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Being transparent brings many good impacts to both consumers and the whole marketing. As for me, I can have better decisions if I know all the information about the goods. However, it is not a easy thing to make every single company be totally transparent due to the fact that there are too many businesses in the world. Therefore, it is not only the companies duty but also the government and citizens' responsibility to achieve this goal.

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Shortcut (n.)

Original: It’s not surprising that people look for shortcuts to help them decide.

Definition: a route shorter than the usual one

My own sentence: There is no shortcut when you study.

Synonyms: highway，cut-short

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Robust (adj.)

Original: Unfortunately, some of the best-marketed labels are the least robust.

Definition: marked by richness and fullness of flavor

My own sentence: So 2008 is more likely to be a robust market.

Synonyms: healthy，crude，gross，fine，rough

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Cerebral (adj.)

Original: To make her results-yielding "brain soup," as she calls it, the research team used only a part of the brain called the cerebral cortex, the crinkly outer layer that sits on top of the brain's other pieces.

Definition: of or relating to the cerebrum or brain

My own Sentence: Doctors speculate that he died of a cerebral haemorrhage caused by a blow on the head.

Synonym: encephalic

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Contentious (adj.)

Original: One of our most contentious debates may now have an answer.

Definition: involving or likely to cause controversy

My own sentence: The death penalty is expected to be among the most contentious issue.

Synonym: objectionable

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From my experiences of keeping dogs and cats, I am not surprised with the result of the research. Dogs have sensitive vision and smell. I recall that when a thief came to my house a few years ago, my dog kept barking and fought with him, while my cat was still asleep.

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Transparency is definitely the best way to let consumers to purchase consciously, but the problem is there are so many problems companies and government should solve to achieve this goal. Take China as an example. There are so many small businesses in China, like the small restaurants which located at the communities. Government have no way to solve the problems that some vendors sell their products illegally. I think it may need more time to let businesses transfer to transparency.

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proxy (n.)
Original: So a metric such as gCO2/km for average emissions for new cars is a good proxy for understanding a car's environmental impact.
Definition: agent or substitute thing.
My own sentence: poxy server is what we learn in college course.
Synonym: Agent, substitute.

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Scope (n.)
Original:  Most labels are very narrow in scope, measuring the easiest things rather than the big ticket issues.
Definition: a range of thing (subject, activity)
My own sentence: We have to extend the scope of study to fix this problem.
Synonym: region.

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Conventional (adj.)

Original: Conventional marketing is about strong, simple claims like "cheapest," "fastest" and "biggest."

Definition: in accord with or being a tradition or practice accepted from the past.

My own sentence: Men still wore their hair short and dressed conventionally.

Synonym: traditional, usual

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Lucrative (adj.)

Original: That's why there have been so many people- from gurus, to NGOs, to certification sharks, to industry associations-inventing so many lucrative labels that offer quick assurance about product sustainability credentials.

Definition: producing a sizeable profit

My own sentence: I hope I can have a lucrative job after graduation.

Synonym: remunerative, profitable

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Full Products Transparency Gives Consumers More Informed Choices

by Ramon Arratia-December 18, 2012

Summary: As we don't have the time to know all the environmental impact of products that we have purchased, many people create labels with quick assurance, but flawed. Most of them don't provide all the information about products or lack reliable certificate, or just duplicate each other. Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) requires companies to label the ingredients and environmental impact, but few of companies do so. From a full product transparency, we can know everything informed about the product, such as raw material, processing, delivery and so on, then judging by comparing those aspects and environmental impact. We will end the greenwash through the transparency and achieve conscious purchase one day.

Response: I have more fear when I go shopping now than before, especially when I buy food. Under the appealing package, I have no idea about the products. I worry about if there are some unhealthy chemical materials in them, whether workers wear gloves when they produce chocolate, and how butchers treat cattle to make beef. So transparency not only provides more information about products to consumers but more safety.

Questions:

1. Can you give an example of a label that caters to the EPDs, except the case of cars mentioned in the article?

2. How is the product transparency related to the conscious approach of buying?

3. In your opinion, do you think is it realistic that all products would have detailed labels with full product transparency in the future? Why?

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This is pretty interesting article. I never think about dogs may smarter than cats before. Although more number of neurons in their cerebral cortexes does not mean smarter exactly, it still a big breakthrough point. It makes me to have a new ideas of how to define animals' intelligent.

