bove, Artist, Brooklyn Carolina Caycedo, Artist, Los Angeles Caroline Mesquita, Artist, Paris / Brittany Carolyn Lazard, Artist Carolyn Schoerner, Artist book publisher/bookkeeper, Previously White Columns, now Books for All, New York Carrie Yamaoka, Artist, New York Carrie Yamaoka, Artist, New York Casey O'Connell, Freelance , Glasgow Cassie Griffin, artist, new york Cassils Cassils, Artist, Los Angeles Catalina Lozano, curator and writer, Mexico City Caterina Riva, Curator, Singapore Catherine Taft, Curator and writer , Los Angeles Catherine Wood, Senior Curator, Tate Modern, London Ceci Moss, Director , Gas , Los Angeles, CA Cecilia Fajardo-Hill, Independent curator, Los Angeles Cecilia Dan, Advisor, Cecilia Dan Fine Art, Los Angeles Cecilia Fajardo-Hill, Curator, Los Angeles Cecilia Vicuna, artist, self employed, New York Celia Hempton, Artist, London Celine Kopp, Director, Triangle France, Marseille Charlotte Walters, Associate Fair Director , New Art Dealers Alliance (NADA) , New York Charlotte Brathwaite, Director, New York Charlotte Prodger, Artist , Glasgow Chelsea Haines, Doctoral candidate, The Graduate Center, CUNY, New York, NY Chiara Repetto, Art dealer, kaufmann repetto, Milano and New York Chitra Ganesh, Visual artist, NYC Chloé Rossetti, Artist and Writer, New York Christa Blatchford, CEO/ Artist, Joan Mitchell Foundation, New York Christabel Stewart, Art Editor, curator, ex-Gallerist, Art Review, London Christina Dimitriadis, Artist, Berlin Christina Mackie, artist, London Christine Messineo, Gallerist, Hannah Hoffman, Los Angeles christine Rebet, Artist , Ny Christine Zehner, Art advisor, Various, New York Christy Matson, Artist, Los Angeles Chus Martínez, Curator Cindy Sherman, Artist, New York Claire Le Restif, Director, Le Crédac , Ivry-sur-Seine Claire Tancons, curator, New Orleans Claire Barliant, Writer, Cambridge, MA Claireban Coffey, Studio Manager, New York Clare Quinlan, Former development professional, Dia and the New Museum, New York City Claude Adjil, Curator, London Claudia Altman-Siegel, Gallerist, Altman Siegel, San Francisco Claudia Peña Salinas, Artist/Art Preparator, Guggenheim, New York Claudine Elysee, Gallery assistant, New York City Clemence White, Curatorial Assistant Coco Fusco, artist/professor, University of Florida, Gainesville Coco Young , Artist, New york Colleen Grennan, Gallery Director , Los Angeles Connie Butler, Curator, Los Angeles Constance DeJong, artist, writer Constance Penley, Professor, University of California-Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California Courtney Willis Blair, Artist Liaison, Mitchell-Innes & Nash, New York Cristiana Tejo, Independent Curator, Lisbon/Recife Cristina Tufino, Artist , New York Cécile B. Evans, Artist, London Dai Skuse, Associate Professor, University of Guelph, Gueph, Ontario Canada Dana Kopel, Editor, curator, writer, New Museum, New York Danai Anesiadou, Artist Danielle Dean, Artist, Detroit/Amsterdam Danijela Dugandzic, Directress at Association for Culture and Art CRVENA and Curator at Red Mined Feminist Curatorial Collective, Sarajevo Davina Semo, Artist Deborah Kass, artists, Brooklyn NY Deborah Schamoni, Gallerist, Munich Delaney Martin, Artistic Director, New Orleans and Los Angeles Dena Yago, Artist, Los Angeles Devika Daulet-Singj, Gallery Owner , Photoink, New Delhi Diana Betancourt, Curator , Samdani Art Foundation, Dhaka Dianna Molzan, Artist, Los Angeles Dina Deitsch, Gallery Director, Tufts University Art Galleries, Boston and Medford Dina Weiss, Artist, Professor, and Assistant Chair, Pratt Institute , New York Dominique Gonzalez-Foerster, Artist, Paris Dora Budor, Artist, New York Doreen Mende, Curator, writer and theorist, Berlin/Geneva Dorothée Dupuis, Director and Founder, Terremoto Magazine, Mexico City Drae Campbell, actor, self employed, Brooklyn, NY Débora Delmar, artist, London Débora Delmar, Artist, Mexico City/ London Elana Rubinfeld, Advisor , Los Angeles Eleanor Cayre, Art advisor, Cayre Art Group , NYC Elena Filipovic, Director/Curator, Kunsthalle Basel, Basel Elena Tavecchia, Studio manager and curator, New York Eleonora Oreggia, Artist, Queen Mary University of London, London Elisabeth Sherman , curator, New York Elisabeth Lebovici, Art critic, Paris Elisabeth McAvoy, former Artforum staff member Elise Lammer, Curator, Rome, Italy Eliza Ryan, Curator and Producer, New York Elizabeth Jaeger, Artist, book publisher , New York Elizabeth Jaeger, Artist, New York Ella Dawn McGeough, Artist, Toronto Ellen Freed, Artist, London Ellie Rines, Gallery Owner, 56 Henry, New York Eloise Hawser, Artist, London, London Eloise Hawser, Artist, London, London Els Silvrants-Barclay, Co-Director of Netwerk, Aalst Elvia Wilk, Writer, New York Elvira Dyangani Ose, Lecturer / Curator, Goldsmiths / Creative Time, London / New York Elyse Derosia, Gallery Owner, Bodega, New York Emilie Villez, Director, Kadist , Paris Emily Guzman Sufrin, Former curatorial assistant Emily Hunt, Poet & Arts Professional Emily Mae Smith, Artist, self , Brooklyn Emily Segal , Artist and Writer , Berlin / New York Emily Shanahan, Artist, New York Emma Astner, Gallery Owner, Koppe Astner, Glasgow Emma Fernberger, Director of Artist/City, Bortolami, New York Emma Hedditch, Artist, New York Erica Baum, Artist, Studio, New York Erika Anderson, Gallery Assistant, New york Erika Balsom, Writer , London Erin Leland, Artist, New York Erin Somerville, Curator, White Columns, New York Erin Goldberger, Director and owner, Half Gallery, New Release Gallery, New York City Erin McMonagle, Events, New York Erin Rommel, Designer Erin Shirreff, Artist, New York Eriola Pira, Curator, NARS Foundation, New York Erëmirë Krasniqi, Researcher/ Curator, Kosovo Oral History Initiative, Pristina Eungie Joo, Curator Eva Barois de Caevel, Curator, Paris Eva Franch , Architect / Curator and Director, Storefront for Art and Architecture, New York Eva Scharrer, curator, writer, editor, Berlin Eva Thorne , Graphic designer, Kellenberger-White , London Eva Ursprung, artist, puchstrasse 41, graz Fabienne Audeoud, artist, Paris Fabienne Lasserre, Artist Fadwa Naamna, Curator, Amsterdam Fanny Singer, Arts writer / editor, Freelance / The Wall Street Journal Magazine, London Fanny Singer, Arts writer / editor, Freelance / The Wall Street Journal Magazine, London Fawz Kabra, Curator Fernanda Pitta, curator, Pinacoteca de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo Filipa César, Artist and filmmaker, Berlin Filipa Ramos, Editor and writer, art agenda, London Finola Jones, Gallery owner/Director, mother's tankstation, Dublin Fiona Bate, Gallery Owner, SANDY BROWN, Berlin Flaka Haliti, Artist, Munich Flame *, Artists, Berlin Fleur Breteau, Writer, Paris Florence Derieux, Director of Exhibitions, Hauser & Wirth, New York Florencia Portocarrero , Curator , Bisagra , Berlin Francesca Astesani, Founder and Director, South into North, Copenhagen Francesca Boenzi, Gallery Manager / Producer Francesca Gavin, Curator, Freelance, London Furen Dai, Artist Gabriella Boyd, Artist, London Gabriella Price, Assistant , Gavin Brown's enterprise , New York Gabrielle Giattino, Gallery Owner, Bureau LLC, New York Gabrielle Jenks, Director, Abandon Normal Devices, Manchester, UK Gala Berger , Artist and Co-founder, La Ene , Buenos Aires Gelare Khoshgozaran, artist, writer, co-founding editor of contemptorary, contemptorary, Los Angeles Georgia René-Worms, Artist, Author, Paris Giovanna Zapperi, Art historian, Paris Giulia Gregnanin, Editor, Flash Art, Milano Giulia Mengozzi, Curator, Turin Giulia Tognon, assistant curator, Council, Paris Gloria Maximo, Artist , Queens Gordon Hall, artist, New York, NY Goshka Macuga, Artist, London Grace Schofield, Gallery Owner, Union Pacific, London Greta Hewison, Producer, FLAMIN, London Guy Mannes-Abbott, Writer Gwen Allen, Art historian, San Francisco Géraldine Gourbe, Philosopher and curator, Paris H Lan Thao Lam, Artist, Toronto/New York Haegue Yang, Artist Hannah Hoffman, Gallery Owner, Los Angeles Hannah Perry, Artist, London Hannah Robinson, Gallery Owner, Mary Mary , Glasgow Hannah Whitaker, Artist, New York Harriet Blaise Mitchell, Associate Director, Herald St, London Hayden Dunham, Artist, Los Angeles Heather Funk, Art Shipper, New York Heather Guertin, Artist, New York Heather Hubbs, Director, Non-profit, New York Heather Pesanti, Senior Curator, The Contemporary Austin, Austin Heather Phillipson, Artist, London Helen Nisbet, Curator , Cubitt , London Helen Marten, Artist, London Helena Whittingham , Assistant curator, Freelance, London Henriette Huldisch, Curator, Boston Hilary Crisp-Hudson, Consultant, former Gallery Owner , London Hilary Fagadau, Gallerist, Los Angeles Ilaria Bonacossa, Director/curator, Art Fair, Torino Iliana Fokianaki, State of Concept Athens and Kunsthal Extra City, Greece/Netherlands Iman Issa, Artist Inés Katzenstein, Curator, Professor, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella, Buenos Aires Irene Aristizabal, Curator/Head of Exhibitions, Nottingham Contemporary, Nottingham Irene Hofmann, Director and Chief Curator, SITE Santa Fe, Santa Fe, New Mexico Irene Small, Art historian and critic Iris Touliatou, Artist Irma Álvarez-Laviada, Artist, Madrid Irmgard Emmelheinz, Writer, Mexico City Isabella Maidment, Curator , London Isabelle Alfonsi, Gallerist, Marcelle Alix, Paris Isabelle Le Normand, Curator, Los Angeles Isobel Harbison, Writer, London Ivana Bago, Art historian and curator, Duke University, Durham, NC ivy Shapiro , art advisor , Art Agency Partners , New York Jackie Sibblies Drury, Playwright, New York Jaki Irvine , Artist, Temple Bar Gallery & Studios, Dublin Jamie Sneider, Artist , New York Jana Doell, Art student / educator, Braunschweig Jane Panetta, Curator, New York Jane Swavely, Artist, Chair of the Board of Directors, A.I.R. gallery, A.I.R. Gallery, New York Janelle Reiring, Gallerist, Metro Pictures, New York Janine Foeller, Co-Founder, GrandArmyCollective, New York Jasmin Tsou, Dealer, JTT, New York Jasmina Cibic, Artist, London Jasmine Johnson, Artist, London Jasmine Picot-Chapman, Artist and Curator , London and Vilnius Jayne Drost Johnson, Gallerist, New York Jeannette Ehlers, Artist, Copenhagen Jen Liu, Artist, New York Jennie Goldstein, Assistant Curator, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York Jennifer Reeder, Filmmaker, Chicago Jennifer Coates, Artist Jennifer Josten, Art historian Jennifer Krasinski, Writer|Critic, Brooklyn Jennifer Peterson, Writer and professor, Los Angeles Jennifer Piejko, Writer and Editor, Los Angeles Jennifer Thatcher, Freelance writer, Folkestone, UK Jennifer West, Artist, Los Angeles Jenny Schlenzka, Executive Artistic Director, Performance Space 122, New York Jenny Jaskey, Director and Curator, Brooklyn Jenny Schlenzka, Performance Space 122, New York Jesse Darling, Artist, LDN/Berlin Jessi Reaves, Artist, New York Jessica Silverman, Dealer Jessica Vaughan, Curator, Art on the Underground , London Jessica Wiesner, Artist Jessie Washburne-Harris, Senior Director, Marian Goodman Gallery, New York Jimi Lee, Gallerist, Modern Art, London jina valentine, artist, professor, UNC / SAIC, Durham, NC / Chicago, IL Jing He, Artist/Designer, Eindhoven Joan Jonas, Artist, Self employed, New york Joanna Fiduccia, Art Historian and Critic, Reed College, Portland Joanna Warsza, Independent curator , Artistic Director Public Art Munich 2018 , Berlin Joanne Greenbaum, Artist, New york,new york Johanna Burton, Curator, writer, and educator, New York Johanna Fateman, Writer, New York Jolynn Krystosek, Artist , New York Jordana Zeldin , Independent Curator, Senior Gallery Partnerships Manager (Artsy), Artsy, Brooklyn Josephine Graf, curator and writer Joy Episalla, Artist, New York Joy Episalla, Artist, New York Juana Berrío, Independent Curator & Writer, San Francisco, CA Judi Roaman, Collector, New York Judith Hudson, Artust, Self employed, NYC Judith Hudson, Artust, Self employed, NYC Julia Bryan-Wilson, writer and professor, UC Berkeley, Oakland, CA Julia Christensen, Artist and Professor, Oberlin College, Oberlin, OH Julia Hendrickson, Curator, Writer, & Editor, Austin, Texas Julia Jarcho, director, Minor Theater , New York City Julia Morandeira Arrizabalaga, Curator, CA2M , Madrid Julia Rodrigues, Art producer/ Curator , South INTO North, Copenhagen Julia Rommel, Artist, Bureau, New York, Brooklyn Julia Trotta, Filmmaker, curator, advisor Julia Wachtel, Artist, New York julie bena, artist, Paris-Prague Julie Freeman, Artist, Translating Nature, Margate Julie Muehleisen, Registrar, New York Julieta Aranda, Artist and editor, e-flux, Berlin / New York Julieta Gonzalez, Curator, Mexico City Jumana Manna, Artist, Berlin June Crespo, Artist , Bilbao Kah Bee Chow, Artist, Malmo Kaira Cabañas, Art historian and critic Kaltrina Krasniqi, Film director, Filmmaker, Prishtina Kara Kazanoff, Writer Kari Conte, Director of Programs and Exhibitions, International Studio & Curatorial Program (ISCP), Brooklyn Karin Schneider, Artist, filmmaker and writer. , New York Karyn Olivier, Artist and educator, Philadelphia Kat Herriman, Writer Kate Nesin, Art historian and curator Kate Bryan, Specialist, Phillips, London Kate Fowle, Chief curator, Garage Museum of Contemporary Art, Moscow Kate Shepherd, Artist, New York City Katharina Worf, Gallery Director, London Katharine Overgaard, Gallerist, New York Katherine Carl, Art Historian and Curator, The Graduate Center, CUNY, New York Katherine Chan, Gallerist, Miguel Abreu Gallery, New York Kathleen Madden, Professor, Sotheby's Institite of Art, New York Kathleen Ryan, Artist, Los Angeles/ New York Kathryn Brennan, Gallery Owner, Brennan & Griffin, New York Kathy Noble, Writer and Curator, London Katie Bethune-Leamen, artist Katie Minford, Studio manager katie pearl, theater artist, the american theater community, brooklyn Kay Watson, Curator, London Kelly McGee, Director, Simone Subal Gallery, New York Kelly Taxter, Curator, The Jewish Museum, New York Keltie Ferris, artist, Brooklyn Keren Cytter, Artist, New York Kerri Schlottman-Bright, Director of Development, Creative Capital, New York Kerstin Brätsch, Artist Ketuta Alexi-Meskhishvili, Artist, Studio, Berlin Kim Kozzi, Associate Professor, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario Canada Kim Uchiyama, Artist, New York Kimberly Bradley, critic/adjunct professor, freelance, Berlin/Vienna Kira Freije, Artist, London Kristen Becker, Director, Marianne Boesky Gallery, New York Kristen Dodge, Gallery Owner/Director, SEPTEMBER, formerly DODGEgallery, Hudson, NY, formerly LES Kristen Jensen, artist, Brooklyn Kristen Wawruck, Arts administrator, New York, NY Kristina Buch, Artist, Düsseldorf/London Kristine Haruna Lee, Theater Maker, harunalee, Brooklyn Kyla McDonald, Curator, Berlin Kyla McMillan, Associate Director, Gavin Brown's enterprise, New York Laetitia Badaut, Artist, Paris / London Laura Barlow, Curator Laura Barlow, Curator, Mathaf: Arab Museum of Modern Art, Doha Laura Gonzalez, Art advisor Laura Hoptman, Curator, New York Laura Hunt, artist, New York, NY Laura M. Pana, Founder & Director Non Profit Organization, International, Migrationlab, Vienna, Austria Laura McLean-Ferris, Curator and Writer, New York Laura Phipps, Curator Laura Poitras, Filmmaker/artist, NYC Laura Raicovich, Director, Queens Museum, New York Laura Raicovich, Director, Queens Museum, New York Laure Prouvost, Artist, London Laurel Gitlen, former gallerist, freelance curator and consultant, Self employed, Brooklyn, NY Laurel Ptak, Director, Art in General, New York Lauren Wright , Curator and writer; Programme Director , Siobhan Davies Dance , London Lauren Boyle, Artist, DIS, New York Lauren Christiansen, independent curator, unaffiliated, New York Lauren Cornell, Curator, New York Lauren Hinkson, Curator, New York Lauren Seiden, Artist, Studio, New York Lauren Wittels, Senior Director, Luhring Augustine, New York Laurie Anderson, Artist , Self employed , New york Laurie Simmons, Artist, New York Layla Bermeo, Assistant Curator, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Lea Cetera, Artist, New York, NY Lea Freid , Former Gallerist, current Arts Marketing Exec, Frmr Lombard Freid Gallery , New York Leah