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Since 2012, the population of wild horses has nearly doubled. For instance, the Bureau of Land Management hold public lands for horse populations that can sustain up to 27,000 horses, but there are currently 77,000 horses on the land. As the population continues to rise, scientists attempt to manage their population through adoption and birth control. If the populations are not managed correctly, extreme pressure will be placed on the rangelands, and could eventually lead to starvation. ‘“They have to be managed, so that there’s enough food and water to go around,’ says Jason Lutterman, a spokesperson with the BLM’s National Wild Horse and Burro Program.” Members of the American Wild Horse Preservation Campaign are on the hunt for young horses in order to shoot the horses with “a contraceptive vaccine that triggers her immune system to reject fertilization” (Morell). Organizations involved in the effort are faced with tough choices; develop a more effective “single shot” contraceptive, allow the population to manage themselves, or continue to invest millions of dollars into areas for the horses to roam. Those opposed to the birth control worry the contraceptives could be detrimental to the behavior and communities of the horses. Ultimately, horse populations should be protected will also maintaining their health and wild nature.

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When Nancy Kilian, a self-described horse lover, spotted a brown-and-white pinto mare standing among the sagebrush and juniper trees near Carson City, Nevada, a couple of weeks ago, she didn't hesitate.

She loaded her darting rifle, aimed at the female's rump, and fired.

"She jumped a bit," Kilian recalled, "because it stings, but settled down. I knew I was doing her a favor."

The favor: Injecting the one-year-old animal (whom Kilian recognized from a photo) with a contraceptive vaccine that triggers her immune system to reject fertilization. Kilian or another member of the American Wild Horse Preservation Campaign, a California-based nonprofit, will give the mare a booster in January via the same method.

Horse birth control is a key strategy to better manage wild horses on rangelands throughout the western U.S. Descended from domesticated animals that escaped or were released from captivity, wild horses are technically "feral"-the term used to describe the offspring of any domesticated species that people no longer tend.

Mustangs are a type of wild horse descended from Spanish horses brought to the U.S. centuries ago, according to D. Phillip Sponenberg, a professor of pathology and genetics at Virginia Tech. Only a few populations of these small, athletic animals survive-and even most of these have interbred to some degree with other European horses. ( Smarter than you think: Read how horses have consciousness.)

The Bureau of Land Management protects wild horses and burros in all 10 western states they call home. And with very few predators, their numbers are booming. Some 77,000 of the animals now live on public lands that the BLM says can support only 27,000. And many populations are growing at 20 percent or more a year, putting extreme pressure on rangelands-and in some cases leading to starvation.

"They have to be managed, so that there's enough food and water to go around," says Jason Lutterman, a spokesperson with the BLM's National Wild Horse and Burro Program, which works with state agencies and nonprofits to care for the animals.

Tough Choices

To keep wild horse numbers in check, federal and state agencies mostly round them up and encourage people to adopt them. But such guardians are harder to find these days, leading the BLM to spend some $49 million a year to house 46,000 horses in 60 private ranches, corrals, and feedlots.

Recently, after touring public lands severely damaged by organizing, a government advisory board recommended the BLM consider euthanasia for some horses. The suggestion, which brought a storm of protest from the public and animal-welfare organizations, has since been shelved.

In September, the BLM eliminated another possible tool: sterilization. The agency had planned to experimentally sterilize 200 wild mares at a facility in Oregon, but halted the study after wild horse advocates filed lawsuits to stop the research -or to at least allow the public and media to observe and record it.

That leaves the BLM with few management options other than adoption and fertility control, both methods that the public mostly support. (See National Geographic readers' photos of horses.)

Single-Shot Solution?

The latter could be "very, very successful"-particularly if it only takes one injection, says Jason Bruemmer, a reproductive physiologist at Colorado State University in Fort Collins, whose research is supported by the BLM.

Currently, the most commonly used vaccine, known by its abbreviation PZP (the one Kilian delivered to the Nevada mare) requires an annual booster-and thus requires more work for wild horse managers, including the American Wild Horse Preservation Campaign, whose members help track mare vaccinations.

Making their jobs more difficult, mares can come into estrus a mere six days after giving birth.

