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Source Nine

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WHAT IS MONSOON? The Science of Monsoon - How does rainy weather happen? - How Monsoon affects India

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NASA/GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER article

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NASA/GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER article

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Source One

Ocean temperatures affect intensity of the South Asian monsoon and rainfal"l

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Warmer or colder sea surface temperatures (SST) may affect one of the world's key large-scale atmospheric circulations that regulate the intensity and breaking of rainfall associated with the South Asian and Australian monsoons, according to new research from NASA.

A monsoon is a wind that changes direction with the seasons. Monsoons develop from changing patterns of atmospheric circulation which are caused by changes in heating and cooling of land and oceans. One of the strongest and most well-known monsoons is the one which affects India and Southeast Asia in June through September.

The summer monsoon blows southwesterly across the Indian Ocean and is extremely wet. During the summer monsoon, particularly in July, there is usually a break period in the monsoon, when the rains stop and re-start. A phenomenon known as the Madden Julian Oscillation (MJO) has been found to affect that break and the variation of the MJO is affected by the variation of the SSTs.

The MJO is the main fluctuation of atmospheric circulation that explains variations of weather in the tropics and that regulates south Asian monsoons. The variation of the MJO involves variations in wind, SST, cloudiness, and rainfall. The MJO can be characterized by a large-scale eastward movement of air in the upper troposphere with a period of about 20-70 days, over the tropical eastern Indian and western Pacific Oceans at approximately 7.5 miles (200 millibars) high in the atmosphere.

Man Li Wu, a researcher from NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md., and lead author of the study, used computer models that simulate the atmosphere in the region. One of the purposes of this study is to examine to what extent intra-seasonal SST variations affect the MJO.

"Changes in SSTs will affect a large scale atmospheric circulation known as the MJO in the area of southern Asia, which regulates the variability of the monsoon," Wu said. The variation of the MJO coincides with the variation of tropical precipitation over the Indian Ocean and western Pacific Ocean. She noted that from observations the warmer sea surface temperatures are usually found 5 to 10 days before the strengthening of the precipitation on the MJO time scale.

Siegfried Schubert, a co-author on the paper from the Goddard Space Flight Center said that "the MJO plays an important role in the variability of the South Asian monsoons. Changes in SST may be responsible for between 15% and 30% of the fluctuations that occur in the strength of the MJO."

The ability of current computer models to simulate fluctuations of MJO is still in question. Wu said, "Improvements in predicting the MJO are an important step in making further progress in weather and climate prediction for areas affected by the monsoon. For weather forecasts, improved modeling of the MJO offers hope for extending the range of useful forecasts." For seasonal and climate prediction, the MJO is a key component.

These findings appear in the American Meteorological Society's October 15th issue of the Journal of Climate, Volume 15, Number 20.

This research was funded under NASA's Earth Science Enterprises Global Modeling and Analysis Program, dedicated to better understanding and protecting our home planet, and is a contribution to the CLIVAR/Monsoon Global Climate Model Intercomparison project. Support was also provided by the Atmospheric Sciences Division of the National Science Foundation.

For more information and images, see:

For more information about the MJO:

Disclaimer: AAAS and EurekAlert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to EurekAlert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the EurekAlert system.

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Ocean temperatures affect intensity of the South Asian monsoon and rainfall

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Warmer or colder sea surface temperatures (SST) may affect one of the world's key large-scale atmospheric circulations that regulate the intensity and breaking of rainfall associated with the South Asian and Australian monsoons, according to new research from NASA. A monsoon is a wind that changes direction with the seasons.

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Source Ten
Monsoons: Wet, Dry, Repeat...May 13, 2016

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The monsoon is a seasonal rain and wind pattern that occurs over South Asia (among other places). Through NASA satellites and models we can see the monsoon patterns like never before. Monsoon rains provide important reservoirs of water that sustain human activities like agriculture and supports the natural environment through replenishment of aquifers.

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Source Two
Multiple images with article below in National Geographic's encyclopedia.

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A monsoon is a seasonal change in the direction of the prevailing, or strongest, winds of a region. Monsoons cause wet and dry seasons throughout much of the tropics. Monsoons are most often associated with the Indian Ocean.