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hefty (adj.)
Original: That may help them wield their hefty trunks.
Definition: big and heavy
My own sentence:
He carried his hefty camera all the time.
Synonyms: weighty.

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crinkly (adj.)
Original:  the research team used only a part of the brain called the cerebral cortex, the crinkly outer layer that sits on top of the brain's other pieces.
Definition: Having plenty of folds.
My own sentence:
I look at his crinkly face.
Synonyms:  ruffly

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Canine (n.)

Original: Two brains were used to study dogs because the canines vary so greatly in size.

Definition: one of the four pointed conical teeth (two in each jaw) located between the incisors and the premolars

My own sentence: I think there’s a better to motivate yourself with the human equivalent of canine obedience training.

Synonyms: dogtooth，cuspid

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Contentious (adj.)

Original: One of our most contentious debates may now have an answer.

Definition: inclined or showing an inclination to dispute or disagree, even to engage in law suits

"a style described as abrasive and contentious"

My own sentence: After a contentious meeting, I made time to walk around the block.

Synonyms: objectionable，litigant

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Article 5 "Are Dogs Smarter Than Cats? Science Has an Answer"

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Article 5 "Are Dogs Smarter Than Cats? Science Has an Answer"

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Discipline: Science
Summary: Scientists have found that dogs are more intelligent than cats by some neuron experiments. Neurons are the basic information processing units which relate to cognitive capability. As a result, scientists often measure neurons to study animals.

Response: It is an interesting question about who is smarter. Neurons are magic in the brains, controlling many aspects. Even though the study focus on carnivorous land animals now, I think there will be more finding in the future.

Questions:

1. Are the dogs smarter than cats? How do you know?

2. For comparison, who have by far the highest number of neurons in our cerebral cortexes?

3. Previous and sometimes controversial work to quantify intelligence has measured what?

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The whole world is so supernatural and animals are caritative. There is love among different kinds of animals. I think we should learn from that dog to take more care of people around us and all the animals

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Temperament(n.)

Original: Sergei Asnovin, the Vladivostok Zoo's director, also told CCTV+ that the fluffy white dog has "good pedigree, good blood," and its size and temperament make it a good match for the cubs.

Definition: your usual mood

My own sentence: He has an artistic temperament.

Synonyms: character，disposition

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Trio (n.)

Original: Zookeepers have also set up the trio with a Central Asian shepherd dog.

Definition: the cardinal number that is the sum of one and one and one

My own sentence: He met this trio at a concert by accident.

Synonyms: triplet，triad

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There are so many mysteries in the nature which we cannot find out. I have heard of a story that wolves feed a human babies. Therefore, I am not surprise that dog can protect a leopard baby.
This world is so amazing, we have too much to explore.

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reptile (n)
Original:
In California, Larry the tortoise and the retriever Cricket became best friend after a Santa Barbara woman adopted the reptile reject.
Reptile (adj.)
Definition:
A group of animals which are cold-blooded vertebrate
My own sentence:
Many girls show great fear to reptile.
Synonym:
insect

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feline (n)
Original:
The feline playmates are both two and a half months old and about the same size as the critically endangered leopard.
feline (adj.)
Definition:
relating to the cat, other animal in cat family.
My Own Sentence:
She move with feline grace.
Synonym:
catamount

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Surrogates (n, v, adj)

Original: Cross-fostering, in which baby animals are separated from their birth parents and raised by surrogates, is fairly common.

Definition: a person appointed to represent or act on behalf of others

My own sentence: I see her as a friend and a surrogate sister.

Synonym: agent

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Pedigree: (n, adj)

Original: Sergei Asnovin, the Vladivostok Zoo's director, also told CCTV+ that the fluffy white dog has "good pedigree, good blood," and its size and temperament make it a good match for the cubs.

Definition: the descendants of one individual

My Own Sentence: This chart, also known as a pedigree, lists members of each generation of your biological family, with all available health and disease information.

Synonym: blood, stem

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Article 4 "How This Dog Mom Protects a Leopard Cub From Cannibalism

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Article 4 "How This Dog Mom Protects a Leopard Cub From Cannibalism

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Discipline: Science

Summary: Animals can foster animals. A leopard mom named Tessa, not only takes care of her babies but other animals. Every animal needs a playmate with similar age and size.  The fluffy white dogs could establish a continuous friendship with cubs. It is common that many baby animals are separated from their parents. Considering the safety, cubs leave their mothers because their mother might kill them if the baby is sick and the mother is hungry x scarce resources.