They are "remarkably efficient," says Bruemmer, "but that reproductive efficiency" is also what "causes their problems." ( Read about wild horses in National Geographic magazine.)

So Bruemmer and his colleague, Douglas Eckery, are investigating another contraceptive vaccine, Gonocon, that may safely and permanently sterilize a mare.

Earlier this year, the scientists inoculated ten of their 30 study animals. During the breeding season, they allowed stallions to visit the mares. Bruemmer won't give details before the two-year study is over, but he does say "it looks very promising."

Tough Choices

Some wild horse advocates worry that contraceptives may alter the horses' behaviors and change their communities.

For instance, Deniz Bolbol, the preservation campaign's communications director, is against sterilization and the Gonacon vaccine, which affects a mare's hormonal system. She says these methods "mess up their hormones so that they are no longer wild. They are just pasture horses."

Anne Novak, director of the nonprofit Protect Mustangs in Berkeley, California, says her group is "against any kind of experimenting on wild horses, including birth control experiments."

"Wild horses are protected by law, and birth control experiments don't jibe with the law."

Novak worries that stallions may chase non-reproducing females out of their herd-though there's no definitive evidence that this happens.

Yet many wild horse managers and advocates, such as Bruemmer, believe easily administered contraceptive vaccine would be a godsend.

"We don't want to interfere with the horses' societies," he says, "but we also don't want to see the horses overpopulating the range, or degrading their habitat-or starving." ( See more photos of wild horses.)

To prevent that scenario, Amanda McAdams, a forest supervisor in Modoc National Forest, California, incorporates contraceptives into her management approach.

McAdams recently oversaw a round-up of 290 horses from a herd of 2,246 that roam 232,000 acres. Research shows the land-some federal, some tribal, some private-can support between 206 and 422 horses, which come in a rainbow of colors-red roans, bay roans, dark grays, sorrels, and blacks.

Healthy and Free

"Their population doubled just since 2012. That kind of growth is scary to us. We love having wild horses here; they are amazing to see," she says.

"But we also need a management strategy for them that works. And it shouldn't be just a hard winter."

Animals five years and younger will be sent to the BLM's Litchfield Wild Horse and Burro Facility in California for adoption, according to McAdams. Older horses will be returned to the national forest after injecting females with the PZP contraceptive.

"Some people say the contraceptive makes them less wild," adds Kilian.

"I see it as keeping them healthy and free."

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When Nancy Kilian, a self-described horse lover, spotted a brown-and-white pinto mare standing among the sagebrush and juniper trees near Carson City, Nevada, a couple of weeks ago, she didn't hesitate. She loaded her darting rifle, aimed at the female's rump, and fired. "She jumped a bit," Kilian recalled, "because it stings, but settled down.

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Floating at the bottom of the world, krill represent the basis of the Antarctic ecosystem. Oceanographer Christian Reiss listened closely for signals indicating the presence of a “pinkish, feathery-limbed crustacean.” Dr. Reiss experienced clear waters in the South Shetlands Islands on an August morning during the last month of the Southern Hemisphere winter. The clear waters allowed for undisturbed testing and data collection. Unlike in previous years, low levels of ice allowed the team to access the bays. Dr. Reiss and his team were studying the krill in order to better understand the effects of melting ice on the ocean organism. Seas ice is essential to krill by supporting the formation of schools of the “ocean’s largest biomass” to “gather to feed off the algae that live on the underside.” Krill are desired both by other animals and commercial fisheries. For example, whales and squid feed off krill and krill are sold to make omega-3 fish oil. Scientist and policy makers alike, see Dr. Reiss’s findings to be critical. Krill remain in the open ocean and the two hundred and fifty people gathered for  an annual conference. The Antarctic is an “area of dispute for conservation and commercial fishing interests.” The conference revolved primarily around the management of Antarctic marine life. Also, limits should be made on “how much krill large commercial trawlers can vacuum from each of four designated zones of the South Atlantic.” Limits would force fishing companies to take precautionary efforts and extend fishing activity across larger areas, and thus reduce the impact of a centralized area. If policymakers fail to create effective regulation to preserve the krill populations, animals that depend on krill for food could be at risk of undernourishment. This could result in impacts that extend far wider than just the krill population; an entire ecosystem could potentially be at stake. Scientists urge that more research must be conducted in order to better understand why krill migrate and the importance of sea ice. The stability of the winter season is no longer reliable Dr. Reiss shared saying, “Sitting on top of regional variations is this long curve of climate change that is going on,” and unfortunately the long-term outlook remains uncertain. One fact remains however, oceanic ecosystems are intertwined and krill can not be forgotten, for they make up the foundation of a critical ecosystem.