Monsoons always blow from cold to warm regions. The summer monsoon and the winter monsoon determine the climate for most of India and Southeast Asia.

Summer Monsoon

The summer monsoon is associated with heavy rainfall. It usually happens between April and September. As winter ends, warm, moist air from the southwest Indian Ocean blows toward countries like India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. The summer monsoon brings a humid climate and torrential rainfall to these areas.

India and Southeast Asia depend on the summer monsoon. Agriculture, for example, relies on the yearly rain. Many areas in these countries do not have large irrigation systems surrounding lakes, rivers, or snowmelt areas. Aquifers, or supplies of underground water, are shallow. The summer monsoon fills wells and aquifers for the rest of the year. Rice and tea are some crops that rely on the summer monsoon. Dairy farms, which help make India the largest milk producer in the world, also depend on the monsoon rains to keep cows healthy and well-fed.

Industry in India and Southeast Asia also relies on the summer monsoon. A great deal of electricity in the region is produced by hydroelectric power plants, which are driven by water collected during the monsoons. Electricity powers hospitals, schools, and businesses that help the economies of these areas develop.

When the summer monsoon is late or weak, the regions economy suffers. Fewer people can grow their own food, and large agribusinesses do not have produce to sell. Governments must import food. Electricity becomes more expensive, sometimes limiting development to large businesses and wealthy individuals. The summer monsoon has been called Indias true finance minister.

Heavy summer monsoons can cause great damage. Residents of such urban areas as Mumbai, India, are used to the streets flooding with almost half a meter (1.5 feet) of water every summer. However, when the summer monsoon is stronger than expected, floods can devastate the region. In cities like Mumbai, entire neighborhoods can be drowned. In rural areas, mudslides can bury villages and destroy crops.

In 2005, a strong monsoon devastated western India. As the summer monsoon blew in from the southwest, it first hit the state of Gujarat. More than 100 people died. Then, the monsoon rains hit the state of Maharashtra. Flooding in Maharashtra killed more than 1,000 people. On July 26, 2005, the city of Mumbai, Maharashtra, received almost a meter (39.1 inches) of rain.

Winter Monsoon
The Indian Oceans winter monsoon, which lasts from October to April, is less well-known than its rainy summer equivalent. The dry winter monsoon blows from the northeast. These winds start in the air above Mongolia and northwestern China.

Winter monsoons are less powerful than summer monsoons in Southeast Asia, in part because the Himalaya Mountains prevent much of the wind and moisture of the monsoons from reaching the coast. The Himalayas also prevent much of the cool air from reaching places like southern India and Sri Lanka, keeping them warm all year. Winter monsoons are sometimes associated with droughts.

Not all winter monsoons are dry, however. Unlike the western part of Southeast Asia, the eastern, Pacific coast of Southeast Asia experiences its rainy season in the winter. The winter monsoon brings moist air from the South China Sea to areas like Indonesia and Malaysia.

Other Monsoons

The Asian-Australian monsoon, which includes the Indian Ocean, stretches from northern Australia to Russias Pacific coast. This huge monsoon wind system then stretches into the Indian Ocean. Finally, it reaches its end on the Indian coast of Africa.

Monsoon winds exist in other parts of the world, too. The North American monsoon happens once a year, usually in the middle of summer. Warm, moist air from the Gulf of California blows northeast, while warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico blows northwest. These two winds meet over the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains in central Mexico. The monsoon brings moisture to the mountain ecosystem before continuing north to the U.S. states of Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas.

The North American monsoon can be a natural aid to firefighters. Summer temperatures in Arizona regularly reach more than 100 degrees Fahrenheit, making wildfires difficult to contain. The North American monsoon is also the primary water source for most desert ecosystems in the region. However, it can also confuse and interrupt daily life for people and businesses not used to dealing with heavy rain.

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A monsoon is a seasonal change in the direction of the prevailing, or strongest, winds of a region. Monsoons cause wet and dry seasons throughout much of the tropics. Monsoons are most often associated with the Indian Ocean. Monsoons always blow from cold to warm regions.

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Source Eleven
NASA Goddard May 13, 2016

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Source Three
"All You Need to Know About India’s Epic Monsoon Season"

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The main monsoon season in India runs from June to September and the question on everyone's lips is always, "What's it really like and is travel still possible?" This is very understandable as the thought of rain and floods is enough to put a dampener on any holiday. However, the good news is that you don't have to let the monsoon ruin your travel plans, and travel can even be advantageous during this time.