Dixon, Artist, New York City and Berlin Leah Winkler, Writer, New York Legacy Russell, Writer and Curator , NYC | LONDON Lena Henke, Artist, New York Lenore Malen, Artist , Parsons The New School, New York City Leslie Auguste, Publisher, Paris Leslie Fritz, Advisor, Fritz Advisory, New York Leslie Hewitt, Artist, New York City Libby Rothfeld, artist Lieselotte Seaton, Sales Director, Sadie Coles HQ, London LIlly Wei, art critic and independent curator, freelance, New York LISA BASILE, WRITER/EDITOR, NYC, NYC Lisa Corinne Davis, Painter/Professor , Hunter College, Brooklyn Lisa Damour, Playwright, PearlDamour, New Orleans Lisa Dent, Curator, producer, writer, arts administrator, New York Lisa Fischman, Museum Director, Davis Museum at Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA Lisa Holzer, Artist, Berlin Lisa Ivorian-Jones, Curator and Publisher, Ivorian-Jones Fine Art, Llc , New York Lisa Naftolin, Creative Director, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York Lisa Oppenheim, Artist, New York Lisa Panting, co-director/co-owner, Hollybush Gardens, London Lisa Phillips, Museum Director Lisa Sigal, Artist, New York City Lisa Yuskavage, Artist, NYC Lisette Smits, educator, curator, course director MFA Master of Voice, Amsterdam / Berlin Liv Wynter, Artist, Education programme at Tate, Activist and Writer., Tate (17/18), London Liz Munsell, Curator , Boston / New York Liz Magic Laser, artist Liz Mulholland, Director/Partner, Andrew Kreps Gallery, New York Lizzie Scott, Artist, Faculty, School of Visual Arts, New York Lolita Fierro, Development, New York Lorena Peña Briro, Cultural promoter, Paos gdl, Guadalajara, México Lori Salmon , Librarian, New York Lori Salmon, Librarian, The New York Public Library, New York Loring Randolph, Artistic Director, Frieze, New York Lotte Juul Petersen, curator, wysing arts centre, cambridge, uk Louise Eliasof, Member of the Board of Trustees, Art21, New York Lucia Sanroman, Curator / Director of Visual Arts, Yerba Buena Ceneter for the Arts, San Francisco lucia zapparoli, Museum educator Lucie Touya, Director of l'Agence à Paris, Artistic Director of la Colonie, Paris Lucile Littot, Artist, Paris Lucrezia Calabrò Visconti, Curator, CLOG, Torino Lucy Chadwick , Director, Gavin Brown's enterprise, New York Lucy Chadwick, Director, New York Lucy McKenzie, artist, Brussels Lucy Winton, artist, self, new york city Luiza Proença, Curator, educator, Brazil Luiza Teixeira de Freitas , Curator , Lisbon Lulu Nunn, Curator, writer, arts engagement officer, London Lumi Tan, Curator, The Kitchen, New York Lynn Hershman Leeson, Artist Lynn Maliszewski, Writer and Editor Lynn Nottage, Theater Artist, Columbia University, New York City Lynne Tillman, Writer, Freelance, New York Léna Monnier, Curator, Paris Magali Reus, Artist, London Magalí Arriola, Curator, México City Magdalena Magiera, Curator Magnolia de la Garza, Curator, Mexico Mai-Thu Perret, artist, Geneva Maika Pollack, Gallerist and Art Historian, Sarah Lawrence College , New York Maja Demska, gallery assistant Malena Bach, Director, London Maliea Croy , Artist , New York City Manuela Moscoso, Curator, Museo Tamayo, Ciudad de Mexico Maori Karmael Holmes, Director of Public Engagement, Institute of Contemporary Art, University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia Mara Hoberman, Critic, Paris / New York Marcela C. Guerrero, Assistant Curator, New York Marcela Flórido , Artist , New York Mare Tralla, artist, Independent , London/ Tallinn Margaret Lee, Artists and Gallery Owner, 47 Canal (gallery), New York Margaret Clinton, Gallerist, Koenig & Clinton, Brooklyn Margaret Honda, Artist, Los Angeles Maria Elena Gonzalez, Visual Artist Maria Ines Rodriguez, Curator, Bordeaux Maria Kjær Themsen , Art critic, Curator , Freelance, Copenhagen Maria Lind, Director of Tensta Konsthall, Stockholm Mariana Castillo Deball, artist , Berlin and Mexico city Mariana Munguia Matute, Director , PAC, Mexico City Marianna Simnett, Artist, London, London Marianne Ramírez, Executive Director and Chief Curator, Museo de Arte Contemporáneo, San Juan Marie Canet, Art Critic , Paris/Lyon Marie Catalano, Director, JTT, New York Marie Darrieussecq , Writer Marie De gaulejac , Curator in charge of artists residencies , Triangle france & Asterides , Marseille marie karlberg, artist, home, new york Marie Kølbæk Iversen, Visual artist Marie Lorenz, Artist, New York marie Lusa, designer , studio marie lusa, zurich Mariechen Danz, artist, Berlin Marilyn Minter, Artist, Studio, NYC Marina Alessio, Galerista, Mite Galeria, Buenos Aires, Argentina Marina Reyes Franco, Independent curator and Co-founder of La Ene , San Juan Maris Bustamante, artist, feminist artist, Mexico City Marta Fontolan, Gallerist Marta Papini, Curator Marte Danielsen Joelbo, Curator and writer Martha Kirszenbaum, Curator and Writer, Paris and Los Angeles Martina Schmuecker, Artist, London Martine Aballéa, Artist, Paris Martine Syms, artist, Los Angeles, CA Marwa Arsanios, Artist, Beirut Marwa Arsanios, Artist, Beirut Mary Cecilia Mitsch, Gallery director, New York Mary Ceruti, Executive Director and Chief Curator, SculptureCenter , New York Mary Ping, Designer, New York Mary Ramsden, Artist , London Mary Reid Kelley, Artist María Elena Ortiz, Curator, Miami Mathilde Ter Heijne, Artist and art professor, Art School in the University of Kassel, Berlin Matylda Krzykowski , Curator , Basel/Berlin Maureen Gallace, Artist, New York Maurin Dietrich, Curator , KW Institute for Contemporary Art , Berlin maxime hourani, Artist May Calil, Consultant, London Medrie MacPhee, Artist/ professor, Bard College, New York Megan Dudley, Projects Director, Cecilia Dan Fine Art, Los Angeles Megan Plunkett, Artist, Los Angeles Melike Kara, Artist, Cologne Melissa Hopson, Artist, IUPUI , Indianapolis Melissa Meyer, Artist, New York City, NYC Meriem Bennani, Artist , New York , New York Mia Locks, Curator Mia Siracusa, Gallery Assistant, Franklin Parrasch Gallery, New York City Michele Horrigan, Artist and Curator Michelle White, Curator, Houston Mika Yoshitake, Curator, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington D.C. Mika Yoshitake, Curator, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington D.C. Milano Chow, artist, Los Angeles Mira Dancy, Artist Mira Schor, Artist and writer, Parsons The New School , New York Miranda July, artist, writer, filmmaker, Los Angeles Miriam Basilio, university professor and former staff member at various museums, New York University, New York Miriam Katzeff, Non-profit director, New York MJ Kaufman, Playwright, freelance, New York Moira Sims, Production Assistant, 47 Canal, New York City Molly Kleiman, Editor, New York Monica Rodriguez, artist / curator, Los Angeles, CA / San Juan, PR Monika Bravo, Artist, Self employed , Brooklyn Moyra Davey, Artist, New York Mylène Ferrand, Art worker and writer, Paris Nadine Nakanishi, Artist, Sonnenzimmer, Chicago Nancy Baker Cahill, Visual Artist, Los Angeles Nancy Bowen, Artist & Professor, Purchase College, SUNY, Brooklyn Nancy Oliveri, Photographer, New York Nancy Spector, Curator Naomi Fry, writer Natalie Bookchin, artist, New York Natalie DiIenno, Artist, Self, Buffalo Natalie Dray, Artist, London Natasa Petresin-Bachelez, Curator, Paris Neringa Černiauskaitė, Editor, artist Niamh Conneely, Head of Development & Communications, Studio Voltaire, London Nicelle Beauchene, Owner / Director, Nicelle Beauchene Gallery, New York Nicola Stephanie, Artist, New York Nicole Cherubini , Artist Nicole Delmes, Gallery owner, Delmes & Zander, Cologne Germany, Cologne Nicole Russo, Gallery Owner, Chapter NY Nicole Russo, Gallery Owner, Chapter NY Nicole Smythe-Johnson, Independent curator and writer , Kingston Nicole Wermers, Artist, professor of sculpture, Akademie der Bildenden Künste, Munich, London, Munich Nicoletta Lambertucci, Curator, London Nikola Dietrich, Curator, Berlin Nina Katchadourian, artist and professor, NYU Gallatin School of Individualized Study, New York/Berlin Noam Segal, Curator, NYC Nora Abrams, Curator, MCA Denver, Denver Nora Bates Zale, Artist/Art Educator, Conway, MA Olga Kisseleva, artiste-researcher, Sorbonne, Paris Pamela Echeverría, Gallery Owner, LABOR, Mexico City Pamela Lee, Professor, Stanford University, San Francisco Pat Lay, artist, Patricia Cronin, Artist, Patricia Cronin Studio, Brooklyn Patricia Reed, Artist, Writer Patricia Treib, Artist, New York Patrizia Sandretto re Rebaudengo, Foundation President and Collector, Fondazione Sandretto Re Rebaudengo, Turin Paul Frantz, Collector, Google Inc, New York Paula Naughton, Director, Simon Preston Gallery, New York Paulina Ascencio, Curator, Independent, Guadalajara Pauline Beaudemont, Artist, Paris Pauline Bertholon, art worker, Paris Pauline Daly , Gallery Director , Sadie Coles HQ, London Pauline Daly, Director, Sadie Coles HQ, London Phillida Reid, Gallery owner, Southard Reid, London Phoebe Berglund, Choreographer, NYC Phoebe Roberts, Curator , Artangel, London Phyllida Barlow, Artist, London Pia Ehrhardt, writer, self-employed, New Orleans Pilar Corrias, Gallerist, Pilar Corrias Gallery, London Polly Staple, Director , Chisenhale Gallery, London Polly Staple, Director, Chisenhale, London Pooneh Maghazehe , Artist, educator, interior designer , MICA, LM//PM Productions LLC, Brookyln Rachel Adams, Curator, UB Art Galleries, Buffalo Rachel Berks, Business owner, Otherwild, New York NY Rachel Cook, Cuator, DiverseWorks, Houston, TX Rachel Ichniowski, Digital Projects Manager, e-flux, New York Rachel Peddersen, Exhibitions Manager, Artists Space, New York Rachel Pimm, Artist, London Rachel Rose, artist, NY Rachel Silveri, Art Historian, Columbia University, New York Rachel Valinsky, Writer, New York Rachel Williams, Gallerist/Dealer, Vilma Gold , London Rallou Panagiotou, Artist Rebecca Thor, Artist, Stockholm Rebecca Smith, Artist, Rebecca Smith Studio, New York, N.Y. Rebecca Uchill, art historian and curator Regine Basha, Curator, New York Renate Wagner, Head of Exhibitions , Kunsthalle Basel, Basel Rhea Anastas, Associate Professor, Art historian, co-founder of Orchard (2005-08), curator, Department of Art, University of California, Irvine, CA Rheim Alkadhi, artist Rita Gonzalez , Curator, Los Angeles County Museum of Art , Los Angeles Robin Cameron, Artist, New York Rona Pondick, Artist, Artist shown with Galerie Thaddaeus Ropac, London/Paris/Salzburg, Sonnabend Gallery, New York, Zevitas/Marcus Los Angeles, New York Rosa Barba, artist, Berlin Rosario Güiraldes, Curator , The Drawing Center , New York Rosario Güiraldes, Curator, Buenos Aires Rose Lord, Senior Director, Marian Goodman Gallery, New York Rose Marcus, Artist Rosemarie Trockel, Artist, Studio, Cologne + Berlin Rosie Cooper, Curator / Head of Exhibitions, De La Warr Pavilion, Bexhill-on-Sea Rosie Motley, Gallerist, New York Ruanne Abou-Rahme, Artist, New York Ruba Katrib, Curator, MoMA PS1, New York Rujeko Hockley, Curator, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York Rózsa Zita Farkas, Gallery Owner, Arcadia Missa, London Sabrina Gschwandtner , Artist , Studio, Los Angeles Sadie Coles, Gallery owner, Sadie Coles HQ, London Sadie Laska, Artist, New york Sahra Motalebi , Artist and producer , Studio , New York Sally Wright, Executive Director , Catskill Art Society, Livingston Manor Sandra Mujinga, Artist, Oslo Sandra Terjman, Curator and Founder, Council, Paris Sanja Ivekovic, Artist, Zagreb Sara Greenberger Rafferty, Artist, New York Sara Magenheimer, Artist, New York Sara Roffino, Writer, New York Sara Stevenson, Program Curator & Residency Program Director, Goethe-Institut New York Sarah Browne , Artist, Dublin Sarah Demeuse, Curator, Writer, Editor, New York Sarah McCrory, Director, Goldsmiths CCA, London Sarah Resnick, Writer and editor, New York Sarah Szczesny, Artist Sarsh Munro, Director , BALTIC Centre for Contemporary Art , Gateshead Sepake Angiama, Head of Education, documenta 14, Kassel Shannon Stratton, Curator, Arts Administrator, Artist, New York/Chicago/Canada Sharon Louden, Artist, New York Shelly Silver, Artist, New York Shelly Silver, artist, New York Shirin Neshat, artist, studio, BKLYN Shirley Irons, Artist, School of Visual Arts, New York Silas von Morisse, Galleriste Owner, SILAS VON MORISSE Gallery (formerly ART 3), Brooklyn nY Silke Lindner-Sutti , Gallery Director , Jack Hanley Gallery , New York Silke Otto-Knapp , Artist Simone Leigh , Artist, NYC Simone Subal, Gallery Owner, New York Sofia Hernández Chong Cuy, Curator Sonel Breslav, Curator and Publisher, New York Sonia Almeida, Artist, Boston, MA Sonja Gandert, PhD student in art history, The Graduate Center, CUNY, New York, NY Sophie Jung, Artist, London Sophie Mörner , Gallery Owner and Publisher , New York Sophie Nys, Artist, Brussels Sophie Orlando, Art Historian, Villa Arson Art college (Nice, France), Paris Spela Volcic, Indipendent. , Visual artist, Slovenia / Italy (Gorica-Gorizia)Stefania Bortolami, Gallerist, Bortolami, New York Stefania Palumbo, Director/owner , Supportico Lopez, Berlin Steffani Jemison, Artist, Brooklyn Stella Bottai, Programme Curator, Stanley Picker Gallery, London Stephanie Syjuco, Artist and Professor, University of California, Berkeley Sunitha Kumar Emmart, Gallery Owner , GALLERYSKE , Bangalore Susan Bee, Artist, A.I.R. Gallery, New York City Susan Klein, Artist/professor , College of Charleston , Charleston Susan Thompson, Curator, New York Susanna Greeves, Director, White Cube, London Susanna Heller, Painter, Professor of Art, SUNY Purchase College, Brooklyn, NY susanne m. winterling, artist, rehau, berlin Susanne Zander, Gallerist, Delmes + Zander, Cologne Suzanne Cotter, Director, Serralves Museum of Contemporary Art, Porto Talia Chetrit, Artist, New York Talia Kwartler, Curatorial Assistant, The Museum of Modern Art, New York Talia Shulze, Artist, Brooklyn, NY Tamara Ibarra, Artist - Researcher, YEI. Platform and Archive, Mexico City, MEXICO Tania Bruguera, Artist, La Habana Tanja Ostojic, Interdisciplinary artist , Cultural activist, Berlin / Belgrade Tara Ahmadinejad, Artist, Freelance, Brooklyn Tauba Auerbach, Artist, New York Tenaya Izu, Artist, Assistant, NYC Terike Haapoja, artist, Parsons Fine Arts, New York Thao Nguyen, Board Secretary, The Mistake Room, Los Angeles The White Pube, Art critics, thewhitepube.com, Liverpool, London Thea Ballard, Editor and writer, New Museum, New York Theresa Sterner, Artist, Los Angeles Tina Satter, Theater Artist, Half Straddle, New York City Tiril Hasselknippe, Artist, Oslo Tracey Rose, Artist, The Goodman Gallery and Dan Gunn (Berlin), Durban Trina Gordon, Gallery director, Gladstone Gallery, New York Trish Harnetiaux, writer , New York Trisha Baga, artist, New York Trudy Benson, artist, Brooklyn Valentina Suma, gallery director, kaufmann repetto, Milan Valerie Chartrain, curator, berlin Valerie Werder, Writer, New York Vanessa Carlos, Gallery Owner, Carlos/Ishikawa, London Vanessa Desclaux, curator, école nationale supérieure d'art de Dijon, Paris Vanessa Safavi, Artist, Berlin / Switzerland Vanina Géré , art historian, critic, associate professsor, ENSA Nancy, France, Paris Vere van Gool, Curator, New York & Amsterdam Veronica Levitt, Director, Gallery, New York Veronica Roberts, Curator, Austin, Texas Victoria Brooks, Curator, EMPAC, Troy, NY Victoria Camblin, Editor, curator of public programming Vivian Ziherl, Curator, Frontier Imaginaries Wendy Vogel, writer and curator Whitney Claflin, Artist, New York Xandra Eden, Executive Director & Chief Curator, DiverseWorks, Houston Xylor Jane, Artist Yael Reinharz, Executive Director, Artis, New York YK Hong, Anti-oppression Trainer and Speaker and Artist Young Jean Lee, Writer/Director, Brooklyn Yun Choi, Artist, Seoul Zadie Xa, Artist, London Zane Oncklue, Curator, CCS Bard, Tivoli Zarouhie Abdalian, Artist, New Orleans Zhoe Granger, Gallerist, London Zuzanna Hadrys, gallerist, Galeria Stereo, Warsaw Àngels Miralda, curator, Berlin Övül Ö. Durmusoglu, Curator, writer and lecturer, Akademie der Bildenden Künste Nürnberg, Berlin And additional anonymous signatories in solidarity with this statement whose personal or professional circumstances regretfully still prevent them from signing publicly.