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Despite having the appearance of a thriving and beautiful environment, the Arctic is in the midst of rapid changes. Scientists are intrigued by the chemistry behind the observed environmental changes and have hypothesized that sea salt could potentially play a significant role in the amount of  local atmospheric pollutants. According to data reported by NASA, the air in the Arctic is warming and wintertime ice in 2016 hit a record low. The American Chemical Society says, “Previous research has shown that pollutants, including gaseous nitrogen oxides and ozone, have at times been recorded at levels similar to those one would see in more polluted areas.”

The nitrogen cycle is a cycle within the biosphere which involves the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Nitrogen oxides lead to the formation of ozone in sunlight and can be stored as nitrates in snow. Scientists James Donaldson and Karen Morenz sought to determine how salt and and nitrate found in snow could affect the amount of pollutant nitrogen oxides under common weather conditions.The experiment involved the testing of artificially made snow containing nitrate alone or nitrate and salt. The sea ice and snow present in the Arctic contain salt; thus altering the efficiency of the process in which snow can transform nitrates back into nitrogen oxide gases when exposed to sunlight. Researchers found “that under simulated sunlight, about 40 to 90 percent more nitrogen dioxide (NO2) was reformed from the snow with low levels of salt at environmentally relevant concentrations than snow with no salt.” The greatest effect was noticed when realistic sea salt was used in the experiment. The data collected indicate that sea ice and salty snow in the Arctic should be present in future models relating to the balance of ozone-forming atmospheric chemicals. Sea ice and salty snow were not previously considered pollutants, but the new findings leave scientists wondering how to reverse the effects of their findings.

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Salty snow could affect air pollution in the Arctic

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The Arctic's wintertime ice hit a record low this year, and its air is warming, according to NASA. Previous research has shown that pollutants, including gaseous nitrogen oxides and ozone, have at times been recorded at levels similar to those one would see in more populated areas.

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Public safety concerns have escalated in the United States as powerful Hurricane Matthew threatens to rip through the Eastern coastline extending from Florida to North Carolina. Nearly 300 people have been reported dead since the onset of the storm in Haiti. The destruction of the storm is becoming more of an normality as storms become the future of climate change. The article points the blame for such severe storms to the use of fossil fuels saying, “And if we want to stop storms like this from getting even more intense, we need to do everything we can to rid the economy of fossil fuels” (Sutter). Michael Mann, a professor at Penn State University, indicated that data shows that oceans reported temperatures higher than any other on record. As human activities continue to heat up the atmosphere of the Earth, one can expect to see stronger hurricanes resembling Hurricane Matthew. The price tag for hurricanes and other coastal storms is expected to reach nearly $35 billion within the next 15 years. These startling realizations should serve as a wake up call for the world’s population to take measurable steps toward a more sustainable Earth. Many scientists, for example, are hopeful for the success of sustainable energy options that could lower the risks of storms such as Hurricane Matthew. Sutter leaves us with his words of wisdom, “The decisions we make about our energy use today will define how deadly and costly hurricanes like Matthew will be for many generations to come.” The smallest effort has the potential to make a large impact.

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People in the storm's path must seek refuge, as Florida's governor has implored. And those in the Caribbean likely will need assistance as they mourn their dead and clean up the wreckage.

But as the impact of the storm becomes clear, there's an uncomfortable truth the rest of us should wrestle with: Hurricane Matthew looks a lot like future climate change. And if we want to stop storms like this from getting even more intense, we need to do everything we can to rid the economy of fossil fuels.