Here's all you need to know about India during the monsoon, as well as where to travel to avoid the rain.

What Causes the Monsoon in India

The monsoon is caused by differing temperature trends over the land and ocean. In India, the southwest summer monsoon is attracted by a low pressure area that's caused by the extreme heat of the Thar Desert in Rajasthan and adjoining areas during summer. During the monsoon, the wind direction reverses. Moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean come to fill up the void, but because they can't pass through the Himalayas region, they're forced to rise. The gain in altitude of the clouds results in a drop in temperature, bringing about rain.

When the southwest monsoon reaches India, it splits into two parts around the mountainous region of the Western Ghats in south-central India. One part moves northwards over the Arabian Sea and up the coastal side of the Western Ghats. The other flows over the Bay of Bengal, up through Assam, and hits the Eastern Himalayas.

The southwest monsoon's withdrawal begins in Rajasthan, with the direction of air circulation again reversing. This is supposed to take place at the start of September but it's common for it to be delayed, prolonging the length of the monsoon.

What can be Expected During the Monsoon in India

The southwest monsoon reaches the coast of the southern state of Kerala around June 1. It usually arrives in Mumbai approximately 10 days later, reaches Delhi by the end of June, and covers the rest of India by mid-July. Every year, the date of the monsoon's arrival is the subject of much speculation. Despite numerous predictions by the meteorological department, it's rare that anyone gets it right though!

The monsoon doesn't appear all at once. Rather, it builds up over a couple of days of "pre-monsoon showers". Its actual arrival is announced by an intense period of heavy rain, booming thunder and plenty of lightening. This rain injects an amazing amount of vigor into people, and it's common to see children running about, dancing in the rain, and playing games. Even the adults join in because it's so refreshing.

After the first initial downpour, which can last for days, the monsoon falls into a steady pattern of raining for at least a couple of hours most days. It can be sunny one minute and pouring the next. The rain is very unpredictable. Some days very little rainfall will occur, and during this time the temperature will start heating up again and humidity levels will rise. The amount of rain that's received peaks in most areas during July, and starts tapering off a bit in August. While less rain is usually received overall in September, the rain that does come can often be torrential.

Unfortunately, many cities become flooded at the start of the monsoon and during heavy downpours. This is due to drains being unable to cope with the volume of water, often because of trash that has built up over the summer and hasn't been properly cleared.

Where Receives the Most Rain in India During the Monsoon

It's important to note that some regions receive more rain than others during the monsoon. Out of India's major cities, Mumbai receives the most rain during the southwest monsoon. Kolkata used to receive a lot of rain but this has decreased in recent years, with the northeast monsoon tending to bring more downpours.

The eastern Himalaya region, around Darjeeling and Shillong (the capital of Meghalaya), is one of the wettest areas in not just India, but the whole world, during the monsoon. This is because the monsoon picks up additional moisture from the Bay of Bengal as it heads towards the Himalayan range. Travel to this region should definitely be avoided during monsoon time, unless you really love the rain! If you do, then Cherrapunji in Meghalaya is the place for you (it has the honor of getting the highest rainfall in the world).

Where Receives the Least Rain in India During the Monsoon

As far as major cities are concerned, Delhi, Bangalore and Hyderabad receive comparatively less rain. Chennai doesn't receive much rain at all during the southwest monsoon, as Tamil Nadu gets most of its rainfall from the northeast monsoon, from October to December. Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh also experience this monsoon, as well as heavy rainfall during the southwest monsoon.

Areas that receive the least rain and are most suited to travel during the monsoon include the desert state of Rajasthan, the Deccan Plateau on the eastern side of the Western Ghats mountain range, and Ladakh in far north India.

What are the Benefits of Traveling to India During the Monsoon

Monsoon time can be a great time to visit India as tourist attractions aren't crowded, airfares can be cheaper, and bargain rates are up for grabs at hotels throughout the country.

You'll also get to see another side of India, where nature comes alive in a landscape of cool, lush greenery. Check out these 9 Top India Monsoon Travel Destinations for inspiration.