Response: This genre of this article is very funny. For instance, the author wrote, "the tigress is quite, and the lioness likes jogging and playing." The comparison is the difference between two people with two distinct personalities. And this topic is creative. I never imagined that the animals could take care of each other. Every animal has its mode of living.

Questions:
1. What the difference between the tigress and the lioness?

2. What does the "cross-fostering" mean?

3. When mother animals would infanticide"

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People say it takes a village to raise a child. But in this case it takes two dogs, two cats, and a zoo to raise an endangered leopard cub.

Zookeepers in the Far Eastern Russian city of Vladivostok have paired a newborn Amur leopard cub with a canine foster mom. The golden retriever, named Tessa, already has her paws full with four pups of her own, but she cares for the newcomer with licks and love. Thanks to a healthy diet of Tessa's milk, supplemented with formula and rabbit meat treats by the zoo, the cub has already outgrown her adopted siblings.

As a big cat-in-training, the leopard cub needs some friends of her own size. As of 2015, there were 57 Amur leopards in Russia, so the rare subspecies is in short supply. So the zoo matched the cub up with a lioness and a tigress. The feline playmates are both two and a half months old and about the same size as the critically endangered leopard.

"Although it seems these are both big cats, their behavior is completely different," veterinarian Viktor Agafonov told CCTV+. "The tigress is quieter. But the lioness ... most of the time she keeps jogging and playing."

Zookeepers have also set up the trio with a Central Asian shepherd dog. Sergei Asnovin, the Vladivostok Zoo's director, also told CCTV+ that the fluffy white dog has "good pedigree, good blood," and its size and temperament make it a good match for the cubs.

Now, the furry foursome will bond for at least the next year and a half. After that, their friendship could continue, depending on how much they like each other.

Cross-fostering, in which baby animals are separated from their birth parents and raised by surrogates, is fairly common. In California, Larry the tortoise and the retriever Cricket became best friends after a Santa Barbara woman adopted the reptile reject. In Liberia, a dog named Princess took in a chimp as her own after the primate's parents had been killed for bushmeat. Also in Vladivostok, eight hedgehogs flocked to Musya the cat for motherly influence.

The Vladivostok Zoo initially decided to pluck the leopard cub from her mother's care out of concern for her safety-the leopardess Alain had a history of making meals out of her last three litters.

"We can't say for sure why this happened. But we decided not to risk another baby," Agafonov told CCTV+.

Sometimes, mother animals will resort to infanticide for the sake of efficiency. If their babies come out sick or deformed, the mother will often consume them. She'll also eat them if there's not enough food to go around, or if they die.

"There are reasons," Tony Barthel at Smithsonian's National Zoo told National Geographic in 2014. "They might sound cold to us, but they're simple-and they have to do with resources."

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How This Dog Mom Protects a Leopard Cub From Cannibalism

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People say it takes a village to raise a child. But in this case it takes two dogs, two cats, and a zoo to raise an endangered leopard cub. Zookeepers in the Far Eastern Russian city of Vladivostok have paired a newborn Amur leopard cub with a canine foster mom.

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Reveler (n)

Original: Revelers disguised as spirits are also believed to have gone from house to house engaging in silly acts in exchange for food and drink.

Definition: people who are enjoying themselves in a lively and noisy way.

Synonym: partygoers

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Impersonate (v)

Original: The Celts donned animal skin to hide themselves from spirits, or they wore masks and blackened their faces to impersonate ancestors who had preceded them to the spirit world.

Definition: pretend to be someone you are not

Synonym：imitate, act

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Halloween is a fascinating festival. It past a few days, and I still remember that I saw some people wear peculiar clothing, like banana, Weenie the Pooh and balloon man. From the article, I realize that we should inherit this custom and share our happiness with more people in this festival, but not for doing bad things, like taking drugs.

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Halloween was just passed. As one of the most interesting holiday in American, this article illustrate the origin of the Halloween and how it become to be holiday today. As a Chinese, it is good for me to learn more about American culture.

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hoax (n.)
Original:
Though these scares inevitably turn out to be hoaxes, Best notes, some years do bring new twists.
Definition:
play joke
Synonyms:
joke

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opt (v.)
Original:
Christian leaders later transformed Samhain as they co-opted pagan holidays.
option (n.)
Definition:
choose to do sth
Synonyms:
Choose

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Don (v.)

Original: The Celts donned animal skin to hide themselves from spirits, or they wore masks and blackened their faces to impersonate ancestors who had preceded them to the spirit world.
Don(n.)