"We expect to see more high-intensity events, Category 4 and 5 events, that are around 13% of total hurricanes but do a disproportionate amount of damage," Kerry Emanuel, a professor of atmospheric science at MIT, told The Guardian. "The theory is robust and there are hints that we are already beginning to see it in nature."

"Last year was the warmest our oceans have ever been on record. And that's critical context," Michael Mann, a professor of atmospheric science at Penn State University, told Democracy Now. "It's that warmth that provides the energy that intensifies these storms. And it isn't a coincidence that we've seen the strongest hurricane in both hemispheres within the last year."

Emanuel, the MIT professor, told me it's not possible to say Hurricane Matthew was caused by climate change. We just don't know that. But we do know that by burning coal, natural gas and oil we are heating up the atmosphere and oceans, and that's expected to strengthen hurricanes like this over time.

By 2100, tropical hurricanes are expected to be 2% to 11% more intense because of global warming, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric administration, citing UN data.

Global warming also is expected to make hurricanes produce about 20% more rain near the eye of the storm, according to a US government report. That's critical because freshwater flooding is the second deadliest feature of hurricanes, Emanuel told me.

The top killer is storm surge, he said, and that also will be shaped by our fossil fuel addiction.

As the planet heats up, the ocean is expanding and ice sheets are melting from the land into the sea. That's causing already noticeable increases in tide lines, leading to sunny-day flooding in Miami and Norfolk, Virginia, for example, as tides spill into streets and yards. Rising tides make hurricane storm surges even higher, causing greater risks for people living on the coast.

"Within the next 15 years, higher sea levels combined with storm surge will likely increase the average annual cost of coastal storms along the Eastern Seaboard and the Gulf of Mexico by $2 billion to $3.5 billion," a 2014 report from the Risky Business Project, chaired by Michael Bloomberg, Henry Paulson, and Tom Steyer, found. "Adding in potential changes in hurricane activity, the likely increase in average annual losses grows to up to $7.3 billion, bringing the total annual price tag for hurricanes and other coastal storms to $35 billion."

The decisions we make about our energy use today will define how deadly and costly hurricanes like Matthew will be for many generations to come. We ignore these warnings at our peril.

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hurricane matthew looks a lot like climate change - cnn

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Hurricane Matthew looks like climate change

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People in the storm's path must seek refuge, as Florida's governor has implored. And those in the Caribbean likely will need assistance as they mourn their dead and clean up the wreckage. But as the impact of the storm becomes clear, there's an uncomfortable truth the rest of us should wrestle with: Hurricane Matthew looks a lot like future climate change.

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It has long been speculated that a large portion of the Pacific Ocean is completely polluted with plastic; and this speculation is not longer a myth. An aerial survey was completed that confirmed the presence of a large amount of floating ocean plastic. Observers reported to have seen more debris along the Northern boundary of the patch than what is assumed to be in the accumulation zone. Scientists intended on determining a more realistic estimation of just how much plastic there is in an effort to develop effective cleanup technology. The clean up effort will require a plan to bring the plastic to shore, recycle the plastic properly, and a significant amount of funds. In August of 2015, The Ocean Cleanup, a Dutch foundation, surveyed the patch as part of an operation named the Mega Expedition. The operation included the sampling of a many debris and other data collection, “The Mega Expedition successfully measured plastic up to 0.5m/1.5' in size, but there were signs of a significant mass of plastic even larger than that.”The Ocean Cleanup approach is unique in that it is much more cost effective and plans to use the ocean’s natural currents to concentrate the plastic within “long floating barriers.”

Both the aerial shots taken earlier this week and the information collected from the Mega Expedition are significant steps toward resolving the devastation of ecosystems caused by the Pacific Garbage Patch. It is imperative that action be taken now and that society think twice before their bottled water in the trash.

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from research organizations
Credit: Image courtesy of The Ocean Cleanup
The Ocean Cleanup, the Dutch foundation developing advanced technologies to rid the oceans of plastic, today presented the initial findings of its Aerial Expedition -- a series of low-speed, low-altitude flights across the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, the plastic accumulation zone between Hawaii and California. Using a modified C-130 Hercules aircraft, expert spotters, and an experimental array of plastic scanning equipment, the expedition aims to accurately measure the biggest and most harmful debris in the ocean. This is an essential milestone in preparation for the cleanup of the patch, scheduled to begin before the end of the decade.