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All You Need to Know About India's Epic Monsoon Season

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The main monsoon season in India runs from June to September and the question on everyone's lips is always, "What's it really like and is travel still possible?" This is very understandable as the thought of rain and floods is enough to put a dampener on any holiday.

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Source Twelve
May 30, 2016

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Source Four

As the Monsoon and Climate Shift, India Faces Worsening Floods

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Himanshu Bhatt/NurPhoto via Getty Images

Extreme precipitation events are on the rise in India, driven by warming temperatures and changes in the monsoon. The resulting floods are being exacerbated by unplanned urban growth and environmental degradation, driving millions from their homes and causing widespread damage.

For centuries, Indians have rejoiced at the arrival of the monsoon to break summer's fever. From June to September, rains water the crops, revive rivers and wells, and cool the air.

Increasingly, however, the season's sweet relief is laced with apprehension. The torrential rains that submerged parts of India this year are the latest in a string of major floods in the past decade, some caused by record rainfall - a scenario that many worry could become the "new normal" as climate change increases the frequency of extreme weather. This year, for instance, the monsoon arrived late and on the heels of a drought. Rains sputtered through June, then came on with a fierce intensity. Since early July, spells of heavy rain have led to flooding in 11 states, taking 1,200 lives and displacing millions. Many farmers desperate for rain saw their crops washed away.

India's summer monsoon has always been variable and has often precipitated floods, especially in the basins of the great Himalayan rivers. But experts say that a combination of global warming, unplanned urban growth, and environmental degradation is increasing flood risk in India.

New studies show that extreme precipitation events are on the rise in large parts of India, especially multi-day deluges that lead to large-scale floods. Warmer temperatures are also speeding up glacier melt in the Himalayas, which is projected to increase flow rates in the Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers. As importantly, destruction of mountains and hills, as well as development on floodplains and marshes, are exacerbating risk, as was seen in last year's historic floods in the southern state of Kerala. Those floods were caused by extreme rainfall and mismanagement of dam reservoirs, but mining and construction in the Western Ghats, a major hill range, contributed to damaging landslides. The floods in August 2018 took 483 lives, affected 5.4 million people, and temporarily shut down the state's new airport, which was built on a floodplain.

One study showed a three-fold rise in extreme precipitation events across central India from 1950 to 2015.

"Hydro-meteorological events are on the rise," says Muralee Thummarukudy, operations manager at the crisis management branch of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). "But in India, especially, more people are also living in vulnerable areas and leading more affluent lifestyles than before. So more individual and community resources are at risk."

The number of floods in India rose to 90 in the 10-year period from 2006 to 2015, up from 67 in the 10 years between 1996 to 2005, according to the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. Globally, floods made up 47 percent of all climate-related disasters from 2006 to 2015, up from 40 percent in the 1996-2005 period, says the agency's 2015 report. Overall flood mortality fell in those two decades, except in a handful of countries, including India, where death tolls continued to rise, from 13,660 from 1996 to 2005, to 15,860 from 2006 to 2015. Experts say this is a sign that despite improved warnings and response, India needs to do more to reduce risk. Chief among those steps is regulation of housing and infrastructure in floodplains - a trend that has intensified in recent years as India's urban population and economy have grown.

A 2017 global analysis by the World Resources Institute said that India has the most GDP exposed to river flooding ($14.3 billion), a number that could rise 10-fold by 2030 as the economy continues to grow. "However good the emergency response," says Thummarukudy, "the damages will keep coming unless we tackle the problem head on."

One key to preventing or reducing flood damage is understanding the shifting contours of the summer monsoon, which brings about 35 inches of rainfall to India every summer. A complex weather system influenced by both global atmospheric circulation and regional meteorological forces, the monsoon is an important piece of the climate puzzle - any change in the system affects the food and water security of billions in the Indian subcontinent, many of them extremely poor.

Those changes are not fully understood. Observations have shown a decline in mean monsoon rainfall since the 1950s partly due to the rapid warming of the Indian Ocean, which weakens monsoon circulation. The conversion of forests to farmland is also reducing evapotranspiration, which contributes significantly to rainfall, especially in the latter half of the monsoon season. But this century, an increase in land warming appears to be pulling in more moisture from the ocean and reviving the overall monsoon - at least for now.