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We'll stay silent no more over sexual harassment in the art world | Letters

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We are gallerists, artists, writers, editors, curators, directors, arts administrators, assistants, and interns - workers of the art world - and we have been groped, undermined, harassed, infantilised, scorned, threatened, and intimidated by those in positions of power who control access to resources and opportunities.

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A version of this story originally appeared in the January 1971 issue of ARTnews.

While the recent upsurge of feminist activity in this country has indeed been a liberating one, its force has been chiefly emotional-personal, psychological and subjective-centered, like the other radical movements to which it is related, on the present and its immediate needs, rather than on historical analysis of the basic intellectual issues which the feminist attack on the status quo automatically raises. ¹ Like any revolution, however, the feminist one ultimately must come to grips with the intellectual and ideological basis of the various intellectual or scholarly disciplines-history, philosophy, sociology, psychology, etc.-in the same way that it questions the ideologies of present social institutions. If, as John Stuart Mill suggested, we tend to accept whatever is as natural, this is just as true in the realm of academic investigation as it is in our social arrangements. In the former, too, "natural" assumptions must be questioned and the mythic basis of much so-called "fact" brought to light. And it is here that the very position of woman as an acknowledged outsider, the maverick "she" instead of the presumably neutral "one"-in reality the white-male-position-accepted-as-natural, or the hidden "he" as the subject of all scholarly predicates-is a decided advantage, rather than merely a hindrance of a subjective distortion.

In the field of art history, the white Western male viewpoint, unconsciously accepted as the viewpoint of the art historian, may-and does-prove to be inadequate not merely on moral and ethical grounds, or because it is elitist, but on purely intellectual ones. In revealing the failure of much academic art history, and a great deal of history in general, to take account of the unacknowledged value system, the very presence of an intruding subject in historical investigation, the feminist critique at the same time lays bare its conceptual smugness, its meta-historical naïveté. At a moment when all disciplines are becoming more self-conscious, more aware of the nature of their presuppositions as exhibited in the very languages and structures of the various fields of scholarship, such uncritical acceptance of "what is" as "natural" may be intellectually fatal. Just as Mill saw male domination as one of a long series of social injustices that had to be overcome if a truly just social order were to be created, so we may see the unstated domination of white male subjectivity as one in a series of intellectual distortions which must be corrected in order to achieve a more adequate and accurate view of historical situations.

It is the engaged feminist intellect (like John Stuart Mill's) that can pierce through the cultural-ideological limitations of the time and its specific "professionalism" to reveal biases and inadequacies not merely in the dealing with the question of women, but in the very way of formulating the crucial questions of the discipline as a whole. Thus, the so-called woman question, far from being a minor, peripheral and laughably provincial sub-issue grafted on to a serious, established discipline, can become a catalyst, an intellectual instrument, probing basic and "natural" assumptions, providing a paradigm for other kinds of internal questioning, and in turn providing links with paradigms established by radical approaches in other fields. Even a simple question like "Why have there been no great women artists?" can, if answered adequately, create a sort of chain reaction, expanding not merely to encompass the accepted assumptions of the single field, but outward to embrace history and the social sciences, or even psychology and literature, and thereby, from the outset, to challenge the assumption that the traditional divisions of intellectual inquiry are still adequate to deal with the meaningful questions of our time, rather than the merely convenient or self-generated ones.

Let us, for example, examine the implications of that perennial question (one can, of course, substitute almost any field of human endeavor, with appropriate changes in phrasing): "Well, if women really are equal to men, why have there never been any great women artists (or composers, or mathematicians, or philosophers, or so few of the same)?"

"Why have there been no great women artists?" The question tolls reproachfully in the background of most discussions of the so-called woman problem. But like so many other so-called questions involved in the feminist "controversy," it falsifies the nature of the issue at the same time that it insidiously supplies its own answer: "There are no
great women artists because women are incapable of greatness."

The assumptions behind such a question are varied in range and sophistication, running anywhere from "scientifically proven" demonstrations of the inability of human beings with wombs rather than penises to create anything significant, to relatively open-minded wonderment that women, despite so many years of near-equality-and after all, a lot of men have had their disadvantages too-have still not achieved anything of exceptional significance in the visual arts.

The feminist's first reaction is to swallow the bait, hook, line and sinker, and to attempt to answer the question as it is put: i.e., to dig up examples of worthy or insufficiently appreciated women artists throughout history; to rehabilitate rather modest, if interesting and productive careers; to "re-discover" forgotten flower-painters or David-followers and make out a case for them; to demonstrate that Berthe Morisot was really less dependent upon Manet than one had been led to think-in other words, to engage in the normal activity of the specialist scholar who makes a case for the importance of his very own neglected or minor master. Such attempts, whether undertaken from a feminist point of view, like the ambitious article on women artists which appeared in the 1858 Westminster Review, ² or more recent scholarly studies on such artists as Angelica Kauffmann and Artemisia Gentileschi, ³ are certainly worth the effort, both in adding to our knowledge of women's achievement and of art history generally. But they do nothing to question the assumptions lying behind the question "Why have there been no great women artists?" On the contrary, by attempting to answer it, they tacitly reinforce its negative implications.

Another attempt to answer the question involves shifting the ground slightly and asserting, as some contemporary feminists do, that there is a different kind of "greatness" for women's art than for men's, thereby postulating the existence of a distinctive and recognizable feminine style, different both in its formal and its expressive qualities and based on the special character of women's situation and experience.