Definition: put clothing on one's body

My own sentence: She donned a beautiful dress.

Synonyms: wear, put on, get into, assume

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Summon(v.)

Original: To help you celebrate, we've summoned up that history, as well as a number of fun-size facts.

Summoner(n.)

Definition: call in an official matter, such as to attend court

My own sentence: she summoned medical assistance

Synonyms: stir oneself，nerve oneself

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Article 3:"Everything You Need to Know About Halloween 2017"

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Article 3:"Everything You Need to Know About Halloween 2017"

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Summary: People celebrate Halloween every year. The article talks about the origin of the festival, the development of the festival and customs people celebrate Halloween now.
Response: It is interesting to learn about how Halloween appeared and developed. I think learning more about the history of a festival can make us better understand the festival and have more fun with it.
Questions: 1.Spirits were believed to walk the earth on which day?
2.Why bonfires may have been used for sacrifices, or to symbolize          the sun?
3.In recent years, what caused some unfounded concern like fear that people would pass out edible marijuana and cause children to overdose?

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The scariest, silliest, sugariest night of the year is finally here. Americans take their Halloween pretty seriously, even if many of us don't know exactly why we carve pumpkins, hang fake ghosts, hand out candy, or dress up like something dragged in by a graveyard cat. ( See spooky styles from Halloween costumes of yesteryear.)

As it turns out, we've been wearing Halloween costumes for nearly two millennia. But we've added plenty of modern twists to this ancient tradition.

To help you celebrate, we've summoned up that history, as well as a number of fun-size facts. (See cute photos of pets in costumes and more on the Nat Geo Kids Halloween Hangout.)

Archaeologists are still unearthing Halloween's roots at Celtic spiritual centers like the Hill of Ward (originally known as Tlachtga) in County Meath, Ireland. The holiday is descended most directly from the celebration of Samhain (SAH-win), the Celtic New Year observed between the sunsets of October 31 and November 1.

On Samhain eve, at the death of another year, spirits (not to mention fairies, demons, and other creatures) were believed to walk the earth, traveling to the afterlife on a night when doorways between our world and the spirit world were thrown open.

Tradition holds that bonfires were also kindled at major sites like Tlachtga, where evidence of large-scale burning has indeed been found. These fires may have been used for sacrifices, or to symbolize the sun, since Tlachtga was known as one of the sun's goddesses. ( See pictures of crypts and catacombs.)

Celts also began the Halloween tradition of wearing costumes, according to the American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress. The Celts donned animal skin to hide themselves from spirits, or they wore masks and blackened their faces to impersonate ancestors who had preceded them to the spirit world. ( See how people dressed up a century ago.)

Revelers disguised as spirits are also believed to have gone from house to house engaging in silly acts in exchange for food and drink. These acts were possibly inspired by an earlier custom of leaving food and drink outdoors as offerings to supernatural beings. This likely inspired today's trick-or-treat traditions. ( Read more on the first Halloween costumes.)

Putting the Christ Back Into-Halloween?

Christian leaders later transformed Samhain as they co-opted pagan holidays. In the seventh century, Pope Boniface IV decreed November 1 All Saints' Day, or All Hallows' Day. ( Read about the most haunted places in the U.S.)

The church didn't attempt to do away with the celebrations, however. The night before Samhain continued to be observed with bonfires, costumes, and parades, but it was all rebranded with a new name: All Hallows' Eve, which later became "Halloween."

Halloween Arrives in America

European immigrants brought Halloween to the United States, where different Old World traditions mingled in America's cultural stew. The celebration gained steam with the explosion of Irish immigration to the United States in the 1800s.

It was only a matter of time before politicians got into the act. Anoka, Minnesota, may be home to the United States' oldest official Halloween celebration. In 1920, the city began staging a parade and bonfire to mark the day.

The celebration may have had another purpose, too. Anoka historians say townsfolk wanted to curb Halloween pranks that loosed cows on Main Street and upended outhouses, so the official celebration might've arisen in an attempt to promote good, clean fun.

Urban Legends, Poisoned Candy, and Killer Clowns

One of the most persistent urban legends claims that people hand out candy tainted by poisons, needles, or razor blades.

University of Delaware sociologist Joel Best, who conducts extensive research on tainted Halloween candy, says he's been unable to find even one substantiated report of a child dying or being seriously injured from eating trick-or-treat candy.

