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•	What is gene expression?  What are the two stages of gene expression?

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•	What is gene expression?  What are the two stages of gene expression?

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The first stage is called the transcription. During transcription, an RNA copy of gene is made.During translation, the second stage of gene expression,three different kinds of RNA work together to assemble amino acids into a protein molecule.

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•	What are the three types of RNA?  What is their basic function?

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•	What are the three types of RNA?  What is their basic function?

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The three types of RNA are: mRNA (messenger RNA) - carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm tRNA (transfer RNA) - brings amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis rRNA (ribosomal RNA) - guides the translation of mRNA into a protein.

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•	What are the three basic differences between DNA and RNA?

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•	What are the three basic differences between DNA and RNA?

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Three of the nitrogenous bases are the same in the two types (adenine, cytosine, and guanine), but DNA contains thymine while RNA contains uracil. There are also functional differences. DNA is the blueprint for all proteins formed by the cells.

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•	Which nitrogen base is found in RNA, but not in DNA?

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•	Which nitrogen base is found in RNA, but not in DNA?

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The nitrogenous base found in DNA but not RNA is called thymine. RNA contains the base uracil which during transcription(when genetic information is copied from DNA to RNA) pairs with the base adenine in DNA. So, DNA has four nitrogenous bases: (A) adenine, (C) cytosine, G (guanine), and T (thymine).

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The sugar found in deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is deoxyribose. It is a variant of the five-carbon sugar called ribose.

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Ribonucleic Acid

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•	Three codons do not call for any amino acid.  What role is played by these codons?

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•	Three codons do not call for any amino acid.  What role is played by these codons?

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There are three codons that do not code for any amino acids: the stop codons. These are TAG, TAA, and TGA (in DNA, not RNA). There are three codons that do not code for any amino acids: the stop codons. These are TAG, TAA, and TGA (in DNA, not RNA).

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•	Distinguish between a termination signal (terminator) and a stop codon

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•	Distinguish between a termination signal (terminator) and a stop codon

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Termination signal is at the end of the part of the chromosome being transcribed during transcription of mRNA. While in a stop codon, also called termination codon, is a nucleotide triplet within messenger RNA that signals a termination of translation.

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•	What are the two types of mutations?  Define each.

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•	What are the two types of mutations?  Define each.

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The four main types of chromosomal mutations are deletion, duplication, inversion and translocation. A fifth chromosomal mutation is known as a deficiency. This occurs when a chromosome is lost sometime during fertilization or development of a fetus

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•	What is the importance of mutations to life on Earth?

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•	What is the importance of mutations to life on Earth?

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99% of mutations are harmful, 2% are lethal, less than 1% produce something better. Given a changeable environment they may be important. They are the only source of variation in organisms that can only reproduce asexually

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•	Explain how a deletion or an addition of a nitrogen base might affect the protein being formed

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•	Explain how a deletion or an addition of a nitrogen base might affect the protein being formed

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The deletion of a single nitrogen base in a particular gene will cause the rest of the genetic code for that particular gene to become senseless, and the protein that is suppo … sed to be formed from that code will be useless. If this occurs in a gamete, then the resulting offspring can inherit a genetic disorder, or may not even be able to survive

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•	Explain how a substitution of one nitrogen base for a new nitrogen base might affect the protein being formed.

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•	Explain how a substitution of one nitrogen base for a new nitrogen base might affect the protein being formed.

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A point mutation is a genetic mutation in the form of insertion / deletion (indels) or substitution to a single nucleotide base in a sequence of DNA or RNA. Point mutations have a variety of effects on the downstream protein product - consequences that are moderately predictable based the specifics of the mutation

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•	If a section along the DNA molecule had a nucleotide sequence of TACGCAATC, the complimentary section on the RNA molecule would be?

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•	If a section along the DNA molecule had a nucleotide sequence of TACGCAATC, the complimentary section on the RNA molecule would be?

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AUGCGUUAG Base A (Adenine) is complementary to bases T (Thymine) in DNA and U (Uracil) in RNA. The base G (Guanine) is complementary to the base C (Cytosine

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•	When does a ribosome become functional?

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•	When does a ribosome become functional?

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Ribosomes are synthesized in the nucleolus by combining rRNA which is made there and ribosomal proteins that are synthesized in the cytoplasm and are imported into the nucleus. The ribosome is exported out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm or are deposited on the rough ER.

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The structure of a ribosome is compromised of two parts. They are known as the large and the small subunits

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•	What might cause accidental damage or changes in existing DNA?

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•	What might cause accidental damage or changes in existing DNA?

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These enzymes catalyze some processes that take place within cells and protect the DNA from damage and change. Mutations and DNA change . Despite these efforts there are still some copying errors and accidental damage, permanent changes, or mutations.