This, on the surface of it, seems reasonable enough: in general, women's experience and situation in society, and hence as artists, is different from men's, and certainly the art produced by a group of consciously united and purposefully articulate women intent on bodying forth a group consciousness of feminine experience might indeed be stylistically identifiable as feminist, if not feminine, art. Unfortunately, though this remains within the realm of possibility it has so far not occurred. While the members of the Danube School, the followers of Caravaggio, the painters gathered around Gauguin at Pont-Aven, the Blue Rider, or the Cubists may be recognized by certain clearly defined stylistic or expressive qualities, no such common qualities of "femininity" would seem to link the styles of women artists generally, any more than such qualities can be said to link women writers, a case brilliantly argued, against the most devastating, and mutually contradictory, masculine critical clichés, by Mary Ellmann in her Thinking about Women. ⁴ No subtle essence of femininity would seem to link the work of Artemesia Gentileschi, Mme. Vigée-Lebrun, Angelica Kauffmann, Rosa Bonheur, Berthe Morisot, Suzanne Valadon , Kaethe Kollwitz, Barbara Hepworth, Georgia O'Keeffe, Sophie Taeuber-Arp, Helen Frankenthaler, Bridget Riley, Lee Bontecou or Louise Nevelson, any more than that of Sappho, Marie de France, Jane Austen, Emily Brontë, George Sand, George Eliot, Virginia Woolf, Gertrude Stein, Anaïs Nin, Emily Dickinson, Sylvia Plath and Susan Sontag. In every instance, women artists and writers would seem to be closer to other artists and writers of their own period and outlook than they are to each other.

Women artists are more inward-looking, more delicate and nuanced in their treatment of their medium, it may be asserted. But which of the women artists cited above is more inward-turning than Redon, more subtle and nuanced in the handling of pigment than Corot? Is Fragonard more or less feminine than Mme. Vigée-Lebrun? Or is it not more a question of the whole Rococo style of 18th-century France being "feminine," if judged in terms of a two-valued scale of "masculinity" vs. "femininity"? Certainly though, if daintiness, delicacy and preciousness are to be counted as earmarks of a feminine style, there is nothing fragile about Rosa Bonheur's Horse Fair, nor dainty and introverted about Helen Frankenthaler's giant canvases. If women have turned to scenes of domestiC life, or of children, so did Jan Steen, Chardin and the Impressionists-Renoir and Monet as well as Morisot and Cassatt. In any case, the mere choice of a certain realm of subject matter, or the restriction to certain subjects, is not to be equated with a style, much less with some sort of quintessentially feminine style.

The problem lies not so much with the feminists' concept of what femininity is, but rather with their misconception-shared with the public at large-of what art is: with the naïve idea that art is the direct, personal expression of individual emotional experience, a translation of personal life into visual terms. Art is almost never that, great art never is. The making of art involves a self-consistent language of form, more or less dependent upon, or free from, given temporally-defined conventions, schemata or systems of notation, which have to be learned or worked out, either through teaching, apprenticeship or a long period of individual experimentation. The language of art is, more materially, embodied in paint and line on canvas or paper, in stone or clay or plastic or metal-it is neither a sob-story nor a confidential whisper.

The fact of the matter is that there have been no supremely great women artists, as far as we know, although there have been many interesting and very good ones who remain insufficiently investigated or appreciated; nor have there been any great Lithuanian jazz pianists, nor Eskimo tennis players, no matter how much we might wish there had been. That this should be the case is regrettable, but no amount of manipulating the historical or critical evidence will alter the situation; nor will accusations of male-chauvinist distortion of history. The fact, dear sisters, is that there are no women equivalents for Michelangelo or Rembrandt, Delacroix or Cézanne, Picasso or Matisse, or even, in very recent times, for de Kooning or Warhol, any more than there are Black American equivalents for the same. If there actually were large numbers of "hidden" great women artists, or if there really should be different standards for women's art as opposed to men's-and one can't have it both ways-then what are the feminists fighting for? If women have in fact achieved the same status as men in the arts, then the status quo is fine as it is.

But in actuality, as we all know, things as they are and as they have been, in the arts as in a hundred other areas, are stultifying, oppressive and discouraging to all those, women among them, who did not have the good fortune to be born white, preferably middle class and, above all, male. The fault, dear brothers, lies not in our stars, our hormones, our menstrual cycles or our empty internal spaces, but in our institutions and our education-education understood to include everything that happens to us from the moment we enter this world of meaningful symbols, signs and signals. The miracle is, in fact, that given the overwhelming odds against women, or blacks, that so many of both have managed to achieve so much sheer excellence, in those bailiwicks of white masculine prerogative like science, politics or the arts.

It is when one really starts thinking about the implications of "Why have there been no great women artists?" that one begins to realize to what extent our consciousness of how things are in the world has been conditioned-and often falsified-by the way the most important questions are posed. We tend to take it for granted that there really is an East Asian Problem, a Poverty Problem, a Black Problem-and a Woman Problem. But first we must ask ourselves who is formulating these "questions," and then, what purposes such formulations may serve. (We may, of course, refresh our memories with the connotations of the Nazi's "Jewish Problem.") Indeed, in our time of instant communication, "problems" are rapidly formulated to rationalize the bad conscience of those with power: thus the problem posed by Americans in Vietnam and Cambodia is referred to by Americans as "the East Asian Problem," whereas East Asians may view it, more realistically, as "the American Problem"; the so-called Poverty Problem might more directly be viewed as the "Wealth Problem" by denizens of urban ghettos or rural wastelands; the same irony twists the White Problem into its opposite: a Black Problem; and the same inverse logic turns up in the formulation of our own present state of affairs as the "Woman Problem."

Now the "Woman Problem," like all human problems, so-called (and the very idea of calling anything to do with human beings a "problem" is, of course, a fairly recent one) is not amenable to "solution" at all, since what human problems involve is re-interpretation of the nature of the situation, or a radical alteration of stance or program on the part of the "problems" themselves. Thus women and their situation in the arts, as in other realms of endeavor, are not a "problem" to be viewed through the eyes of the dominant male power elite. Instead, women must conceive of themselves as potentially, if not actually, equal subjects, and must be willing to look the facts of their situation full in the face, without self-pity, or cop-outs; at the same time they must view their situation with that high degree of emotional and intellectual commitment necessary to create a world in which equal achievement will be not only made possible but actively encouraged by social institutions.

It is certainly not realistic to hope that a majority of men, in the arts, or in any other field, will soon see the light and find that it is in their own self-interest to grant complete equality to women, as some feminists optimistically assert, or to maintain that men themselves will soon realize that they are diminished by denying themselves access to traditionally "feminine" realms and emotional reactions. After all, there are few areas that are really "denied" to men, if the level of operations demanded be transcendent, responsible or rewarding enough: men who have a need for "feminine" involvement with babies or children gain status as pediatricians or child psychologists, with a nurse (female) to do the more routine work; those who feel the urge for kitchen creativity may gain fame as master chefs; and, of course, men who yearn to fulfill themselves through what are often termed "feminine" artistic interests can find themselves as painters or sculptors, rather than as volunteer museum aides or part time ceramists, as their female counterparts so often end up doing; as far as scholarship is concerned, how many men would be willing to change their jobs as teachers and researchers for those of unpaid, part-time research assistants and typists as well as full-time nannies and domestic workers?

Those who have privileges inevitably hold on to them, and hold tight, no matter how marginal the advantage involved, until compelled to bow to superior power of one sort or another.

Thus the question of women's equality-in art as in any other realm-devolves not upon the relative benevolence or ill-will of individual men, nor the self-confidence or abjectness of individual women, but rather on the very nature of our institutional structures themselves and the view of reality which they impose on the human beings who are part of them. As John Stuart Mill pointed out more than a century ago: "Everything which is usual appears natural. The subjection of women to men being a universal custom, any departure from it quite naturally appears unnatural." ⁵ Most men, despite lip-service to equality, are reluctant to give up this "natural" order of things in which their advantages are so great; for women, the case is further complicated by the fact that, as Mill astutely pointed out, unlike other oppressed groups or castes, men demand of her not only submission but unqualified affection as well; thus women are often weakened by the internalized demands of the male-dominated society itself, as well as by a plethora of material goods and comforts: the middle-class woman has a great deal more to lose than her chains.

The question "Why have there been no great women artists?" is simply the top tenth of an iceberg of misinterpretation and misconception; beneath lies a vast dark bulk of shaky idées reçues about the nature of art and its situational concomitants, about the nature of human abilities in general and of human excellence in particular, and the role that the social order plays in all of this. While the "woman problem" as such may be a pseudo-issue, the misconceptions involved in the question "Why have there been no great women artists?" points to major areas of intellectual obfuscation beyond the specific political and ideological issues involved in the subjection of women. Basic to the question are many naïve, distorted, uncritical assumptions about the making of art in general, as well as the making of great art. These assumptions, conscious or unconscious, link together such unlikely superstars as Michelangelo and van Gogh, Raphael and Jackson Pollock under the rubric of "Great"-an honorific attested to by the number of scholarly monographs devoted to the artist in question-and the Great Artist is, of course, conceived of as one who has "Genius"; Genius, in turn, is thought of as an atemporal and mysterious power somehow embedded in the person of the Great Artist. ⁶ Such ideas are related to unquestioned, often unconscious, meta-historical premises that make Hippolyte Taine's race-milieu-moment formulation of the dimensions of historical thought seem a model of sophistication. But these assumptions are intrinsic to a great deal of art-historical writing. It is no accident that the crucial question of the conditions generally productive of great art has so rarely been investigated, or that attempts to investigate such general problems have, until fairly recently, been dismissed as unscholarly, too broad, or the province of some other discipline, like sociology. To encourage a dispassionate, impersonal, sociological and institutionally-oriented approach would reveal the entire romantic, elitist, individual-glorifying and monograph-producing substructure upon which the profession of art history is based, and which has only recently been called in to question by a group of younger dissidents.

Underlying the question about woman as artist, then, we find the myth of the Great Artist-subject of a hundred monographs, unique, godlike-bearing within his person since birth a mysterious essence, rather like the golden nugget in Mrs. Grass's chicken soup, called Genius or Talent, which, like murder, must always out, no matter how unlikely or unpromising the circumstances.

The magical aura surrounding the representational arts and their creators has, of course, given birth to myths since the earliest times. Interestingly enough, the same magical abilities attributed by Pliny to the Greek sculptor Lysippos in antiquity-the mysterious inner call in early youth, the lack of any teacher but Nature herself-is repeated as late as the 19th century by Max Buchon in his biography of Courbet. The supernatural powers of the artist as imitator, his control of strong, possibly dangerous powers, have functioned historically to set him off from others as a godlike creator, one who creates Being out of nothing. The fairy tale of the Boy Wonder, discovered by an older artist or discerning patron, usually in the guise of a lowly shepherd boy, has been a stock-in-trade of artistic mythology ever since Vasari immortalized the young Giotto, discovered by the great Cimabue while the lad was guarding his flocks, drawing sheep on a stone; Cimabue, overcome with admiration by the realism of the drawing, immediately invited the humble youth to be his pupil. ⁷ Through some mysterious coincidence, later artists including Beccafumi, Andrea Sansovino, Andrea del Castagno, Mantegna, Zurbaran and Goya were all discovered in similar pastoral circumstances. Even when the young Great Artist was not fortunate enough to come equipped with a flock of sheep, his talent always seems to have manifested itself very early, and independent of any external encouragement: Filippo Lippi and Poussin, Courbet and Monet are all reported to have drawn caricatures in the margins of their schoolbooks instead of studying the required subjects-we never, of course, hear about the youths who neglected their studies and scribbled in the margins of their notebooks without ever becoming anything more elevated than department-store clerks or shoe salesmen. The great Michelangelo himself, according to his biographer and pupil, Vasari, did more drawing than studying as a child. So pronounced was his talent, reports Vasari, that when his master, Ghirlandaio, absented himself momentarily from his work in Santa Maria Novella, and the young art student took the opportunity to draw "the scaffolding, trestles, pots of paint, brushes and the apprentices at their tasks" in this brief absence, he did it so skillfully that upon his return the master exclaimed: "This boy knows more than I do."

As is so often the case, such stories, which probably have some truth in them, tend both to reflect and perpetuate the attitudes they subsume. Despite any basis in fact of these myths about the early manifestations of Genius, the tenor of the tales is misleading. It is no doubt true, for example, that the young Picasso passed all the examinations for entrance to the Barcelona, and later to the Madrid, Academy of Art at the age of 15 in but a single day, a feat of such difficulty that most candidates required a month of preparation. But one would like to find out more about similar precocious qualifiers for art academies who then went on to achieve nothing but mediocrity or failure-in whom, of course, art historians are uninterested-or to study in greater detail the role played by Picasso's art-professor father in the pictorial precocity of his son. What if Picasso had been born a girl? Would Señor Ruiz have paid as much attention or stimulated as much ambition for achievement in a little Pablita?

What is stressed in all these stories is the apparently miraculous, non-determined and a-social nature of artistic achievement; this semi-religious conception of the artist's role is elevated to hagiography in the 19th-century, when both art historians, critics and, not least, some of the artists themselves tended to elevate the making of art into a substitute religion, the last bulwark of Higher Values in a materialistic world. The artist, in the 19th-century Saints' Legend, struggles against the most determined parental and social opposition, suffering the slings and arrows of social opprobrium like any Christian martyr, and ultimately succeeds against all odds-generally, alas, after his death-because from deep within himself radiates that mysterious, holy effulgence: Genius. Here we have the mad van Gogh, spinning out sunflowers despite epileptic seizures and near-starvation; Cézanne, braving paternal rejection and public scorn in order to revolutionize painting; Gauguin throwing away respectability and financial security with a single existential gesture to pursue his Calling in the tropics, or Toulouse-Lautrec, dwarfed, crippled and alchoholic [ sic], sacrificing his aristocratic birthright in favor of the squalid surroundings that provided him with inspiration, etc.

Now no serious contemporary art historian takes such obvious fairy tales at their face value. Yet it is this sort of mythology about artistic achievement and its concomitants which forms the unconscious or unquestioned assumptions of scholars, no matter how many crumbs are thrown to social influences, ideas of the times, economic crises and so on. Behind the most sophisticated investigations of great artists-more specifically, the art-historical monograph, which accepts the notion of the Great Artist as primary, and the social and institutional structures within which he lived and worked as mere secondary "influences" or "background"-lurks the golden-nugget theory of genius and the free-enterprise conception of individual achievement. On this basis, women's lack of major achievement in art may be formulated as a syllogism: If women had the golden nugget of artistic genius then it would reveal itself. But it has never revealed itself. Q.E.D. Women do not have the golden nugget of artistic genius. If Giotto, the obscure shepherd boy, and van Gogh with his fits could make it, why not women?