"Somebody gets a candy bar and sticks a nail through it and puts a picture up on their Facebook page saying, Hey, this is the treat that I got," Best says. "And then eventually it gets debunked."

Though these scares inevitably turn out to be hoaxes, Best notes, some years do bring new twists. In recent years, Colorado's legalization of marijuana caused some unfounded concern. "There was a fear that people would pass out edible marijuana and cause children to overdose," he says, "which, among other things, completely ignores how much edible marijuana costs."

In 2016, a rash of creepy clown sightings put trick-or-treaters on edge. But, as with other scares, it's lacking in hard evidence. ( See vintage photographs of eerie clowns from National Geographic's archives.)

"It reminds me of 1982 when the Tylenol poisonings occurred in September, and that led to a lot of speculation that there would surely be a lot of poisoned candy," Best says. "There may be some clown stuff this year just because of the timing."

But even creepy clowns aren't new, Best notes. "One of the things that surprised me is that this has actually happened before. It's just that this one, also, is amped up by social media," he says. "There have been periodic clown scares not just in the U.S. but in European countries." ( Read about why clowns scare us.)

Big Business

The Halloween may have originated as a religious and spiritual observance, but these days it's very big business.

According to the National Retail Federation's long-running consumer survey of American Halloween habits, 179 million U.S. consumers plan to celebrate Halloween activities in 2017, and they'll open their wallets in the process.

This year, seven out of every 10 Americans will hand out candy, while half will decorate their homes or dress in costumes. Total spending on decorations, costumes, and candy is estimated to reach a record $9.1 billion in 2017. That's a consumer average of $86.13, nearly twice as much as the 2005 average, which was a mere $48.

Most Popular Costumes

Wondering who's most likely to show up at your door this year? Expect a nonstop parade of costumed kid crime fighters, according to the NRF survey. Action/superhero is this year's most popular costume among children, while both Batman and Spider-Man characters also appear in the top five. Princesses, animals, and Star Wars characters will also be out in full force.

Nearly half of all adults plan to dress up this year; some 5.8 million witches are expected to be on the streets and in the skies this Halloween. Many of those adults surveyed also planned to dress as characters from the Batman, Spider-Man, and Captain America films. (A new Google effort to chart trending costume searches, the Frightgeist, suggests we'll also see our share of Wonder Women, Harley Quinns, clowns, and unicorns.)

Even though many pets are less than enthusiastic about wearing Halloween costumes, 16 percent of their owners will be dressing them up whether they like it or not. Pumpkin, hot dog, lion, and pirate top this year's list of costumes for our four-legged friends. ( Get trick-or-treat ideas that support National Geographic's Big Cats Initiative.)

Far from the pumpkin's native roots of Central America, chilly Illinois produces most of the United States' pumpkins.

Illinois produced some 318 million pounds of pumpkins in 2015, followed by California, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Michigan, the U.S. Department of Agriculture reports. Together, the nation's major pumpkin-producing states harvested almost 40,000 acres of pumpkins in 2015, a haul worth about $90 million.

For almost half of all Americans, ghosts aren't just part of Halloween fun-they're real. Forty-two percent of Americans believe in ghosts, according to a Harris Poll of 2,250 adults surveyed in November 2013.The same poll reports that 26 percent of those adults believe in witches. ( See 15 spooky houses for Halloween.)

A 2009 Pew Research poll reported that nearly 1 in 5 Americans, some 18 percent, said they have actually seen or felt the presence of a ghost.

Now that's a scary thought.

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Everything You Need to Know About Halloween 2017

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The scariest, silliest, sugariest night of the year is finally here. Americans take their Halloween pretty seriously, even if many of us don't know exactly why we carve pumpkins, hang fake ghosts, hand out candy, or dress up like something dragged in by a graveyard cat.

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Knowledge is always the most vital factor for society's progress. Luckily people in current generation have their perspectives about news, laws and social phenomenon with critical thinking. Hope the ridiculous things happened in Medieval will not happen anymore.

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cruentation(n)

Original: But people didn’t practice cruentation because of science; they believed in literal courtroom miracles.

Definition: Cruentation was one of the medieval methods of finding proof against a suspected murderer. The common belief was that the body of the victim would spontaneously bleed in the presence of the murdere

Synonym: bleeding

ailment(n)

Original: Despite the testimony of three servants who saw Mertine beat her, Lake had died not from the beating but of an ailment called “fits of the mother,” akin to hysteria.