This first-ever aerial survey of floating ocean plastic provided confirmation of the abundance of plastic debris sized 0.5 m/1.5' and up. While the flight plan took us along the Northern boundary of the patch, more debris was recorded than what is expected to be found in the heart of the accumulation zone. Initial estimates of the experienced observer crew indicate that in a span of 2.5hours, over a thousand items were counted.

For the development of a cleanup technology, it is essential to understand the problem, specifically the dimensions of the individual objects and the plastic accumulation as a whole. The nature and amount of the debris determine the design of cleanup systems, the logistics of hauling plastic back to shore, the methods for recycling plastic, and the costs of the cleanup.

The quest to answer this question started in August 2015, when The Ocean Cleanup's fleet of about 30 vessels crossed the patch simultaneously in an operation named the Mega Expedition. On their crossing wide range of debris sizes were sampled, producing the first high-resolution map of the patch. By using sampling nets that were 80x larger than conventional scientific measurement tools, it was discovered that the amount of large debris was heavily underestimated.

The Mega Expedition successfully measured plastic up to 0.5m/1.5' in size, but there were signs of a significant mass of plastic even larger than that. This includes "ghost nets" -- discarded fishing nets many meters in diameter, which are notorious for ensnaring sea life and ship propellers. To accurately quantify those and other very large debris, a much larger area must be covered, which lead to the launch of the Aerial Expedition. For every 5 minutes of flight the same ocean surface area is scanned that was covered by the entire Mega Expedition in 2015. This increase in survey area enables the quantification of the largest pieces of trash in the ocean, resolving the last piece of this puzzle.

Once all exploration flights are finalized later this week, the results from the Aerial Expedition will be combined with the data collected during the 2015 Mega Expedition in a peer-reviewed scientific paper expected to be published early 2017.

Founded in 2013 by then 18-year-old Boyan Slat, The Ocean Cleanup now employs approximately 50 engineers and researchers. The foundation is headquartered in Delft, The Netherlands.

Instead of going after plastic debris with vessels and nets - which would take many thousands of years and billions of dollars to complete - The Ocean Cleanup is designing a network of extremely long floating barriers that will remain stationary in the water, enabling the ocean to concentrate the plastic using its own currents.

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geography; oceanography; recycling and waste; landslides; ecosystems; water; environmental awareness; global warming

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'Great Pacific Garbage Patch' worse than expected

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The Ocean Cleanup, a foundation developing advanced technologies to rid the oceans of plastic, has just presented the initial findings of its Aerial Expedition -- a series of low-speed, low-altitude flights across the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, the plastic accumulation zone between Hawaii and California.

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The airline industry is one that consumes an unimaginable amount of fuel; fuel that is a significant contributor to greenhouse gases. Environmental advisors in the industry feel as though it is time for airlines in the United States to add sustainability and the environment to the broader picture. JetBlue recently announced the largest biofuel purchase agreement yet in an effort to lower greenhouse gas emissions. Their action comes during a time when looming regulation on airlines’ greenhouse gas pollution becomes closer to reality. Regulation already exists for gasoline where at least 10 percent ethanol, which typically comes from corn, is required. The airline stated that it plans to buy 330 millions of gallons of renewable fuel over the next 10 years. Biofuel blends, made from organic matter combined with traditional fuel, is a revolutionary idea that encourages airlines to diversify their fuel supply and create efficient aircraft. JetBlue’s plan is highly controversial, as many companies argue that the use of biofuel could potentially compromise safety or other disadvantages for the airlines. The issues is also highly divisive on the global stage; Europe for example, has threatened to charge United States airlines a fee if lower emissions are not accomplished. Environmentalists have pushed for more stringent EPA standards and international restrictions, but most change will only be possible when airlines see cost effectiveness in converting to biofuels. The airline industry has the money to invest in this emerging technology, but for now, biofuels and wind used for electric energy remains an emerging possibility in the future.