Yet as soon as one leaves behind the world of fairy-tale and self-fulfilling prophecy and, instead, casts a dispassionate eye on the actual situations in which important art production has existed, in the total range of its social and institutional structures throughout history, one finds that the very questions which are fruitful or relevant for the historian to ask shape up rather differently. One would like to ask, for instance, from what social classes artists were most likely to come at different periods of art history, from what castes and sub-group. What proportion of painters and sculptors, or more specifically, of major painters and sculptors, came from families in which their fathers or other close relatives were painters and sculptors or engaged in related professions? As Nikolaus Pevsner points out in his discussion of the French Academy in the 17th and 18th centuries, the transmission of the artistic profession from father to son was considered a matter of course (as it was with the Coypels, the Coustous, the Van Loos, etc); indeed, sons of academicians were exempted from the customary fees for lessons. ⁸ Despite the noteworthy and dramatically satisfying cases of the great father-rejecting révoltés of the 19th century, one might be forced to admit that a large proportion of artists, great and not-so-great, in the days when it was normal for sons to follow in their fathers' footsteps, had artist fathers. In the rank of major artists, the names of Holbein and Dürer, Raphael and Bernini, immediately spring to mind; even in our own times, one can cite the names of Picasso, Calder, Giacometti and Wyeth as members of artist-families.

As far as the relationship of artistic occupation and social class is concerned, an interesting paradigm for the question "Why have there been no great women artists?" might well be provided by trying to answer the question: "Why have there been no great artists from the aristocracy?" One can scarcely think, before the anti-traditional 19th century at least, of any artist who sprang from the ranks of any more elevated class than the upper bourgeoisie; even in the 19th century, Degas came from the lower nobility-more like the haute bourgeoisie, in fact-and only Toulouse-Lautrec, metamorphosed into the ranks of the marginal by accidental deformity, could be said to have come from the loftier reaches of the upper classes. While the aristocracy has always provided the lion's share of the patronage and the audience for art-as, indeed, the aristocracy of wealth does even in our more democratic days-it has contributed little beyond amateurish efforts to the creation of art itself, despite the fact that aristocrats (like many women) have had more than their share of educational advantages, plenty of leisure and, indeed, like women, were often encouraged to dabble in the arts and even develop into respectable amateurs, like Napoleon III's cousin, the Princess Mathilde, who exhibited at the official Salons, or Queen Victoria, who, with Prince Albert, studied art with no less a figure than Landseer himself. Could, it be that the little golden nugget-Genius-is missing from the aristocratic make-up in the same way that it is from the feminine psyche? Or rather, is it not, that the kinds of demands and expectations placed before both aristocrats and women-the amount of time necessarily devoted to social functions, the very kinds of activities demanded-simply made total devotion to professional art production out of the question, indeed unthinkable, both for upper-class males and for women generally, rather than its being a question of genius and talent?

When the right questions are asked about the conditions for producing art, of which the production of great art is a sub-topic, there will no doubt have to be some discussion of the situational concomitants of intelligence and talent generally, not merely of artistic genius. Piaget and others have stressed in their genetic epistemology that in the development of reason and in the unfolding of imagination in young children, intelligence-or, by implication, what we choose to call genius-is a dynamic activity rather than a static essence, and an activity of a subject in a situation. As further investigations in the field of child development imply, these abilities, or this intelligence, are built up minutely, step by step, from infancy onward, and the patterns of adaptation-accommodation may be established so early within the subject-in-an-environment that they may indeed appear to be innate to the unsophisticated observer. Such investigations imply that, even aside from meta-historical reasons, scholars will have to abandon the notion, consciously articulated or not, of individual genius as innate, and as primary to the creation of art. ⁹

The question "Why have there been no great women artists?" has led us to the conclusion, so far, that art is not a free, autonomous activity of a super-endowed individual, "influenced" by previous artists, and, more vaguely and superficially, by "social forces," but rather, that the total situation of art making, both in terms of the development of the art maker and in the nature and quality of the work of art itself, occur in a social situation, are integral elements of this social structure, and are mediated and determined by specific and definable social institutions, be they art academies, systems of patronage, mythologies of the divine creator, artist as he-man or social outcast.
The Question of the Nude
We can now approach our question from a more reasonable standpoint, since it seems probable that the answer to why there have been no great women artists lies not in the nature of individual genius or the lack of it, but in the nature of given social institutions and what they forbid or encourage in various classes or groups of individuals.

Let us first examine such a simple, but critical, issue as availability of the nude model to aspiring women artists, in the period extending from the Renaissance until near the end of the 19th century, a period in which careful and prolonged study of the nude model was essential to the training of every young artist, to the production of any work with pretentions to grandeur, and to the very essence of History Painting, generally accepted as the highest category of art: indeed, it was argued by defenders of traditional painting in the 19th century that there could be no great painting with clothed figures, since costume inevitably destroyed both the temporal universality and the classical idealization required by great art. Needless to say, central to the training programs of the academies since their inception late in the 16th and early in the 17th centuries, was life drawing from the nude, generally male, model. In addition, groups of artists and their pupils often met privately for life drawing sessions from the nude model in their studios. In general, it might be added, while individual artists and private academies employed the female model extensively, the female nude was forbidden in almost all public art schools as late as 1850 and after-a state of affairs which Pevsner rightly designates as "hardly believable." ¹⁰ Far more believable, unfortunately, was the complete unavailability to the aspiring woman artist of any nude models at all, male or female. As late as 1893, "lady" students were not admitted to life drawing at the Royal Academy in London, and even when they were, after that date, the model had to be "partially draped." ¹¹

A brief survey of representations of life-drawing sessions reveals: an all male clientele drawing from the female nude in Rembrandt's studio; men working from male nudes in 18th-century representations of academic instruction in The Hague and Vienna; men working from the seated male nude in Bailly's charming painting of the interior of Houdon's studio at the beginning of the 19th century; Mathieu Cochereau's scrupulously veristic Interior of David's Studio, exhibited in the Salon of 1814, reveals a group of young men diligently drawing or painting from a male nude model, whose discarded shoes may be seen before the models' stand.

The very plethora of surviving "Academies"-detailed, painstaking studies from the nude studio model-in the youthful oeuvre of artists down through the time of Seurat and well into the 20th century, attests to the central importance of this branch of study in the pedagogy and development of the talented beginner. The formal academic program itself normally proceeded, as a matter of course,
from copying from drawings and engravings, to drawing from casts of famous works of sculpture, to drawing from the living model. To be deprived of this ultimate stage of training meant, in effect, to be deprived of the possibility of creating major art works, unless one were a very ingenious lady indeed, or simply, as most of the women aspiring to be painters ultimately did, to restrict oneself to the "minor" fields of portraiture, genre, landscape or still-life. It is rather as though a medical student were denied the opportunity to dissect or even examine the naked human body.

There exist, to my knowledge, no representations of artists drawing from the nude model which include women in any role but that of the nude model itself, an interesting commentary on rules of propriety: i.e., it is all right for a ("low," of course) woman to reveal herself naked-as-an-object for a group of men, but forbidden to a woman to participate in the active study and recording of naked-man-as-an-object, or even of a fellow woman. An amusing example of this taboo on confronting a dressed lady with a naked man is embodied in a group portrait of the members of the Royal Academy in London in 1772, represented by Zoffany as gathered in the life room before two nude male models: all the distinguished members are present with but one noteworthy exception-the single female member, the renowned Angelica Kauffmann, who, for propriety's sake, is merely present in effigy, in the form of a portrait hanging on the wall. A slightly earlier drawing of Ladies in the Studio by the Polish artist Daniel Chodowiecki, shows the ladies portraying a modestly dressed member of their sex. In a lithograph dating from the relatively liberated epoch following the French Revolution, the lithographer Marlet has represented some women sketchers in a group of students working from the male model, but the model himself has been chastely provided with what appears to be a pair of bathing trunks, a garment hardly conducive to a sense of classical elevation: no doubt such license was considered daring in its day, and the young ladies in question suspected of doubtful morals, but even this liberated state of affairs seems to have lasted only a short while. In an English stereoscopic color view of the interior of a studio of about 1865, the standing, bearded male model is so heavily draped that not an iota of his anatomy escapes from the discreet toga, save for a single bare shoulder and arm: even so, he obviously had the grace to avert his eyes in the presence of the crinoline-clad young sketchers.

The women in the Women's Modeling Class at the Pennsylvania Academy were evidently not allowed even this modest privilege. A photograph by Thomas Eakins of about 1885 reveals these students modeling from a cow (bull? ox? the nether regions are obscure in the photograph), a naked cow to be sure, perhaps a daring liberty when one considers that even piano legs might be concealed beneath pantalettes during this era (the idea of introducing a bovine model into the artist's studio stems from Courbet, who brought a bull into his short-lived studio academy in the 1860s). Only at the very end of the 19th century, in the relatively liberated and open atmosphere of Repin's studio and circle in Russia, do we find representations of women art students working uninhibitedly from the nude-the female model, to be sure-in the company of men. Even in this case, it must be noted that certain photographs represent a private sketch group meeting in one of the women artists' homes; in the other, the model is draped; and the large group portrait, a co-operative effort by two men and two women students of Repin's, is an imaginary gathering together of all of the Russian realist's pupils, past and present, rather than a realistic studio view.

I have gone into the question of the availability of the nude model, a single aspect of the automatic, institutionally-maintained discrimination against women, in such detail simply to demonstrate both the universality of the discrimination against women and its consequences, as well as the institutional rather than individual nature of but one facet of the necessary preparation for achieving mere proficiency, much less greatness, in the realm of art during a long stretch of time. One could equally well examine other dimensions of the situation, such as the apprenticeship system, the academic educational pattern which, in France especially, was almost the only key to success and which had a regular progression and set competitions, crowned by the Prix de Rome which enabled the young winner to work in the French Academy in that city-unthinkable for women, of course-and for which women were unable to compete until the end of the 19th century, by which time, in fact, the whole academic system had lost its importance anyway. It seems clear, to take France in the 19th century as an example, a country which probably had a larger proportion of women artists than any other-that is to say, in terms of their percentage in the total number of artists exhibiting in
the Salon-that "women were not accepted as professional painters." ¹² In the middle of the century, there were only a third as many women as men artists, but even this mildly encouraging statistic is deceptive when we discover that out of this relatively meager number, none had attended that major stepping stone to artistic success, the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, only 7 percent had received any official commission or had held any official office-and these might include the most menial sort of work-only 7 percent had ever received any Salon medal, and none had ever received the Legion of Honor. ¹³ Deprived of encouragements, educational facilities and rewards, it is almost incredible that a certain percentage of women did persevere and seek a profession in the arts.

It also becomes apparent why women were able to compete on far more equal terms with men-and even become innovators-in literature. While art-making traditionally has demanded the learning of specific techniques and skills, in a certain sequence, in an institutional setting outside the home, as well as becoming familiar with a specific vocabulary of iconography and motifs, the same is by no means true for the poet or novelist. Anyone, even a women, has to learn the language, can learn to read and write, and can commit personal experiences to paper in the privacy of one's room. Naturally this oversimplifies the real difficulties and complexities involved in creating good or great literature, whether by man or woman, but it still gives a clue as to the possibility of the existence of Emily Brönte or an Emily Dickinson, and the lack of their counterparts, at least until quite recently, in the visual arts.

Of course we have not gone into the "fringe" requirements for major artists, which would have been, for the most part, both psychically and socially closed to women, even if hypothetically they could have achieved the requisite grandeur in the performance of their craft: in the Renaissance and after, the great artist, aside from participating in the affairs of an academy, might well be intimate
with members of humanist circles with whom he could exchange ideas, establish suitable relationships with patrons, travel widely and freely, perhaps politic and intrigue; nor have we mentioned the sheer organizational acumen and ability involved in running a major studio-factory, like that of Rubens. An enormous amount of self-confidence and worldly knowledgeability, as well as a natural sense of well-earned dominance and power, was needed by the great chef d'école, both in the running of the production end of painting, and in the control and instruction of the numerous students and assistants.
The Lady's Accomplishment
In contrast to the single-mindedness and commitment demanded of a chef d'école, we might set the image of the "lady painter" established by 19th-century etiquette books and reinforced by the literature of the times. It is precisely the insistence upon a modest, proficient, self-demeaning level of amateurism as a "suitable accomplishment" for the well-brought up young woman, who naturally would want to direct her major attention to the welfare of others-family and husband-that militated, and still militates, against any real accomplishment on the part of women. It is this emphasis which transforms serious commitment to frivolous self-indulgence, busy work or occupational therapy, and today, more than ever, in suburban bastions of the feminine mystique, tends to distort the whole notion of what art is and what kind of social role it plays. In Mrs. Ellis' widely read The Family Monitor and Domestic Guide, published before the middle of the 19th century, a book of advice popular both in the United States and in England, women were warned against the snare of trying too hard to excel in any one thing:

It must not be supposed that the writer is one who would advocate, as essential to woman, any very extraordinary degree of intellectual attainment, especially if confined to one particular branch of study. "I should like to excel in something" is a frequent and, to some extent, laudable expression; but in what does it originate, and to what does it tend? To be able to do a great many things tolerably well, is of infinitely more value to a woman, than to be able to excel in any one. By the former, she may render herself generally useful: by the latter, she may dazzle for an hour. By being apt, and tolerably well skilled in everything, she may fall into any situation in life with dignity and ease-by devoting her time to excellence in one, she may remain incapable of every other.

So far as cleverness, learning, and knowledge are conducive to woman's moral excellence, they are therefore desirable, and no further. All that would occupy her mind to the exclusion of better things, all that would involve her in the mazes of flattery and admiration, all that would tend to draw away her thoughts from others and fix them on herself, ought to be avoided as an evil to her, however brilliant or attractive it may be in itself. ¹⁴

Lest we are tempted to laugh, we may refresh ourselves with more recent samples of exactly the same message cited in Betty Friedan's Feminine Mystique, or in the pages of recent issues of popular women's magazines.

This advice has a familiar ring, of course: propped up by a bit of Freudianism and some tag-lines from the social sciences about the well-rounded personality, preparation for woman's chief career, marriage, and the unfemininity of deep involvement with work rather than sex, it is still the mainstay of the Feminine Mystique. Such an outlook helps guard man from unwanted competition in his "serious" professional activities and assures him of "well-rounded" assistance on the home front, so that he may have sex and family in addition to the fulfillment of his own specialized talent and excellence at the same time.