Definition: an often persistent bodily disorder or disease; a cause for complaining

Synonym: illness

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Overall, you all have done a nice job in organizing your padlet.

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There are millions of unknown and unexplored things about nature, forest, wild animals, etc. Raising a question and then solving it by a series of observation and experiment is always the best way to learn nature. Besides, the only thing we can do is only know the environment and learn how to protect it better, but never think about changing or controlling it.

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Trauma: (n)

Original: Predators such as snakes and scorpions, however, use venom, which must enter another animal's body by physical trauma to properly work.

Traumatic: (adjective)

Traumatize: (v)

Traumatology: (n)

Definition:

any physical damage to the body caused by violence or accident or fracture etc.

My own sentence:

It was a trauma to all those involved in the terrorist attack in Las Vegas.

Synonyms:  wound,  injury

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You guys can answer those questions under this box.

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interventions(n):
Original: The ordeal of the bier was just one of several divine interventions used as tangible evidence.
intervene(v)
Definition: get involved; abstract
My own sentence:
He make sure that he can finish his work tomorrow, if nothing
intervenes.
Synonyms: interference

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Confess(v):
Original: The witches were tortured using devices like the “breast ripper”—exactly as horrific as it sounds—until they confessed.
Confession(n)
Definition: admit doing something bad.
My own sentence:
He is willing to confess his mistake.
Synonyms:  admit to guilty

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Article 2: "How 'Talking' Corpses Were Once Used to Solve Murders" by  Erika Engelhaupt

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Article 2: "How 'Talking' Corpses Were Once Used to Solve Murders" by  Erika Engelhaupt

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Discipline: Science
Summary:

Since the 1100s, people use a ridiculous way to convict murders. People believed when corpse and murder are in the same room, the wound of the dead people would bleed. They use this way, cruentation, to judge a people whether they are guilty. There is no credible evidence showing how cruentation began to start, but there is a 16th century's poem described a story about how cruentation work. Base on modern knowledge, corpses will "bleed" with jostled, but it can not mean anything. During that time, people believed in the God and witchcraft, even their King James. Therefore, they had plenty of ridiculous ways to test people guilty or not. Moreover, women's testimonials have not received the attention, so they usually not accounted into cruentation.
Response:
Due to the lack of knowledge, many innocent people at that ages are persecuted and tutored by those ridiculous laws. I feel very regret to people who born in that periods. Thanks for today's technology, murders can be easy to find out.
Question:
1. What the name of the treatise which is written by King James?
2. Cruentation also called as?
3. In the famous test, people in Europe believe that who will float and who will sink?
2017/10/11

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From unreliable hair analysis to mishandled DNA samples, modern forensic science has seen its share of troubles. But there's still plenty to be thankful for in the ways courts today gather evidence of a crime: Just a few centuries ago, people were convicted of murder based on the idea that a corpse would spontaneously bleed in its killer's presence.

From at least the 1100s to the early 1800s, men and women were judged in courts across Europe and colonial America based on a test called cruentation, or the ordeal of the bier, named for the type of wagon that carried a corpse or coffin.

In such testimony, oozing knife wounds and gushes of blood from the noses and eyes of the deceased were considered proof positive of guilt. (Read about the surreal cases of famous bodies exhumed for science.)

No one knows exactly how the belief in cruentation got its start, but one of the earliest mentions on record is in the sixth century, in the epic Germanic poem Nibelungenlied. In the poem, the dragon-slayer Siegfried is murdered, and his body is laid out on a bier. When his killer Hagen approaches, the dragon-slayer's wounds begin to flow.

The idea had already caught on by the time the poem was written, as it states that "it is a great marvel and frequently happens today that whenever a blood-guilty murderer is seen beside the corpse the wounds begin to bleed."

Today, it's hard to imagine that anyone could believe in dead bodies bleeding on cue. For one thing, the dead normally can't bleed for very long. Livor mortis, when blood settles to the lowest part of the body, begins soon after death, and the blood is "set" within about six hours, says A.J. Scudiere, a forensic scientist and novelist.

"During this time, the body won't really bleed; it might ooze," she says. Plus, blood clots and thickens after death. (Find out about a recently developed technique that can tell a person's age range from crime scene blood.)

So, what did people see that convinced them? It's possible that if a body had been dead long enough, the early stages of decomposition may have produced a liquid called purge fluid that can build up in the lungs. Then, when someone poked or jostled a body brought forth for a trial, some of this fluid could have leaked from the nose or other orifices.