As important as total rainfall is the distribution of that precipitation. Roxy Mathew Koll, a climate scientist at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, said that in parts of India, "what we are seeing is that there are more frequent heavy rainfall events as well as dry spells, and fewer moderate rainfall events."

A 2017 study by Koll showed a three-fold rise in extreme precipitation events across central India from 1950 to 2015. The study also appeared to explain why extreme precipitation increased even as monsoon circulation weakened: The heavy rain events are caused by surges of moisture from a warming Arabian Sea.

Most studies project that extreme rainfall will continue to rise with temperatures. "In terms of total rainfall, the models don't all agree," said Roxy. "But we have high confidence that heavy rainfall events are going to increase further."

At one point last month, an estimated 1.2 million people were living in government relief camps after widespread flooding.

In new research simulating rainfall and floods under different climate scenarios in 18 Indian river basins, scientists from the Indian Institute of Technology in Gandhinagar projected that multi-day rainfall events would increase across these basins. That's important, said associate professor Vimal Mishra, because heavy rainfall over several days is what causes large-scale basin flooding.

"You have to evacuate more people and more poor people are affected," said Mishra. Responding to floods in different areas at the same time - as happened this year - also strains emergency response efforts, he notes. Last month, the Indian army, air force, and National Disaster Response Force were deployed to rescue people across six states in northern and western India. At one point, an estimated 1.2 million people were living in government relief camps.

Mishra's study did find that the frequency of floods in the low-carbon emissions scenario, in which global temperature increases stabilize at 1 degree C, was half that of the high-emission one, in which temperatures would rise by 3.7 degrees Celsius (6.6 degrees Fahrenheit). However, with global CO2 emissions continuing to steadily increase, the chances of holding temperature increases to under 2 degrees C (3.6 degrees F) seem increasingly remote. Still, the study shows climate change mitigation is important, said Mishra.

For the rivers fed by the Himalayas, glacier melt is an added worry. A study published in June that analyzed satellite data on 650 glaciers across the Himalayas found that the average ice loss rate had doubled during the 2000-2016 period, compared to the previous 25 years. More glacier melt means increased runoff, said Vikrant Jain, another scientist at IIT Gandhinagar, as well as the possibility of more glacial lake outburst floods - the sudden release of an enormous quantity of water when an ice block holding back water melts. In 2013, heavy rain followed by a glacial lake outburst caused devastating floods and landslides in the Himalayan state of Uttarakhand. The floods killed upwards of 4,000 people, destroyed the Hindu pilgrimage town of Kedarnath, and damaged roads, bridges, and dams, causing economic losses of $3.8 billion.

Meanwhile, on India's coastal plains - where rivers and sea meet large urban populations - another kind of flood risk could increase. In a study published last year, Mishra and his colleagues found that short bursts of heavy rainfall, lasting only hours, are likely to increase by 20 percent if the global mean temperature rises above 1.5 degrees C. Such "sub-daily" extremes have the most impact on urban flooding, Mishra says, noting that storm water systems need to be redesigned for the new extremes.

Unplanned urbanization is already increasing flooding. India added 90 million people to its urban population between 2001 and 2011, and will add 416 million more by 2050, according to the UN. Rain runoff automatically goes up when permeable soil is replaced by impervious surfaces, such as roads and parking lots. In addition, sprawling Indian cities have been building on wetlands and expanding into floodplains. And urbanization itself may be affecting rainfall patterns. Studies from the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay have found that urban heat islands could be intensifying thunderstorms over Mumbai.

"At different levels," says Koll, "we are seeing a human imprint on rainfall."

A small concrete shed is tucked away on the banks of the Ulhas River at Badlapur, a suburban town on the outskirts of the coastal metropolis of Mumbai, population 21 million. On one wall is painted a list of the high flood line in meters since 1991. The river crossed the danger mark 12 times in this period, the highest in 2005 when record-breaking rainfall, coupled with high tides, submerged the metropolitan region. The second-worst flood came this July, when the river rose with heavy monsoon rainfall, affecting more than 50,000 people. The deluge swamped cars, shops, and ground-floor apartments in the new buildings that had sprung up on land close to the river.

The absence of flood zoning has enabled risky development in Mumbai and other Indian cities.