As far as painting specifically is concerned, Mrs. Ellis finds that it has one immediate advantage for the young lady over its rival branch of artistic activity, music-it is quiet and disturbs no one (this negative virtue, of course, would not be true of sculpture, but accomplishment with the hammer and chisel simply never occurs as a suitable accomplishment for the weaker sex); in addition, says Mrs. Ellis, "it [drawing] is an employment which beguiles the mind of many cares...Drawing is, of all other occupations, the one most calculated to keep the mind from brooding upon self, and to maintain
that general cheerfulness which is a part of social and domestic duty...It can also," she adds, "be laid down and resumed, as circumstance or inclination may direct, and that without any serious loss." ¹⁵ Again, lest we feel that we have made a great deal of progress in this area in the past 100 years, I might bring up the remark of a bright young doctor who, when the conversation turned to his wife and her friends "dabbling" in the arts, snorted: "Well, at least it keeps them out of trouble!" Now as in the 19th century, amateurism and lack of real commitment as well as snobbery and emphasis on chic on the part of women in their artistic "hobbies," feeds the contempt of the successful, professionally committed man who is engaged in "real" work and can, with a certain justice, point to his wife's lack of seriousness in her artistic activities. For such men, the "real" work of women is only that which directly or indirectly serves the family; any other commitment falls under the rubric of diversion, selfishness, egomania or, at the unspoken extreme, castration. The circle is a vicious one, in which philistinism and frivolity mutually re-enforce each other.

In literature, as in life, even if the woman's commitment to art was a serious one, she was expected to drop her career and give up this commitment at the behest of love and marriage: this lesson is, today as in the 19th century, still inculcated in young girls, directly or indirectly, from the moment they are born. Even the determined and successful heroine of Mrs. Craik's mid-19th-century novel about feminine artistic success, Olive, a young woman who lives alone, strives for fame and independence and actually supports herself through her art-such unfeminine behavior is at least partly excused by the fact that she is a cripple and automatically considers that marriage is denied to her-even Olive ultimately succumbs to the blandishments of love and marriage. To paraphrase the words of Patricia Thomson in The Victorian Heroine, Mrs. Craik, having shot her bolt in the course of her novel, is content, finally, to let her heroine, whose ultimate greatness the reader has never been able to doubt, sink gently into matrimony. "Of Olive, Mrs. Craik comments imperturbably that her husband's influence is to deprive the Scottish Academy of 'no one knew how many grand pictures.' " ¹⁶ Then as now, despite men's greater "tolerance," the choice for women seems always to be marriage or a career, i.e., solitude as the price of success or sex and companionship at the price of professional renunciation.

That achievement in the arts, as in any field of endeavor, demands struggle and sacrifice, no one would deny; that this has certainly been true after the middle of the 19th century, when the traditional institutions of artistic support and patronage no longer fulfilled their customary obligations, is undeniable: one has only to think of Delacroix, Courbet, Degas, van Gogh and Toulouse-Lautrec as examples of great artists who gave up the distractions and obligations of family life, at least in part, so that they could pursue their artistic careers more singlemindedly. Yet none of them was automatically denied the pleasures of sex or companionship on account of this choice. Nor did they ever conceive that they had sacrificed their manhood or their sexual role on account of their singleness and singlemindedness in order to achieve professional fulfillment. But if the artist in question happens to be a woman, 1,000 years of guilt, self-doubt and objecthood have been added to the undeniable difficulties of being an artist in the modern world.

The unconscious aura of titillation that arises from a visual representation of an aspiring woman artist in the mid-19th century, Emily Mary Osborne's heartfelt painting, Nameless and Friendless, 1857, a canvas representing a poor but lovely and respectable young girl at a London art dealer, nervously awaiting the verdict of the pompous proprietor about the worth of her canvases while two ogling "art lovers" look on, is really not too different in its underlying assumptions from an overtly salacious work like Bompard's Debut of the Model. The theme in both is innocence, delicious feminine innocence, exposed to the world. It is the charming vulnerability of the young woman artist, like that of the hesitating model, which is really the subject of Miss Osborne's painting, not the value of the young woman's work or her pride in it: the issue here is, as usual, sexual rather than serious. Always a model but never an artist might well have served as the motto of the seriously aspiring young woman in the arts of the 19th century.
Successes
But what of the small band of heroic women, who, throughout the ages, despite obstacles, have achieved pre-eminence, if not the pinnacles of grandeur of a Michelangelo, a Rembrandt or a Picasso? Are there any qualities that may be said to have characterized them as a group and as individuals? While we cannot go into such an investigation in depth in this article, we can point to a few striking characteristics of women artists generally: they all, almost without exception, were either the daughters of artist fathers, or, generally later, in the 19th and 20th centuries, had a close personal connection with a stronger or more dominant male artistic personality. Neither of these characteristics is, of course, unusual for men artists, either, as we have indicated above in the case of artist fathers and sons: it is simply true almost without exception for their feminine counterparts, at least until quite recently. From the legendary sculptor, Sabina von Steinbach, in the 13th century, who, according to local tradition, was responsible for South Portal groups on the Cathedral of Strasbourg, down to Rosa Bonheur, the most renowned animal painter of the 19th century, and including such eminent women artists as Marietta Robusti, daughter of Tintoretto, Lavinia Fontana, Artemisia Gentileschi, Elizabeth Chéron, Mme. Vigée-Lebrun and Angelica Kauffmann-all, without exception, were the daughters of artists; in the 19th century, Berthe Morisot was closely associated with Manet, later marrying his brother, and Mary Cassatt based a good deal of her work on the style of her close friend Degas. Precisely the same breaking of traditional bonds and discarding of time-honored practices that permitted men artists to strike out in directions quite different from those of their fathers in the second half of the 19th century enabled women, with additional difficulties, to be sure, to strike out on their own as well. Many of our more recent women artists, like Suzanne Valadon, Paula Modersohn-Becker, Kaethe Kollwitz or Louise Nevelson, have come from non-artistic backgrounds, although many contemporary and near-contemporary women artists have married fellow artists.

It would be interesting to investigate the role of benign, if not outright encouraging, fathers in the formation of women professionals: both Kaethe Kollwitz and Barbara Hepworth, for example, recall
the influence of unusually sympathetic and supportive fathers on their artistic pursuits. In the absence of any thoroughgoing investigation, one can only gather impressionistic data about the presence or absence of rebellion against parental authority in women artists, and whether there may be more or less rebellion on the part of women artists than is true in the case of men or vice versa. One thing however is clear: for a woman to opt for a career at all, much less for a career in art, has required a certain amount of unconventionality, both in the past and at present; whether or not the woman artist rebels against or finds strength in the attitude of her family, she must in any case have a good strong streak of rebellion in her to make her way in the world of art at all, rather than submitting to the socially approved role of wife and mother, the only role to which every social institution consigns her automatically. It is only by adopting, however covertly, the "masculine" attributes of singlemindedness, concentration, tenaciousness and absorption in ideas and craftsmanship for their own sake, that women have succeeded, and continue to succeed, in the world of art.
Rosa Bonheur
It is instructive to examine in greater detail one of the most successful and accomplished women painters of all time, Rosa Bonheur (1822-1899), whose work, despite the ravages wrought upon its estimation by changes of taste and a certain admitted lack of variety, still stands as an impressive achievement to anyone interested in the art of the 19th century and in the history of taste generally. Rosa Bonheur is a woman artist in whom, partly because of the magnitude of her reputation, all the various conflicts, all the internal and external contradictions and struggles typical of her sex and profession, stand out in sharp relief.

The success of Rosa Bonheur firmly establishes the role of institutions, and institutional change, as a necessary, if not a sufficient cause of achievement in art. We might say that Bonheur picked a fortunate time to become an artist if she was, at the same time, to have the disadvantage of being a woman: she came into her own in the middle of the 19th century, a time in which the struggle between traditional History Painting as opposed to the less pretentious and more free-wheeling genre painting, landscape and still-life was won by the latter group hands down. A major change in the social and institutional support for art itself was well under way: with the rise of the bourgeoisie and the fall of the cultivated aristocracy, smaller paintings, generally of every-day subjects, rather than grandiose mythological or religious scenes were much in demand. To cite the Whites: "Three hundred provincial museums there might be, government commissions for public works there might be, but the only possible paid destinations for t he rising flood of canvases were the homes of the bourgeoisie. History painting had not and never would rest comfortably in the middle-class parlor. 'Lesser' forms of image art-genre, landscape, still-life-did." ¹⁷ In mid-century France, as in 17th-century Holland, there was a tendency for artists to attempt to achieve some sort of security in a shaky market situation by specializing, by making a career out of a specific subject: animal painting was a very popular field, as the Whites point out, and Rosa Bonheur was no doubt its most accomplished and successful practitioner, followed in popularity only by the Barbizon painter Troyon (who at one time was so pressed for his paintings of cows that he hired another artist to brush in the backgrounds). Rosa Bonheur's rise to fame accompanied that of the Barbizon landscapists, supported by those canny dealers, the Durand-Ruels, who later moved on to the Impressionists. The
Durand-Ruels were among the first dealers to tap the expanding market in movable decoration for the middle classes, to use the Whites' terminology. Rosa Bonheur's naturalism and ability to capture the individuality-even the "soul"-of each of her animal subjects coincided with bourgeois taste at the time. The same combination, of qualities, with a much stronger dose of sentimentality and pathetic fallacy to be sure, likewise assured the success of her animalier contemporary, Landseer, in England.

Daughter of an impoverished drawing master, Rosa Bonheur quite naturally showed her interest in art early; at the same time, she exhibited an independence of spirit and liberty of manner which immediately earned her the label of tomboy. According to her own later accounts, her "masculine protest" established itself early; to what extent any show of persistence, stubbornness and vigor would be counted as "masculine" in the first half of the 19th century is conjectural. Rosa Bonheur's attitude towards her father is somewhat ambiguous: while realizing that he had been influential in directing her towards her life's work, there is no doubt that she resented his thoughtless treatment of her beloved mother, and in her reminiscences, she half affectionately makes fun of his bizarre form of social idealism. Raimond Bonheur had been an active member of the short-lived Saint-Simonian community, established in the third decade of the 19th century by "Le Père" Enfantin at Menilmontant. Although in her later years Rosa Bonheur might have made fun of some of the more far-fetched eccentricities of the members of the community, and disapproved of the additional strain which her father's apostolate placed on her overburdened mother, it is obvious that the Saint-Simonian ideal of equality for women-they disapproved of marriage, their trousered feminine costume was a token of emancipation, and their spiritual leader, Le Père Enfantin, made extraordinary efforts to find a Woman Messiah to share his reign-made a strong impression on her as a child, and may well have influenced her future course of behavior.

"Why shouldn't I be proud to be a woman?" she exclaimed to an interviewer. "My father, that enthusiastic apostle of humanity, many times reiterated to me that woman's mission was to elevate the human race, that she was the Messiah of future centuries. It is to his doctrines that I owe the great, noble ambition I have conceived for the sex which I proudly affirm to be mine, and whose independence I will support to my dying day..." ¹⁸ When she was hardly more than a child, he instilled in her the ambition to surpass Mme. Vigée-Lebrun certainly the most eminent model she could be expected to follow, and he gave her early efforts every possible encouragement. At the same time, the spectacle of her uncomplaining mother's slow decline from sheer overwork and poverty might have been an even more realistic influence on her decision to control her own destiny and never to become the slave of a husband and children. What is particularly interesting from the modern feminist viewpoint is Rosa Bonheur's ability to combine the most vigorous and unapologetic masculine protest with unabashedly self-contradictory assertions of "basic" femininity.

In those refreshingly straightforward pre-Freudian days, Rosa Bonheur could explain to her biographer that she had never wanted to marry for fear of losing her independence-too many young girls let themselves be led to the altar like lambs to the sacrifice, she maintained. Yet at the same time that she rejected marriage for herself and implied an inevitable loss of selfhood for any woman who engaged in it, she, unlike the Saint-Simonians, considered marriage "a sacrament indispensable to the organization of society."

While remaining cool to offers of marriage, she joined in a seemingly cloudless, lifelong and apparently Platonic union with a fellow woman artist, Nathalie Micas, who evidently provided her with the companionship and emotional warmth which she needed. Obviously the presence of this sympathetic friend did not seem to demand the same sacrifice of genuine commitment to her profession which marriage would have entailed: in any case, the advantages of such an arrangement for women who wished to avoid the distraction of children in the days before reliable contraception are obvious.

Yet at the same time that she frankly rejected the conventional feminine role of her times, Rosa Bonheur still was drawn into what Betty Friedan has called the "frilly blouse syndrome," that innocuous version of the feminine protest which even today compels successful women psychiatrists or professors to adopt some ultra-feminine item of clothing or insist on proving their prowess as pie-bakers. ¹⁹ Despite the fact that she had early cropped her hair and adopted men's clothes as her habitual attire, following the example of George Sand, whose rural Romanticism exerted a powerful influence over her imagination, to her biographer she insisted, and no doubt sincerely believed, that she did so only because of the specific demands of her profession. Indignantly denying rumors to the effect that she had run about the streets of Paris dressed as a boy in her youth, she proudly provided her biographer with a daguerreotype of herself at 16 years, dressed in perfectly conventional feminine fashion, except for her shorn head, which she excused as a practical measure taken after the death of her mother; "who would have taken care of my curls?" she demanded. ²⁰

As far as the question of masculine dress was concerned, she was quick to reject her interlocutor's suggestion that her trousers were a symbol of emancipation. "I strongly blame women who renounce their customary attire in the desire to make themselves pass for men," she affirmed. "If I had found that trousers suited my sex, I would have completely gotten rid of my skirts, but this is not the
case, nor have I ever advised my sisters of the palette to wear men's clothes in the ordinary course of life. If, then, you see me dressed as I am, it is not at all with the aim of making myself interesting, as all too many women have tried, but simply in order to facilitate my work. Remember that at a certain period I spent whole days in the slaughterhouses. Indeed, you have to love your art in order to live in pools of blood...I was also fascinated with horses, and where better can one study these animals than at the fairs...? I had no alternative but to realize that the garments of my own sex were a total nuisance. That is why I decided to ask the Prefect of Police for the authorization to wear masculine clothing. ²¹ But the costume I am wearing is my working outfit, nothing else. The remarks of fools have never bothered me. Nathalie [her companion] makes fun of them as I do. It doesn't bother her at all to see me dressed as a man, but if you are even the slightest bit put off, I am completely prepared to put on a skirt, especially since all I have to do is to open a closet to find a whole assortment of feminine outfits." ²²

Yet at the same time Rosa Bonheur is forced to admit: "My trousers have been my great protectors...Many times I have congratulated myself for having dared to break with traditions which would have forced me to abstain from certain kinds of work, due to the obligation to drag my skirts everywhere..." Yet the famous artist again feels obliged to qualify her honest admission with an ill-assumed "femininity": "Despite my metamorphoses of costume, there is not a daughter of Eve who appreciates the niceties more than I do; my brusque and even slightly unsociable nature has never prevented my heart from remaining completely feminine." ²³

It is somewhat pathetic that this highly successful artist, unsparing of herself in the painstaking study of animal anatomy, diligently pursuing her bovine or equine subjects in the most unpleasant surroundings, industriously producing popular canvases throughout the course of a lengthy career, firm, assured and incontrovertably masculine in her style, winner of a first medal in the Paris Salon, Officer of the Legion of Honor, Commander of the Order of Isabella the Catholic and the Order of Leopold of Belgium, friend of Queen Victoria-that this world-renowned artist should feel compelled late in life to justify and qualify her perfectly reasonable assumption of masculine ways, for any reason whatsoever, and to feel compelled to attack her less modest trouser-wearing sisters at the same time, in order to satisfy the demands of her own conscience. For her conscience, despite her supportive father, her unconventional behavior and the accolade of worldly success, still condemned her for not being a "feminine" woman.