But people didn't practice cruentation because of science; they believed in literal courtroom miracles. The ordeal of the bier was just one of several divine interventions used as tangible evidence.

There were ordeals by water, including the famous test in which witches float and the innocent sink. In ordeals by fire, suspects were forced to hold or walk over hot iron. They were deemed guilty if God didn't heal the wounds within three days.

Such trials weren't confined to small towns or backwater provinces: No one less than King James I of England was a firm believer in cruentation.

King James is more famous today for his version of the Bible. But in 1597, more than a decade before his Bible was published, the king wrote a treatise on demons and sorcery called Daemonologie, in Forme of a Dialogue.

The king was obsessed with the occult, and witches in particular, having flushed out a coven of at least 70 witches in 1590 as King James VI of Scotland. The witches were tortured using devices like the "breast ripper"-exactly as horrific as it sounds-until they confessed. Eventually, some 4,000 people were burned at the stake in Scotland's witch trials.

In Daemonologie, the king wrote of his belief in cruentation as a way to mete out justice:
"In a secret murther, if the deade carcase be at any time thereafter handled by the murtherer, it will gush out of bloud, as if the bloud were crying out to the heaven for revenge of the murtherer, God having appoynted that secret super-naturall signe."
Oddly though, it was mostly men's dead bodies that had some crying out to do. In her newly published Master's thesis, historian Molly Ingram of the University of Oregon examined accounts of cruentation, many from early pamphlets and broadsheets describing murder trials.

Notably, women were rare in accounts of bleeding corpses-except as the accused killers. Women's testimony was also largely missing in accounts of court proceedings.

"Female speech was considered less credible than male speech," Ingram says.

Ingram also studied historical records describing possession by demons, which were thought to mostly possess weaker female bodies. She found that the real women's speech was sometimes trusted less than that of the male demons who supposedly possessed them.

"I don't think it's surprising that there was a difference," Ingram says, given the misogyny of the times. "What was more surprising was that no one seemed to notice this or talk about it" in today's descriptions of the practices.

In one rare account of the ordeal of the bier being applied to a woman, a Maryland man named Thomas Mertine was accused of beating his female servant Catherine Lake to death in 1660.

"There was noe issue of bloud from the Corps," the court stated, confirming what the jury seemed to have already decided: Despite the testimony of three servants who saw Mertine beat her, Lake had died not from the beating but of an ailment called "fits of the mother," akin to hysteria. The master walked free.

Even into the early modern era, when Christopher Columbus reached the New World and the Renaissance blossomed, people still relied on magic and miracles to inform legal disputes. "The world remained an enchanted place," Ingram says.

Most forms of trial ordeal died out in the 16th century, but cruentation hung on for a while longer, and Ingram suspects it may have been more trusted because it was linked primarily to men rather than women.

Thankfully, you see "talking" corpses in use today only in art and plays. At the start of Shakespeare's Richard III, for instance, the hunchbacked Richard (then Duke of Gloucester) has killed King Henry VI.

His fellow noble and future wife Lady Anne Neville accuses him of this treachery when he approaches her on her way to bury the king, and the corpse begins to bleed:
"Oh Gentlemen, see, see dead Henries wounds, Open their congeal'd mouthes, and bleed afresh. Blush, blush, thou lumpe of fowle Deformitie: For 'tis thy presence that exhales this blood."

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How 'Talking' Corpses Were Once Used to Solve Murders

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From unreliable hair analysis to mishandled DNA samples, modern forensic science has seen its share of troubles. But there's still plenty to be thankful for in the ways courts today gather evidence of a crime: Just a few centuries ago, people were convicted of murder based on the idea that a corpse would spontaneously bleed in its killer's presence.

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Mutation(n):
Original: ... , so if mutations changed the receptor's shape too much,...
mutate(v)
Definition: change genetically.
My own sentence:
A mutation from any species in environment can cause a great differences on the whole colony.
Synonyms: alteration

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Hijact(v):
Original: In fact, it works so well it can hijack the role of acetylcholine, wreaking havoc.
hijacting(n)
Definition: illegally steal or take over
My own sentence:
A passenger suddenly stand up and threat to hijact this bus.
Synonyms: kidnap

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You guys can answer those questions under this box.

