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In 1931, Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska invented the Electron Microscope at the Berlin Institute of Technology. This invention allowed for a detailed view of inflammation occurring throughout the body allowing scientists to gain a better understanding of how inflammation works. This was one of the most important inventions of the 20th century in Europe and the United States, allowing many advancements regarding Neuroinflammation to occur. Without this invention, discoveries such as how Neuroinflammation is involved in disease and cognitive deficits would not have been made.

The image below shows a picture of the first Electron Microscope ever invented.

Source:
(1):
https://authors.library.caltech.edu/5456/1/hrst.mit.edu/hrs/materials/public/ElectronMicroscope/EM_HistOverview.htm#:~:text=Early%20History%20of%20Electron%20Microscopy,the%20limitations%20of%20visible%20light.

(2):
https://sites.google.com/site/biologytimeline19301949/1932---first-electron-microscope

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in 1989, American Immunologist and professor from the University of Yale discovered the main purpose of inflammation in the body.

Janeway discovered that the body protects itself from infection by microorganisms by using protein sensors and T cells that create an inflammatory response in the body. This understanding helped identify the main purpose of inflammation in the body which would help future scientists in the 21st century United States discover various other purposes for inflammation for example how it can be used medicinally.

The image below shows a picture of Charles Janeway Jr. before he passed away in 2003.

Source:
(1): https://www.nytimes.com/2003/04/27/nyregion/dr-charles-janeway-jr-60-expert-on-immune-system-dies.html

(2):
https://stories.uq.edu.au/imb/the-edge/inflammation/timeline-of-inflammation/index.html

(3):
https://www.nature.com/articles/423237a

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The Role of Neuroinflammation in Fatigue and Depression

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The Role of Neuroinflammation in Fatigue and Depression

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There is an increasingly extensive amount of evidence providing a link between Neuroinflammation and depression and fatigue. The evidence regarding this link has been gathered since the late 1900s however in 2009 researchers Andrew H. Miller, Vladimir Maletic and Charles L. Raison provided further evidence supporting the idea. They found increased inflammatory biomarkers, such as inflammatory cytokines in patients with high functioning depression leading to excitotoxicity and loss of glial elements causing various neurological disorders such as depression.

These findings were important to the future of United States Neuroscience, furthering the idea that neuroinflammation can have deleterious effects when in excess.

The image below compares the brains of a normal individual vs a depressed individual. Showing a broad overview of the effects that neuroinflammation can have.

Source:
(1):
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2680424/

(2):
https://scopeblog.stanford.edu/2019/05/02/taking-depression-seriously-what-is-it/

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One of the more important discoveries regarding Neuroinflammation was its connection with Alzheimer's disease and other similar degenerative disorders. Scientist's discovered this connection by measuring the mRNA levels of various proteins and regulators in normal subjects and subjects with Alzheimer's disease. They found higher levels of inflammation in the tissues of Alzheimer's patients which lead to neuronal cell death.

Researcher Patrick L. McGeer and others performed experimentation in 2000 that further proved the conclusion. They found a higher activity in mRNA inflammatory mediators in Alzheimer's patients than normal.

This was a major discovery in United States Neuroscience in the late 1900s and early 2000s that emphasized the importance of studying Alzheimer's due to discoveries upon the dangers of the disease.

The image below shows the processes that occur within the brain of a human with Alzheimer's disease.

Source:
(1):
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-7091-6781-6_8

(2):
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1552526016301856

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Neuroinflammatory Responses After Brain Injury

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Neuroinflammatory Responses After Brain Injury

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It has been proven that neuroinflammation occurs after specific injury such as a traumatic brain injury. The finding proves the idea that neuroinflammation can have positive benefits. Researchers Brian Joseph Kelley, Johnathon Lifshitz, and John Theodore Povlishock performed experimentation at the University of Arizona, Yale, and Virginia Commonwealth in 2007 and found an increase in microglial activation in response to injured neocortex, thalamus, and hippocampus.

After understanding the inflammatory effects of traumatic brain injury, the discovery led to further research on the concept of injury and inflammation, as the discovery opened the door for 21st century scientists to discover the amount of inflammatory responses that occur in other parts of the body.

The image below shows the cycle of how neuroinflammation occurs after a traumatic brain injury, which involves a number of receptors, microglia, and astrocytes.

Source:
(1): https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17984681/

(2):
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165027016301479

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Long-term neuroinflammation may have negative effects on cognition. It was already well known that Neuroinflammation  plays a role in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Dementia. However, multiple experiments have discovered the specific cognitive deficits that occur in these diseases due to neuroinflammation such as decreased spatial learning ability and object memory deficits.

King's College London Researcher Wong Fong Kuan made these discoveries in England while experimenting on rats by injecting LPS into various hippocampus areas to initiate neuroinflammation. Kuan wrote about her discoveries in a research article linked below written in 2009.

These findings helped provide further evidence to support the idea that excess neuroinflammation may cause negative cognitive effects that impact learning, proving that there are negative consequences to neuroinflammation, a discovery important for future 21st century studies.

The image below gives a visual example of how the rat experiment was conducted, showing the intrahippocampal injection.

Source:
(1):
https://www.metris.nl/media/documents/laboras/Publications/2009%20-%20Wong%20Thesis%2026052010%20Effect%20of%20Neuroinflammation%20on%20cognition.pdf

(2):
https://encapsula.com/intrahippocampal-administration/

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The best choice to guide you through this exhibit would be Bruce Beutler. Bruce Beutler is an American Immunologist born on December 29, 1957, in Chicago Illinois. Beutler has extensive knowledge on the subject of Inflammation, winning a Nobel Prize in 2011 in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of specific receptors that allow mammals to sense when infections occur, which triggers an inflammatory response.

Beutler has spent the majority of his life conducting research on the purposes of inflammatory effects in mammals in different areas of the body at the University of California San Diego and The University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine. Beutler is currently one of the most important figures in the field of immunology due to his discoveries regarding inflammation and neuroinflammation. The image below shows a picture of Bruce Beutler.

Source:
(1):
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bruce-Beutler

(2):
https://profiles.utsouthwestern.edu/profile/10593/bruce-beutler.html

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Neuroinflammation: the devil is in the details

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Neuroinflammation: the devil is in the details

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Published on May 4, 2016, professor Johnathon P Godbout and others published "Neuroinflammation, The Devil Is In the Details", a research article highlighting the causes of neuroinflammation and potential positive and negative consequences of neuroinflammation, an inflammatory response that occurs within the brain and nervous system.

The research found that the microglia play a key role in mediating specific neuroinflammatory responses and there are many different levels of neuroinflammatory responses that serve various purposes in different areas of the brain and spinal cord which may be beneficial or harmful if there is an imbalance in communication between the brain and immune system.

These findings may help future scientists analyze more specific neuroinflammatory responses to better understand which are harmful or beneficial. The image below shows an excerpt of the research article and where the article can be found.

Source:
(1): https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26990767/

(2):
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298899656_Neuroinflammation_The_Devil_is_in_the_Details