The difficulties imposed by such demands on the woman artist continue to add to her already difficult enterprise even today. Compare, for example, the noted contemporary, Louise Nevelson, with her combination of utter, "unfeminine" dedication to her work and her conspicuously "feminine" false eyelashes; her admission that she got married at 17 despite her certainty that she couldn't live without creating because "the world said you should get married." ²⁴ Even in the case of these two outstanding artists-and whether we like The Horsefair or not, we still must admire Rosa Bonheur's achievement-the voice of the feminine mystique with its potpourri of ambivalent narcissism and guilt, internalized, subtly dilutes and subverts that total inner confidence, that absolute certitude and self-determination, moral and esthetic, demanded by the highest and most innovative work in art.
Conclusion
We have tried to deal with one of the perennial questions used to challenge women's demand for true, rather than token, equality, by examining the whole erroneous intellectual substructure upon which
the question "Why have there been no great women artists?" is based; by questioning the validity of the formulation of so-called "problems" in general and the "problem" of women specifically; and then, by probing some of the limitations of the discipline of art history itself. Hopefully, by stressing the institutional-i.e. the public-rather than the individual, or private, pre-conditions for achievement or the lack of it in the arts, we have provided a paradigm for the investigation of other areas in the field. By examining in some detail a single instance of deprivation or disadvantage-the unavailability of nude models to women art students-we have suggested that it was indeed institutionally made impossible for women to achieve artistic excellence, or success, on the same footing as men, no matter what the potency of their so-called talent, or genius. The existence of a tiny band of successful, if not great, women artists throughout history does nothing to gainsay this fact, any more than does the existence of a few superstars or token achievers among the members of any minority groups. And while great achievement is rare and difficult at best, it is still rarer and more difficult if, while you work, you must at the same time wrestle with inner demons of self-doubt and guilt and outer monsters of ridicule or patronizing encouragement, neither of which have any specific connection with the quality of the art work as such.

What is important is that women face up to the reality of their history and of their present situation, without making excuses or puffing mediocrity. Disadvantage may indeed be an excuse; it is not, however, an intellectual position. Rather, using as a vantage point their situation as underdogs in the realm of grandeur, and outsiders in that of ideology, women can reveal institutional and intellectual weaknesses in general, and, at the same time that they destroy false consciousness, take part in the creation of institutions in which clear thought-and true greatness-are challenges open to anyone, man or woman, courageous enough to take the necessary risk, the leap into the unknown.
1. Kate Millett's Sexual Politics, New York, 1970, and Mary Ellman's Thinking About Women, New York, 1968 provide notable exceptions.
2. "Women Artists." Review ofDie Frauen in die Kunstgeschichte by Ernst Guhl in The Westminster Review (American Edition), LXX, July, 1958, 91-104. I am grateful to Elaine Showalter for having brought this review to my attention.
3. See, for example, Peter S. Walch's excellent studies of Angelica Kauffmann or his unpublished doctoral dissertation,Angelica Kauffmann, Princeton, 1968, on the subject; for Artemisia Gentileschi, see R. Ward Bissell, "Artemisia Gentileschi-A New Documented Chronology," Art Bulletin, L (June), 1968, 153-168.
4. New York, 1968.
5. John Stuart Mill,The Subjection of Women (1869) in Three Essays by John Stuart Miff, World's Classics Series, London, 1966, p. 441.
6. For the relatively recent genesis of the emphasis on the artist as the nexus of esthetic experience, see M. H. Abrams,The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition, New York, 1953, and Maurice Z. Shrader, Icarus: The Image of the Artist in French
Romanticism, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1961.
7. A comparison with the parallel myth for women, the Cinderella Story, is revealing: Cinderella gains higher status on the basis of a passive, "sex-object" attribute-small feet-whereas the Boy Wonder always proves himself through active accomplishment. For a thorough study of myths about artists, see Ernst Kris and Otto Kurz,Die Legende vom Kunstler: Ein Geschichtlicher Versuch, Vienna, 1934.
8. Nikolaus Pevsner,Academies of Art, Past and Present, Cambridge, 1940, p. 96f.
9. Contemporary directions-earthworks, conceptual art, art as information, etc.-certainly pointaway from emphasis on the individual genius and his salable products; in art history, Harrison C. and Cynthia A. White's Canvases and Careers: Institutional Change in the French Painting World, New York, 1965, opens up a fruitful new direction of investigation, as did Nikolaus Pevsner's pioneering Academies of Art. Ernst Gombrich and Pierre Francastel, in their very different ways, always have tended to view art and the artist as part of a total situation rather than in lofty isolation.
10. Female models were introduced in the life-class in Berlin in 1875, in Stockholm in 1839, in Naples in 1870, at the Royal College of Art in London, after 1875. Pevsner,op. cit., p. 231. Female models at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts wore masks to hide their identity
as late as about 1866-as attested to in a charcoal drawing by Thomas Eakins-if not later.
11. Pevsner,op. cit., p. 231 .
12. H. C. and C. A. White,op. cit., p. 51.
13.Ibid., Table 5.
14. Mrs. Ellis,The Daughters of England: Their Position in Society, Character, and Responsibilities (1844) in The Family Monitor, New York, 1844, p. 35.
15.Ibid., 38-39.
16. Patricia Thomson,The Victorian Heroine: A Changing Ideal, London, 1956, p. 77.
17. H. C. an d C . A. White,op. cit., p. 91 .
18. Anna Klumpke, Rosa Bonheur: Sa Vie, son oeuvre, Paris, 1908, p. 311.
19. Betty Friedan,The Feminine Mystique, New York, 1963, p. 158.
20. A. Klumpke,op. cit., p. 166.
21. Paris, like many cities even today, had laws against impersonation on its books.
22. A. Klumpke,op. cit., pp. 308-309.
23.Ibid., pp. 310-311 .
24. Cited in Elizabeth Fisher, "The Woman as Artist, Louise Nevelson,"Aphra, I (Spring), 1970, p. 32.
Author: Linda Nochlin is professor of art history at Vassar. Her book on Realism (Penguin) will come out this winter. This article is based on a section of the anthology Woman in Sexist Society: Studies in Power and Powerlessness, to be published by Basic Books in April.
A version of this story originally appeared in the January 1971 issue of ARTnews on page 22 under the title "Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists?"

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From 1971: Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists? -

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A version of this story originally appeared in the January 1971 issue of ARTnews. While the recent upsurge of feminist activity in this country has indeed been a liberating one, its force has been chiefly emotional-personal, psychological and subjective-centered, like the other radical movements to which it is related, on the present and its immediate needs, rather than on historical analysis of the basic intellectual issues which the feminist attack on the status quo automatically raises.

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listening events curated by amy pettifer and jennifer boyd

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Event Details - Canterbury Christ Church University

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Details on our upcoming Arts and Culture event.

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Rarely is canonical art hung at the eye-level of a six-year-old. But a new exhibition of radical feminist artist Ana Mendieta 's work does just that: shifts world-renowned artworks down a few inches, so that children can interact with them.

"Children are so intelligent. I wanted the show to respect that," curator Amy Rosenblum Martín explains, as we walk through "Ana Mendieta: Thinking About Children's Thinking," the exhibition she organized at Sugar Hill Children's Museum of Art and Storytelling in Harlem. "Ana's work was the perfect fit."

Mendieta isn't the first artist that would pop into most curators' minds when brainstorming a project for a children's museum. In many of her most iconic performances, which she made during her short career in the 1970s and '80s, she used her own, nude body to create impressions in materials ranging from animal blood to mud. Through these actions, which have become touchstones of feminist, conceptual, and land art, Mendieta harnessed her interests in the power of femininity and identity as it relates to both gender and sense of place.

While Rosenblum Martín recognized that Mendieta's work featuring nudity and bodily fluids wouldn't be appropriate for the museum's targeted age group of three- to eight-year-olds, she saw other lesser-explored facets of the artist's practice that would resonate with kids. "As I did more and more research, I started to realize that there's a lot of play and childlike sensibility in her work," Rosenblum Martín explains.

This point becomes clear with the first piece one encounters in the show, one of Mendieta's earliest and best-known projects: "Untitled (Facial Hair Transplants)" (1972). The group of photographs documents the young artist applying a comically large mustache to the space beneath her nose. In several images, we see her gazing into a mirror. In some, a naturally bearded and mustachioed friend, looks on. The series is often contextualized as Mendieta's first and most potent experiments with gender identity.

But Rosenblum Martín, who is an independent curator, educator at New York's Guggenheim Museum, and mother of two, saw other elements in the series, too: namely, curiosity, play, and the earnestness with which kids pretend. "One thing I've been surprised about, as a mother, is that when children play, they're so serious about it," she explains, as we look at the most famous image from the series, a close-up self-portrait of Mendieta, looking very sincere while wearing the campy, handlebar 'stache.

"This serious expression that Mendieta has while she's trying on a kind of a silly mustache is very reflective of the real way that children play," she continues. "They're playing at identity, they're playing at power dynamics."

The curator has emphasized this parallel by hanging a mirror next to Mendieta's mustache portrait, at the same kid-sized level. It's a genius addition (approved enthusiastically by Mendieta's estate and the gallery that represents it, Galerie Lelong) that would normally be relegated to educational labs located in separate rooms of most museums. But here, at Sugar Hill Children's Museum, Rosenblum Martín places it on the same plane as a famous work of feminist art. A smattering of little fingerprints on the white wall under the mirror drives her intention home: to encourage children to engage with the art, to find commonalities between their own experience and the themes Mendieta's work explores.

Had Mendieta survived to see the show (she died tragically at the age of 36 in 1985) the connection Martín makes between the artist's work and children's experience probably wouldn't surprise her. In three pieces from 1973 that were recently discovered by the artist's estate-two videos and one sound piece, all included in the exhibition-Mendieta featured children.

Shortly after she graduated from college at the University of Iowa in 1972, Mendieta taught art to 5th and 6th graders at Henry Sabin Elementary School in Iowa City. She relished her work as a teacher-and her students became artistic collaborators.

The videos both show children at play. Particularly mesmerizing is Parachute (1973), in which Mendieta trains her camera on a group of around 15 children from above, as they play with a parachute. They clutch the edge of the circular fabric, together sending it billowing into the air then bringing it back down to Earth-giggling incessantly.

"For me, this piece is so much about the corporeal intelligence of these children," Rosenblum Martín explains as we watch the students move in unison. "Their movements are communal. School communities become so tight-knit-there's nothing artificial about their connection." (In an addition similar to the mirror, a real parachute hangs above the exhibition.)

While the videos evidence what Martín describes as the "corporeal intelligence" of children, Mendieta's sound piece from the same year, Untitled (Soul), celebrates their unparalleled creativity. Over the course of the eight-minute recording, several students respond to Mendieta's heady prompt, "What is a soul?" One by one, little voices respond.

"I think when you're in the dark, it's around you and when you're outside in the sun, it's your shadow," one child offers. "I think it's in your toenail," says another. "I think it's surrounding you to sometimes help you from falling," a third opines. Others suggest that it comes from Mars or can foresee the future.

The answers, peppered with laughs and ums that evidence both play and serious thought, are creative, hilarious, and moving-but also incredibly perceptive. As part of the exhibition's education program, Martín and members of the museum staff pose the same question to their child visitors.

"They have a whole new range of responses," Martín explains of their reaction. "In asking them the same question, we hope it continues Mendieta's project, which at its core, privileges children's intelligence."

Correction:
A previous version of this article incorrectly stated that the man included in Ana Mendieta 's Untitled (Facial Hair Transplants) (1972) was Hans Breder. He was not.

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How Children Helped Ana Mendieta Make Her Radical Art | Artsy

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"Ana Mendieta: Thinking About Children's Thinking" at Sugar Hill Children's Museum of Art and Storytelling surfaces Mendieta's esteem for children's creativity.

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Artists: Vasco Araújo, Art Laboratory, Darren Banks, Kathrin Böhm, Brud, Martyn Cross, diSTRUKTURA, Freee art collective, Heike Gallmeier, Jessica Harby, Susan MacWilliam, Filip Markiewicz, Kevin McCully, Pip & Pop, Yelena Popova, Vivienne Rattray, Jamie Shovlin, James Smith, John Strutton, Joshua WF Thomson, Emma Wilde Launch night: 26 October 2017, 6-8pm, followed by Museums at Night until 8am
To celebrate its fifth year at Number Nine Guildhall Road, NN is launching The New Archive. Since opening on 13 December 2012, NN has commissioned various artists from its past to contribute artworks to create a new archive. This exhibition is the culmination of the five-year project and features fragments of previous exhibitions, reworked ideas, documents - factual and speculative - by 21 artists working across a wide range of media. The project was inspired by a server crash in 2010 at NN's previous home at Fishmarket. The loss of the organisation's digital data in that crash inspired the creation of an archive made entirely by artists in keeping with NN's artist-centred ethos.