The absence of flood zoning has enabled that risky development in Mumbai and other Indian cities. New residents in Badlapur, many of them first-time homebuyers, say they are shaken. Revati Rahate, who had moved into her new house only in May, had woken up in the middle of the night to feed her 10-day-old baby when she discovered water rushing into her ground-floor apartment. The Rahates fled to higher floors, and when the waters receded after two days, moved to her sister's home for 10 days. Their building lost water and power, their home was full of mud, and with continued heavy rains, Revati says she lives in fear of another flood.

Badlapur was just one area in the western state of Maharashtra to be hit by floods during this summer's monsoon. In July and August, floods affected almost 300,000 people and damaged nearly 1 million acres of farmland. Another round of heavy rain submerged parts of Mumbai earlier this month, requiring emergency forces to rescue stranded commuters. In response to recent flooding events, the Maharashtra government has established a task force on climate change. The Indian government is planning a new law to better manage major river basins.

What can India do to reduce its flood risk? More, and better, science would be a start. Gaps include modelling small-scale cloud dynamics and understanding the exact role of the Bay of Bengal in the monsoon, says Koll. More research is also needed on river hydrology, says IIT Gandhinagar's Jain. Flood models don't incorporate sediment dynamics, for instance, which play a role in Himalyan river flooding. High sediment loads can reduce the capacity of a channel, leading to overtopping of the banks.

Beyond forecasting, flood management policies need an overhaul, experts say. Historically, in India as elsewhere, flood management has been about creating embankments and dams to control floods. But a 2017 audit in 17 Indian states found delays in completion of river management projects and deficiencies in flood protection structures.

Meanwhile, new ecosystem-based flood management approaches being promoted by international agencies have yet to catch on in India. That includes planning cities with ponds and permeable surfaces, restoring wetlands and forests, and regulating development in floodplains and hills, said Raghu Murtugudde, professor of earth sciences at the University of Maryland. Flood zone mapping and regulation of the sort that would have helped the townships along the Ulhas River was proposed decades ago, but has not been implemented.

In India, nature's power overwhelms engineered wetlands. Read more.

"In the long run, the solution is better risk-informed land-use planning: Where do you build and how do you build," says UNEP's Thummarukudy, who consulted with the Kerala government after the floods last year. "Disaster risk reduction and environment protection go hand in hand."

Mumbai-based Vaishnavi Chandrashekhar has worked as a reporter and editor at The Times of India and at The Christian Science Monitor. Her work also has appeared in The Daily Beast, The Guardian, and The New York Times online. Chandrashekhar was a 2012 Panos South Asia climate change fellow. More →

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As the Monsoon and Climate Shift, India Faces Worsening Floods

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Extreme precipitation events are on the rise in India, driven by warming temperatures and changes in the monsoon. The resulting floods are being exacerbated by unplanned urban growth and environmental degradation, driving millions from their homes and causing widespread damage.

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Heavy Monsoon Rains Trigger Flood Chaos Across India

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Heavy Monsoon Rains Trigger Flood Chaos Across India

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Source Thirteen
BBC Aug. 19, 2020

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Heavy monsoon rains trigger flood chaos across India

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Source Five

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Indian Environment

Geography

India is a peninsula, a piece of land surrounded on three sides by water. It has the Arabian Sea on the west, the Bay of Bengal on the east, and the Indian Ocean on the south. India is also separated from the rest of Asia by the Himalaya Mountains to the north and northwest. The Himalayas have some of the tallest mountains in the world.

Indian geography is very diverse. It has deserts, mountains, forests, and jungles.

Rain and Water

The life of ancient India was probably greatly affected by the weather. India tends to be a very hot and dry country. But, in May, the monsoon season hits. Monsoons are times of very heavy rainfall. The rain in India can last for several weeks or a month, and can cause heavy flooding. The rain is a good thing, though, as it waters the fields that have been dry for so long. In years when the monsoons do not come, India suffers from drought.

The ancient Indians settled in areas near the rivers, or where there was access to water. Western India (now the country of Pakistan) had the Indus River, and eastern India had the Ganges River. The northern area had the Himalaya Mountains. Melting snow coming off the mountains supplied water to this area. Eastern India often gets another monsoon in September that helps water the fields, in addition to the one in May.