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•	What is the advantage to the multiple sites of replication along the DNA molecule?

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•	What is the advantage to the multiple sites of replication along the DNA molecule?

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During the process, multiple replication bubbles on each chromosome churn out small lengths of DNA that are then spliced together to form the finished product.

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•	What is meant by the “base-pairing” rules?

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•	What is meant by the “base-pairing” rules?

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The base pairing rules for DNA are governed by the complementary base pairs: adenine (A) with thymine (T) in an A-T pairing and cytosine (C) with guanine (G) in a C-G pairing. Conversely, thymine only binds with adenine in a T-A pairing and guanine only binds with cytosine in a G-C pairing.

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•	Why is it so important that the DNA molecule be able to make copies of itself?

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•	Why is it so important that the DNA molecule be able to make copies of itself?

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Every new cell needs a copy of DNA, so it is the DNA's job to replicate itself and pass on a copy to an organism. DNA is often called the blue print of an individual's life. It has the make-up of what every trait and characteristic inside and outside of the body will be. It is important for DNA to replicate itself in order to reproduce.

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Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), contains the biological instructions that make each species unique. DNA, along with the instructions it contains, is passed from adult organisms to their offspring during reproduction.

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•	When replication occurs, it takes place at multiple sites along the molecule called _______.

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•	When replication occurs, it takes place at multiple sites along the molecule called _______.

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During replication, the two nucleotide chains --- and each chain will serve as a --- for the production of a new DNA chain. The sites where new nucleotides are added are called ---. When replication occurs, it takes place at multiple sites along the molecule called ---.

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•	What type of bond connects one nucleotide to the next nucleotide?

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•	What type of bond connects one nucleotide to the next nucleotide?

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Nucleotides are joined together by covalent bonds between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the third carbon atom of the pentose sugar in the next nucleotide. This produces an alternating backbone of sugar - phosphate - sugar - phosphate all along the polynucleotide chain.

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•	What type of bond holds the nitrogen bases to one another across the middle of the helix?

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•	What type of bond holds the nitrogen bases to one another across the middle of the helix?

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A chemical bond between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the sugar of a neighboring nucleotide holds the backbone together. Chemical bonds (hydrogen bonds) between the bases that are across from one another hold the two strands of the double helix together. Bases

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•	The process of forming an exact copy of the DNA molecule is called?

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•	The process of forming an exact copy of the DNA molecule is called?

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The process in which DNA makes an exact copy of itself is known as DNA replication and occurs through many steps during cellular replication. The process is semiconservative and occurs in the nucleus of the cell, where the DNA is found.

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•	What three critical things must genes be able to do?

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•	What three critical things must genes be able to do?

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There are three critical things that the genes are meant to perform. They are carrying the gene to the next generation, replication of genetic information and find the org…anisms' heritable characteristics.

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•	How did Chargaff’s rules help Watson and Crick develop their model of the DNA molecule?

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•	How did Chargaff’s rules help Watson and Crick develop their model of the DNA molecule?

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That's because of his rule, "The adenine was always connected to thymine and guanine was always connected to cytosine."

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•	Inside the nucleus, the DNA is tightly wound around proteins called?

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•	Inside the nucleus, the DNA is tightly wound around proteins called?

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The cell's DNA is packaged within the nucleus in a structural form called chromatin. Chromatin consists of DNA wound tightly around spherical proteins called histones. When the cell prepares to divide, the DNA unwinds from the histones and assumes the shape of chromosomes, the X-shaped structures visible within the nucleus prior to cell division

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•	What are the rungs of the DNA “ladder” made of?

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•	What are the rungs of the DNA “ladder” made of?

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Two of the four DNA bases join together to form the rungs between the sugar and phosphate outer rails. The four bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C) - only A can only pair with T, and G can only pair with C.

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•	In what part of the cell does replication occur?

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•	In what part of the cell does replication occur?

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DNA replication occurs during the synthesis (S phase) phase of interphase in the cell cycle. DNA replication begins in areas of DNA molecules called origins of replication.

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•	What is the name of the small repeating subunits that compose DNA and RNA?

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•	What is the name of the small repeating subunits that compose DNA and RNA?

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1. The repeating subunits that make up DNA are called  nucleotides. A nucleotide is an organic molecule that helps provide the structure for both DNA and RNA strands

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•	The two sides of the DNA molecule are held together across the center of the helix by what type of bond?

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•	The two sides of the DNA molecule are held together across the center of the helix by what type of bond?

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1. DNA is a double-stranded molecule twisted into a helix (think of a spiral staircase). Each spiraling strand, comprised of a sugar-phosphate backbone and attached bases, is connected to a complementary strand by non-covalent hydrogen bonding between paired bases.

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1. deoxyribonucleic acid