The location of NN as a subject and wider geography of Northampton has been in part the inspiration for a number of the artworks. Emma Wilde undertook a micro residency in NN's Courtyard in 2013 as she made drawings and paintings of weeds before they were pulled up in the Courtyard's renovation. Jessica Harby's film for The New Archive details a timeline of Northampton, meanwhile John Strutton's film is, in part, a John Clare-inspired pub crawl. Kevin McCully and Vivienne Rattray's works step back into NN's more distant past whilst diSTRUKTURA 's quest to get a visa to attend the opening could be seen as a glimpse into the UK's future.

Many of the artists revisited the ideas, characters and themes from the exhibitions in which they featured such as Vasco Araújo who continued the dialogue between his shoemaking characters. Yelena Popova sends us a postcard and Martyn Cross manipulates a hessian-framed portrait. Art Laboratory's banner used documentation from their install in the windows at NN. James Smith's print inspired an entire exhibition earlier this year and appears here in a different format. Filip Markiewicz's vinyl record plays in the show alongside works by Heike Gallmeier and Joshua WF Thomson, whose blog documenting his time as Curator at Fishmarket also accompanies the exhibition. Pip & Pop (Tanya Schultz) is sending a piece of candy wonderland back to NN from the other side of the planet.

Freee art collective and Susan MacWilliam both used the opportunity to create publications that will be launched at the opening and available for sale throughout the exhibition in NN's shop (or until stocks run out). Brud are reissuing a limited-edition print whilst Jamie Shovlin has recut Hiker Meat on VHS especially for the exhibition and Darren Banks created a bespoke archive called The Fairman Collection, a personal collection of artifacts representing the life and works of radio DJ, sculptor, horror film actor and sheep farmer Churton Fairman aka Mike Raven (1924-1997). Finally, print and tape works on paper by Kathrin Böhm bring together moments spanning the life of NN from its inception and refurbishment to date and this work will go on to form part of a wider personal archive project by the artist currently in development.

Events

Museums at Night
Thursday 26 October 2017, 8pm-8am following the exhibition and book launch from 6pm

To celebrate its fifth year at Number Nine Guildhall Road NN is launching The New Archive with an opening night that lasts until breakfast! The opening night coincides with Museums at Night and so NN, for one night only, invites you for a sleepover in the gallery as the building revisits its original incarnation as Franklin's Hotel! You'll need to bring a sleeping bag, camping mat and a sense of fun as artists take us through the night with various activities including artist talks, ghost stories, marshmallow toasting in NN's Courtyard, film screenings and wide games.

Places are limited and booking essential. For more information book your free ticket here.
More information about Museums at Night here.

Family workshop: Captured and Connected
Saturday 28 October 11am-1pm

Join artist Emma Davies in this 'friends and family' workshop inspired by The New Archive exhibition.

In this workshop, participants will make Zines inspired by real or imagined timelines and memories. The Zines can be personal, factual, fictional or completely random and meaningless. They can incorporate drawings, writings, cut outs from newspapers and magazines and ephemera such as bus tickets, notes and receipts. There is also the option of encasing them within re-purposed boxes, their very own archive box.

Suitable for ages 7+. All children under 16 must be accompanied by an adult.
Free admission - but booking is essential. Please bring any photographs, ephemera, cuttings, material, paper etc that you would like to include in your Zine.

Book your free ticket here.

Write Club: Funding applications
Thursday 16 November 2017, 6pm

Join Catherine Hemelryk for a session on preparing funding applications. Bring examples of applications you are preparing and a pen, paper, laptop or tablet. Catherine will take you through different techniques for writing applications, how to answer funders criteria and other tips for professional communication.

From Art to Commerce
Saturday 18 November 2017, 11am

These bi-monthly sessions, led by Tracey Clarke, are for anyone running a creative business or looking to start one. The first hour is a general workshop and the second hour consists of one-to-one short sessions. To book a one-to-one with Tracey please email [email protected] . Spaces are limited so book early to avoid disappointment.

Twelve Monkeys
Wednesday 22 November, 9pm at

Errol Flynn FilmhouseDir: Terry Gilliam, USA, 1995, 124 mins, (15)
Bruce Willis stars in Terry Gilliam's sci-fi thriller, playing a convict who is sent back in time to discover the origin of a deadly virus, only to end up in the wrong year and hospitalised as insane. Brad Pitt received an Oscar nomination for his role as a fellow patient.

Book your free ticket here.

Work in Progress
25 November 2017, 2-4pm

For artists by artists, bring your work in progress for friendly peer critique. WiP is led by Sayed Sattar Hasan and starts with a featured artist presentation before opening the conversation out to the regular peer critique. If you would like to be a future featured artist at WiP, email us at [email protected] .

Bumps & Babes
Thursday 30 November 2017, 2-3pm

Get messy with your baby or pre-schooler in these crayon-fueled, finger painting sessions. Make sure you wear clothes that can handle paint!

Book launch and birthday party
Wednesday 13 December 2017, 6pm

Join us for a party to celebrate 5 years at NN and the launch of a book documenting the artists and exhibitions to have featured #atNN since its opening at Number Nine Guildhall Road on 13 December 2012. This book will be available for sale alongside books by Susan MacWilliam and Freee art collective, which are launching at the start of the exhibition.

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The New Archive - NN Contemporary Art Northampton

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Artists: Vasco Araújo, Art Laboratory, Darren Banks, Kathrin Böhm, Brud, Martyn Cross, diSTRUKTURA, Freee art collective, Heike Gallmeier, Jessica Harby, Susan MacWilliam, Filip Markiewicz, Kevin McCully, Pip & Pop, Yelena Popova, Vivienne Rattray, Jamie Shovlin, James Smith, John Strutton, Joshua WF Thomson, Emma Wilde Launch night: 26 October 2017, 6-8pm, followed by Museums at Night until 8am To celebrate its fifth year at Number Nine Guildhall Road, NN is launching The New Archive.

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Category of the week - Community | Axisweb | Axisweb

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A selection of artworks on Axisweb with a theme of community. Guest selected by Axis Directory member Deborah Jane Batt. https://www.axisweb.org/p/deborahjanebatt/

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The following are excerpts from emails I have never received but still in my heart of hearts expect to see in my inbox Any Day Now. May 2009
To: Mallory
From: REDACTED
Subject: Your behavior tonight
Dear Mallory,

I know you just left the party, but I wanted to make sure this email reached you before you arrived home, and so you could have something as a reassurance and a foundation to cling to when you emerge from your blackout tomorrow morning. You were a triumph. When other people black out, it's embarrassing and distressing and inconvenient to the people around them, but not you; when you black out, it's a testament to your profound commitment to the experience of being alive, and it made all of us a little thrilled, a little excited (sexually and spiritually), and all the more eager for your approval, should you ever choose to grant us any.

When you accidentally flung your glass across the table during a particularly emphatic point about "some more of his bullshit," it was the high point both of that evening and of my own long and distinguished career as a host. No one bothered to clean it up later, because it was universally understood that this was the act of a great soul. Watching you steadily get drunker than every other person in the room infused me with vitality and well-being, and you never once embarrassed nor betrayed yourself. Later that evening, many of my guests drew a flattering parallel between yourself and Arthur Rimbaud.

Moreover, I am enclosing here a signed affidavit confirming that everyone you hoped was a little bit in love with you during the dinner was, and is, and forever will be. Not so in love with you that it will inconvenience you in any way - not so in love with you that any response or act of recognition will be asked of you - but exactly the amount of in love with you that you have always hoped people would be, enough to add a slightly wistful, poignant, Mallory-shaded cast to their already-remarkable lives, and enough to make sure they always text you just a little bit more than you text them.

I am ever yours,
REDACTED
To: Mallory
From: REDACTED
Subject: That thing you said last week
Dear Mallory,

No one remembers that you did that. It was mean-spirited, unnecessary, and cruel, but not a single soul beside yourself remembers that you did it; in a very real sense, it as if it never happened.

If any of us did remember, we would all instinctively understand that it was not an illustrative representation of your character, and would never hold it against you, but of course none of us remember, so the point is immaterial. We know that you intended to be kind, and thoughtful, and simply forgot how to, that day. For us, the incident has been superimposed with a vision of your best and purest self, which is also your true self. Any words you have ever spoken in mockery, anger, or contempt, we understand as accidents beyond your control. Any words you have ever spoken in generosity or kindness, we have ascribed to your innate goodness. We all think of you fondly here, even though you never hear from any of us.

With full-throated approval of your person and your choices,
REDACTED
To: Mallory
From: REDACTED
Subject: Some notes
Dear Mallory,

Thanks for this, and for giving me the greatest gift of my professional life; a project that requires no editing from me (nor from anyone else), merely ardent and unstinting admiration. I have no notes, but would welcome any notes from you on my own life choices, in whatever arena you consider worth remarking upon.

Also, if anybody doesn't like it, it is obviously because of their own projections about you arising from unresolved feelings about their own shortcomings. From our own shortcomings, from the condition of feeling unknown, and more you have saved us from, and on behalf of lesbians everywhere, the cities of Los Angeles and New York, and the nation's cultural elite - of which I am a gatekeeper - I honor you.

As a small token of my appreciation, I have seen to it that everyone you meet for the rest of your life will never acknowledge, in any way, if you are ever late for a meeting or a phone call, or ever fail to reply to a work-related email in a timely fashion. From now on, whatever time it is is dependent upon you, not the other way around.

With a grateful spirit,
REDACTED
To: Mallory
From: REDACTED
Subject: one more thing
Dear Mallory,

A year ago today I touched your forearm as we talked to one another, but did not further declare myself, and we did not sleep together. Please know it is only because that moment of brief arm-touching undid me as thoroughly, as softly, and as helplessly as it did you. I have still not recovered my strength. Forgive me.

Guhhhh,
REDACTED
To: Mallory
From: REDACTED
Subject: I know you said not to contact you again but
Dear Mallory,

It has taken me several years, but I am finally aware of every single way in which I have ever failed you, and am heartily sorry for my own grievous faults which led me to sin against you. I have changed the trajectory of my entire miserable life in a paltry attempt to make amends. I live now in a simple hut by the sea, offering shelter and food to deserving travelers. I have, with the exception of this missive, taken a permanent vow of silence as a tribute to you. I do not expect ever to hear from you, nor to believe that you will ever spare another thought to me, but know that you occupy my every waking moment - the sublime Beatrice to my repentant Dante. You are my lodestar, my cornerstone, the spiritual ideal just beyond the horizon, towards which I am ever struggling, ever striving, ever longing. Every morning I arrange the words "I AM SORRY, BELOVED" out of driftwood on the sand in front of my hermitage, and watch the ocean slowly wash it away.

Someday, if I have behaved with sufficient worthiness and honor, I hope you will permit me to be buried like a dog at the foot of your grave, so that I who was broken in life may be made whole in your shadow. Should you ever choose to die, that is.

Brokenly,
REDACTED
From: REDACTED Subject: Today and every day for the last four years
Dear Mallory,

The reason you have not heard from me since the last time you attempted to apologize is because I have always known that there is no need for something as tawdry and pedestrian as words to describe our mutual, immaculate understanding and sympathy. I did not accept your apology when last we met because there is no need for apology between us. You could not possibly hurt me, nor I you. The only reason we have not spoken once in the last four years is because I long only to pass into the realm of spirit, where we shall finally be joined in perfect unity, not because I have not forgiven you, and certainly not because you should ever have to suffer consequences for any of your choices.

In Gay Heaven - which I can assure you with perfect sincerity is very real - you and I will make Damon and Pythias look like perfect strangers. In Gay Heaven, Galaheut and Beatrice will each whisper into your ear the single word that elucidates your feeling about your own gender. I long to see you there; never has another consummation been so devoutly wished-for.

Yours, and you,
REDACTED

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Emails I Have Never Received But Believe I Am Owed

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The following are excerpts from emails I have never received but still in my heart of hearts expect to see in my inbox Any Day Now.

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In 1939, the German American Bund organized a rally of 20,000 Nazi supporters at Madison Square Garden in New York City. When Academy Award-nominated documentarian Marshall Curry stumbled upon footage of the event in historical archives, he was flabbergasted. Together with Field of Vision, he decided to present the footage as a cautionary tale to Americans. The short film, A Night at the Garden, premieres on The Atlantic today.

"The first thing that struck me was that an event like this could happen in the heart of New York City," Curry told The Atlantic. "Watching it felt like an episode of The Twilight Zone where history has taken a different path. But it wasn't science fiction - it was real, historical footage. It all felt eerily familiar, given today's political situation."

Rather than edit the footage into a standard historical documentary with narration, Curry decided to "keep it pure, cinematic, and unmediated, as if you are there, watching, and wrestling with what you are seeing. I wanted it to be more provocative than didactic - a small history-grenade tossed into the discussion we are having about White Supremacy right now."

"The footage is so powerful," continued Curry, "it seems amazing that it isn't a stock part of every high school history class. This story was likely nudged out of the canon, in part because it's scary and embarrassing. It tells a story about our country that we'd prefer to forget."

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When 20,000 American Nazis Descended Upon New York City

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In 1939, the German American Bund organized a rally of 20,000 Nazi supporters at Madison Square Garden in New York City. When Academy Award-nominated documentarian Marshall Curry stumbled upon footage of the event in historical archives, he was flabbergasted. Together with Field of Vision, he decided to present the footage as a cautionary tale to Americans.

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Florence Peake was an artist in residence at Wysing in 2016 and Tai Shani was in residence at Wysing in the summer of 2017. Andromedan Sad Girl is situated in Wysing's wider artistic programme for 2017, Wysing Polyphonic.

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This website is for anyone who is interested in dreams - especially those who dream about Donald Trump - and wants to learn more about current research on dreams in relation to psychology, religion, evolutionary science, politics, art, and culture.

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A Case of the Trumps by Slate's Trumpcast

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Leon Neyfakh talks to Mark O'Connell, LCSW, about how Trump is making his way into his patients psyches.