Plants

The ancient Indians of Harappa grew wheat, melons, peas, dates, sesame seeds, and cotton. Many thousands of years before the Harappans, when people first came to India, they found the familiar plants of figs and onions already growing there. They also found sugar cane, coconuts, bananas, mangoes, and lemons, all of which were new to them.

The Ancient Indians soon discovered something else that would greatly affect their future and make them a valuable trade partner around the world: spices! Black pepper grew abundantly, as did ginger and cinnamon. Cinnamon is actually the inner bark of a small tree. It helped to preserve food, as well as tasting great, and became a much-wanted spice around the world. The Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans were all willing to pay a lot of money for Indian cinnamon.

The Indians learned many things about farming from their neighbors. In southern India, they grew rice, which they learned about from the people of Thailand. The northern Indians learned to grow millet from the East Africans, and lentils from the West Asians.

When the Aryans (or Indo-Europeans, that is, the people from the area between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea) came to India, they brought the knowledge of growing wheat and barley. Traders on the Silk Road (the trade route from China to the west) brought peaches, which Indians then began to grow themselves. Over the years, many traders brought different kinds of plants, including tea, which would become another important source of income.

Wild Animals

Many of India's wild animals could be dangerous to people, such as the Royal Bengal Tiger. The Bengal tiger lives near river banks; it is yellow to light orange, with dark brown to black stripes. Tigers like to live alone and have large territories. Unlike other cats, they seem to enjoy swimming!

Another big animal native to India is the Asiatic Lion. It lives on the grasslands and plains. This lion is slightly smaller than the lions of Africa, but it belongs to the same species. Male Asiatic Lions don't live in prides, like African lions. And like the Bengal tigers, they tend to live alone.

Some other wild animals of India are the Indian elephant, the great Indian rhinoceros, the leopard, the Indian black bear, the wild water buffalo, the Indian wild donkey, the dhole (a wild dog), and the blue bull, the biggest Asian antelope.

Domesticated Animals

Domesticated animals, especially cattle, were very important to ancient civilizations, including India. Cattle were used for pulling carts and plowing fields. They also produced milk, which Indians could make into yogurt and cheese. Another animal that produced milk was the water buffalo!

Later on, the Indians learned about raising chickens, goats, and sheep.
Camels, brought by the Moslems in 1000 AD, could be used for carrying people or loads. And elephants could be caught and used to pull heavy loads, and were also used in battle.

In many ancient civilizations, the friendship of cats and dogs was also valued. Dogs were valuable as pets, hunters, and protectors. Ancient Indians were especially fond of their dogs. The Indian Pariah Dog is considered by many to be the very first domesticated dog. The Mahabharata tells a story of a king who travels with his faithful dog. When he reaches the gates of paradise, he is told he must leave the dog behind. He refuses and declares he would rather continue to live on earth with his faithful dog. The gatekeeper says this was a final test of his goodness, and allows the king, and his dog, to enter.

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Geography India is a peninsula, a piece of land surrounded on three sides by water. It has the Arabian Sea on the west, the Bay of Bengal on the east, and the Indian Ocean on the south. India is also separated from the rest of Asia by the Himalaya Mountains to the north and northwest.

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Source Fourteen
Monsoon rains flood Pakistan's financial capital, forcing residents to abandon homes

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Monsoon rains flood Pakistan's financial capital, forcing residents to abandon homes

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Source Six
Readworks.com (A short passage)

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Source Fifteen
July 2012

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Effects of Monsoon Season on India (Dispatch)

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Source Seven
Readworks.com

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Indian monsoon and its impact on the economy

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Indian monsoon and its impact on the economy

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Source Sixteen
March 31, 2020

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Indian monsoon and its impact on the economy

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Source Eight
Blessing or Curse?

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The Indian Agri Story: Why Monsoon Rains Are Critical

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The Indian Agri Story: Why Monsoon Rains Are Critical

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Source Seventeen
July 2019

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The Indian Agri Story: Why Monsoon Rains Are Critical

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Over half of India's population works in agriculture, and monsoon rains directly affect their incomes and livelihood. 

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Over half of India's population works in agriculture, and monsoon rains directly affect their incomes and livelihood. 