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Article 1: "Now We Know Why Poison Frogs Don't Poison Themselves" by Michael Greshko

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Article 1: "Now We Know Why Poison Frogs Don't Poison Themselves" by Michael Greshko

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Discipline: Science
Summary:
In the deep Amazon river, there is a kind of animals, poison dart frog. They can carry a very strong poison and do not hurt themselves. They keep evolving in order to fight with that poison.
Response:
There are so many fascinating creatures in this worlds. Our scientists work hard to reveal the truths. How species evolve is always the big challenge their face, because only a few evidence is found. The evolution is long period changing, and the changes are subtle. Therefore, they already made a big progressive on poison evolution.
Question:

How do poison frogs get their poison?

How many compounds are found in poison frogs? How many of them are understood?

How powerful their toxin is?

2017/10/06

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Deep in the forests of South America live poison dart frogs that carry around a toxin 200 times more potent than morphine. While it packs a fatal punch for predators, the poison doesn't much affect the frogs. How?

Their nervous systems have changed over time to fight off the powerful chemicals-an extraordinary example of evolution in action, according to a new study.

"I've been wanting to understand how organisms could acquire neurotoxins, [which] requires an animal to reorganize their nervous system," says study coauthor Rebecca Tarvin, a biologist at the University of Texas at Austin and National Geographic Society grantee.

"It almost seems unlikely that something like that would evolve."

Getting on Their Nerves

Poison frogs don't actually make their own poison: They get it from eating mites and ants. Bright colors then warn any predator foolish enough to take a bite.

Predators such as snakes and scorpions, however, use venom, which must enter another animal's body by physical trauma to properly work. These toxins don't have to instantly kill: Instead, predators regularly use venom that paralyzes their prey.

In both cases, predators and prey alike want fast-acting toxins that can stop an animal in its tracks-making the nervous system an attractive target.

In fact, many of the animal kingdom's most potent toxins target nerves in one way or another. ( Find out how venoms could one day save your life.)

Some poison frogs carry a morphine-like compound called epibatidine, which works just like the compound acetylcholine, which sends messages between nerve cells. In fact, it works so well it can hijack the role of acetylcholine, wreaking havoc. Just one frog's worth of epibatidine is enough to kill a water buffalo.

In contrast, some species of poisonous newt use tetrodotoxin, which clogs up a pore that's key to conducting electric signals down a nerve.

"It's like cutting the wire at a fragile place, but just cutting it with a different tool," says Butch Brodie III, a biologist at the University of Virginia and poison expert who reviewed Tarvin's study.

A Body Built for Poison

But how did poison frogs start using epibatidine?

After sequencing the DNA of poison frog species that employ epibatidine, Tarvin and her colleagues found that the frogs' own receptors for acetylcholine were ever-so-slightly misshapen, results the team recently published in Science.

Genetically speaking, the change had to be subtle. Acetylcholine and epibatidine bind to the nerve receptor at the same place, so if mutations changed the receptor's shape too much, acetylcholine wouldn't be able to do its crucial day-to-day job.

But other structural tweaks across the receptor compensated for this issue. Epibatidine can't "recognize" the poison frogs' acetylcholine receptor, but acetylcholine can-sparing the frogs the effects of their own toxic brew. ( Read about a poison frog species discovered in Peru.)

What's more, it turns out that the frogs evolutionarily stumbled across this resistance on at least three separate occasions, a testament to that mutation's usefulness.

"This is beautiful... there is only a handful of examples [like Tarvin's study]," says herpetologist and toxinologist Zoltan Takacs, a National Geographic Explorer.

"Whatever you uncover is a very rare insight into how evolution works and how neurobiology works."

The study marks an important leap in the study of poisons' evolution-but many mysteries remain.

For one, biologists still don't know where poison frogs get epibatidine. It's clear that it's coming from something they're eating, but scientists haven't tracked down the source.

In fact, question marks surround most of poison frogs' toxins. More than 800 compounds have been found in poison frogs, but fewer than 70 are well understood, says Tarvin.

Tracking down these toxins' sources and learning more about how animals evolved resistance also offers insights that could hit close to home, says Brodie.

"We know very little about the chemical biosynthesis, in a lot of cases," he says. "From a more human-concerned point of view, we'd do a lot better at combating these toxins if we understood."

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Now We Know Why Poison Frogs Don't Poison Themselves

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Deep in the forests of South America live poison dart frogs that carry around a toxin 200 times more potent than morphine. While it packs a fatal punch for predators, the poison doesn't much affect the frogs. How? Their nervous systems have changed over time to fight off the powerful chemicals-an extraordinary example of evolution in action, according to a new study.